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Molar Pregnancy

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Molar Pregnancy

Molar Pregnancy

Image by Hellerhoff

What Is It?

Molar Pregnancy - Hydatidiform mole on CT, sagittal view

Image by Hellerhoff

What Is Hydatidiform Mole?

Molar pregnancy is a condition in which the placenta does not develop properly. The symptoms of molar pregnancy, which may include vaginal bleeding, severe morning sickness, stomach cramps, and high blood pressure, typically begin around the 10th week of pregnancy. Because the embryo does not form or is malformed in molar pregnancies, and because there is a small risk of developing a cancer called choriocarcinoma, a D&C is usually performed.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (6)

Molar Pregnancy

Hellerhoff

2:21

What is a molar pregnancy

Cork University Hospital/YouTube

3:01

Hydatidiform Mole Video

Cristin Sanders/YouTube

5:27

241 Molar pregnancy, partial and complete hydatidiform mole - USMLE Step 1 - USMLE ACE FULL VIDEO

USMLE ACE INC/YouTube

2:54

093014 WFSB Aaron Shafer on choriocarcinoma

Hartford HealthCare/YouTube

7:55

Molar Pregnancy (v2)

DrER.tv/YouTube

Types and Cancer Risk

Molar Pregnancy

Image by Hellerhoff

What Is Hydatidiform Mole?

Hydatidiform mole (HM) is the most common type of GTD.

HMs are slow-growing tumors that look like sacs of fluid. An HM is also called a molar pregnancy. The cause of hydatidiform moles is not known.

HMs may be complete or partial:

A complete HM forms when sperm fertilizes an egg that does not contain the mother’s DNA. The egg has DNA from the father and the cells that were meant to become the placenta are abnormal.
A partial HM forms when sperm fertilizes a normal egg and there are two sets of DNA from the father in the fertilized egg. Only part of the fetus forms and the cells that were meant to become the placenta are abnormal.

Most hydatidiform moles are benign, but they sometimes become cancer. Having one or more of the following risk factors increases the risk that a hydatidiform mole will become cancer:

A pregnancy before 20 or after 35 years of age.
A very high level of beta human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG), a hormone made by the body during pregnancy.
A large tumor in the uterus.
An ovarian cyst larger than 6 centimeters.
High blood pressure during pregnancy.
An overactive thyroid gland (extra thyroid hormone is made).
Severe nausea and vomiting during pregnancy.
Trophoblastic cells in the blood, which may block small blood vessels.
Serious blood clotting problems caused by the HM.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (4)

3:01

Hydatidiform Mole Video

Cristin Sanders/YouTube

5:27

241 Molar pregnancy, partial and complete hydatidiform mole - USMLE Step 1 - USMLE ACE FULL VIDEO

USMLE ACE INC/YouTube

2:54

093014 WFSB Aaron Shafer on choriocarcinoma

Hartford HealthCare/YouTube

7:55

Molar Pregnancy (v2)

DrER.tv/YouTube

Diagnosis

Pelvic ultrasound

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Gestational Trophoblastic Disease Diagnosed?

Tests that examine the uterus are used to detect(find) and diagnose gestational trophoblastic disease.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Pelvic exam: An exam of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. A speculum is inserted into the vagina and the doctor or nurse looks at the vagina and cervix for signs of disease. A Pap test of the cervix is usually done. The doctor or nurse also inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and places the other hand over the lower abdomen to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. The doctor or nurse also inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or abnormal areas.
Pelvic exam. A doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and presses on the lower abdomen with the other hand. This is done to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. The vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, and rectum are also checked.
Ultrasound exam of the pelvis: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves(ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs in the pelvis and make echoes. Theechoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Sometimes a transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) will be done. For TVUS, an ultrasound transducer (probe) is inserted into the vagina to make the sonogram.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease. Blood is also tested to check the liver, kidney, and bone marrow.
Serum tumor marker test: A procedure in which a sample of blood is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances made by organs, tissues, or tumor cells in the body. Certain substances are linked to specific types of cancer when found in increased levels in the body. These are called tumor markers. For GTD, the blood is checked for the level of beta human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG), a hormone that is made by the body during pregnancy. β-hCG in the blood of a woman who is not pregnant may be a sign of GTD.
Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and itscontents, such as sugar, protein, blood, bacteria, and the level of β-hCG.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (1)

0:54

What is Gestational Trophoblastic Disease?

HenryFordTV/YouTube

Pelvic Exam

Pelvic Exam

Also called: Pelvic Examination, Gynecological Exam

A pelvic exam is a doctor's visual and physical examination of a woman's reproductive organs. The exam may be performed as part of a regular checkup or can be done to investigate symptoms such as abnormal bleeding, unusual vaginal discharge, or pain. Pelvic exams are also done during pregnancy check-ups.

Pelvic Exam

Also called: Pelvic Examination, Gynecological Exam

A pelvic exam is a doctor's visual and physical examination of a woman's reproductive organs. The exam may be performed as part of a regular checkup or can be done to investigate symptoms such as abnormal bleeding, unusual vaginal discharge, or pain. Pelvic exams are also done during pregnancy check-ups.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that the uterus and ovaries are normal in size and location. The uterus can be moved slightly without causing pain. The vulva, vagina, and cervix look normal with no signs of infection, inflammation, or other abnormalities.
Related conditions
1. Pelvic Exam. NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Oct 03, 2021]
2. Pelvic Exam: Preparation, Process, and More. Healthline. [accessed on Oct 03, 2021]
3. What Is a Pelvic Exam? | Questions About Gynecology Exams. Planned Parenthood. [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]
4. Pelvic Exam | Michigan Medicine [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (10)

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

How can I deal with the fear of getting a pelvic exam in the doctor's office?

Video by IntermountainMoms/YouTube

Dr. Doe's Pelvic Exam

Video by sexplanations/YouTube

Pelvic Exam Illustration

Line drawing showing pelvic exam procedure.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Pelvic Exam

Leopold maneuvers

Image by Christian Gerhard Leopold

Screening for Cancer

Common Screening Tests and American Cancer Society Recommendations Breast cancer Mammography: Women 40 and older should have a mammogram every year. Clinical breast exam (breast exam performed by a medical professional): Women age 20-40 should have one every 3 years. Women 40 and older should have one every year. Breast self-exam: Women age 20 and older should perform one each month (considered optional). If you have a family history of breast cancer, talk to your healthcare professional about what type of screening you should have, and how often.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Healthy Cervix

The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus where it joins with the top of the vagina. The opening of the the cervix into the vagina is called the external os, and can vary in appearance from a small, circular opening in women who have not given birth, to a wider, more slit-like opening in women who have had children. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Women should be screened for cellular changes of the cervix with a pap smear as part of a regular pelvic exam. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted. Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. In 2006, the FDA approved an HPV vaccine (Gardisil) that protects against viral types that cause most cases of cervical cancer as well as genital warts. Public health experts recommend routine vaccination for girls ages 11-12 to ensure vaccine effectiveness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest of gynecologic cancers. More than 21,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed each year, with more than 15,000 deaths; less than 20% of cases are found at an early stage, when treatment is most effective. When ovarian cancer is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a pelvic exam to check for masses or growths on the ovaries. Other diagnostic tests include a transvaginal ultrasound, which produce detailed images of the ovaries and other reproductive organs.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer as well as a number of different types of infections. The test involves collecting cells from the cervix. A speculum is inserted into the vagina, and samples of cervical cells are collected and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives women a greater chance of being cured. A Pap smear can also detect changes in cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women over 30, the Pap smear may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted infection that may cause cervical cancer in some women.

Image by TheVisualMD

Women's Health Checkup

Doctors Examining Pregnant Woman

Image by Israel Defense Forces

2:13

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

2:21

How can I deal with the fear of getting a pelvic exam in the doctor's office?

IntermountainMoms/YouTube

5:45

Dr. Doe's Pelvic Exam

sexplanations/YouTube

Pelvic Exam Illustration

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Pelvic Exam

Christian Gerhard Leopold

Screening for Cancer

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Healthy Cervix

TheVisualMD

Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

TheVisualMD

Women's Health Checkup

Israel Defense Forces

Pelvic Ultrasound

Pelvic Ultrasound - Female

Also called: Gynecological Scan, Gynecologic Ultrasound, Female Pelvic Scan, Female Pelvic Sonography, Transabdominal Female Pelvic Ultrasound, Transvaginal Ultrasound, Endovaginal Ultrasound

A female pelvic ultrasound is a test that uses an ultrasound machine to assess the size, shape, and location of the organs and tissues inside a woman’s pelvis, including the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and bladder.

Pelvic Ultrasound - Female

Also called: Gynecological Scan, Gynecologic Ultrasound, Female Pelvic Scan, Female Pelvic Sonography, Transabdominal Female Pelvic Ultrasound, Transvaginal Ultrasound, Endovaginal Ultrasound

A female pelvic ultrasound is a test that uses an ultrasound machine to assess the size, shape, and location of the organs and tissues inside a woman’s pelvis, including the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and bladder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
This means that your uterus, ovaries, and bladder are of a normal shape and size, without any abnormal masses or tissues.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to order a female pelvic ultrasound to diagnose and assist in the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as:
- Abnormalities in the structure of the uterus and endometrium (lining of the uterus)
- Abnormalities in the structure of the ovaries
- Growths such as fibroid tumors, cysts, and other types of tumors within the pelvis
- Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID, which is an infection of your uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries)
- Ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy that occurs outside of the uterus)
- Abnormal bleeding or pelvic pain
- Postmenopausal bleeding
- Find an intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD)
- As part of the work-up for infertility and assisted reproduction techniques
A normal result means that your uterus, ovaries, and bladder are of a normal shape and size, without any abnormal masses or tissues.
An abnormal result indicates that a problem was detected, including but not limited to:
- Fibroid tumors
- Cysts
- Ovarian torsion
- Pelvic masses
- Pelvic inflammatory disease
- Ectopic pregnancy
- Miscarriage
- Free liquid in the pelvic cavity
- Endometrial hyperplasia, which is a thickening of the endometrium
1. Pelvic Ultrasound: Purpose, Procedure, Risks, Results [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
2. Pelvic Ultrasound [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
3. Pelvic Ultrasound | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
4. Transvaginal Ultrasound: Purpose, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
5. Pelvic Ultrasound - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
6. HEM Ultrasound | Female Pelvic Ultrasound [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

2:19

What to Expect From a Female Pelvic Ultrasound Exam

RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube

Urinalysis Test

Urinalysis Test

Also called: Urine chemistry, urine dipstick test, urine test, urine analysis

A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.

Urinalysis Test

Also called: Urine chemistry, urine dipstick test, urine test, urine analysis

A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.

A urinalysis test consists in the evaluation of the macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye, can be seen through a microscope) characteristics of a urine sample to detect and measure various substances and compounds that the body filter through the kidneys.
Usually, these characteristics are done as a single panel and are not done separately as it had been before. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
The structure of the test includes:
- Macroscopic aspects:
  Color
  Appearance
  Odor
- Chemical examination:
  pH
  Density
  Proteins
  Glucose
  Urobilinogen
  Bilirubin
  Leucocytes
  Nitrites
  Blood
  Ketones
- Microscopic aspects include:
  Blood cells (white and red cells)
  Epithelial cells
  Bacteria
  Crystals or casts
The most common uses of the urine test are:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
- To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
- Drug screening
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
Macroscopic findings
- Appearance (Clarity): normal urine is typically clear. If the urine seems to be cloudy or with floating particles, it may be indicative of urinary tract infection.
- Color: most often shades of yellow. Unusual colors might be because of certain foods, medications or a specific condition.
- Odor: normally it is relatively mild and not too noticeable.
Chemical examination
- pH: this measures the acidity. Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
- Density (specific gravity): this measures how diluted or concentrated is your urine. Normal urine density is usually from 1.003 to 1.035.
- Proteins: urine can have small amounts of proteins; however, finding high protein levels may indicate kidney disease or diabetes mellitus.
- Glucose: no glucose should be found in the urine of a healthy individual.
- Urobilinogen: normal results range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/dL.
- Bilirubin: no bilirubin should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. Positive findings may suggest liver disease.
- Nitrite: no nitrites should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. When positive is highly indicative of urinary tract infection.
- Ketones: normally is not found. However, it can be positive if you have been fasting for long periods of time, or if you have diabetes mellitus.
Microscopic aspects
- Red blood cells (RBC’s): is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).
- White blood cells (WBC’s): under normal conditions, this parameter should be negative. A positive result is suggestive of urinary tract infection.
- Epithelial cells: from 1 to 5 squamous/hpf is considered to be normal. Higher results may indicate contamination of the urine sample by improper collection methods.
- Bacteria: it is normal to find up to 1+ bacteria; more than this is abnormal and should be analyzed to discern whether is caused by an infection or by improper sample storage.
- Crystals or casts: no crystals or casts should be found in the urine of healthy individuals. When present, it may be indicative of kidney disease or kidney stones.
1. Mayo Clinic: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
2. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review; Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1153-1162. [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
3. University of Utah: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]

Additional Materials (24)

Urine Test

Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Urine color chart

Your urine could also be other colors. Here is what they could indicate about your health: 1. Dark yellow urine 2. Orange urine 3. Red or pink urine 4. Blue urine 5. Green urine 6. Brown urine 7. Whitish urine

Test Tube Containing Urine

Visualization of a test tube containing urine. Urine comprises mainly of water - 96% and the remaining 4% is urea and sodium.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

Image by Bobjgalindo

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Urine samples

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine collection container

Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Cancer screening

Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.

Image by TheVisualMD

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This media may include sensitive content

Male Urinary System

Image of a male showing his urinary system. The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, produces, stores, and eliminates urine. It also helps to maintain the fluid balance in humans. The male urinary system consists of two kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, prostate, and urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nephron of Kidney

The nephron is composed of looping and folding tubules that at first glance look like an impossibly tangled knot of highways, side roads and interchanges. But in fact, the nephron directs the traffic flow effortlessly. When stretched out, a nephron would be almost a couple of feet in length and there are about a million nephrons in each kidney. A nephron is composed of two basic parts: the glomerulus and the tubule. The glomerulus, part of the vascular system, is a tuft of capillaries that filters the wastes and fluid from the blood. The tubules then catch, concentrate and excrete the waste into the urine. The walls of the tubules are made of specialized cells, which serve as \"check points\" for the waste flowing by them. Hormonal sensors in these cells determine which substances should be excreted as waste and which substances will be reabsorbed into the blood to nourish the body's cells. The specific materials the cells are assigned to reabsorb or secrete include water and essential nutrients, salts and minerals, depending on where in the tubules the cells are located. From the glomerulus until the collecting duct, intricate and minute calculations are at constant play within the nephron. The production of urine does not just result in a waste product but also protects the fine balance of substances required to keep the body healthy.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Filtration

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. The kidneys also play a key role in maintaining the body's fluid balance within a very narrow range. Even a 1% increase in blood sodium, for example, will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink in order to return the fluid balance to normal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ammonia, Urine

Ammonia is a waste product generated by intestinal bacteria during the digestion of protein. From the intestine, ammonia is transported to the liver, where it is converted into urea, which is then excreted in the urine by the kidneys. The conversion and elimination of ammonia can be impaired by liver disease or kidney damage, which can result in a dangerous build up of ammonia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pyuria

Urine may contain pus (a condition known as pyuria) as seen from a person with sepsis due to a urinary tract infection.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Urine

Sample of human urine

Image by Markhamilton

Urine

Urine Color Chart

Image by OpenStax College

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Urine Test

frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Urine color chart

Test Tube Containing Urine

TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

TheVisualMD

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

Bobjgalindo

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample

Doruk Salancı

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample

Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Urine samples

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Urine collection container

frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Male Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Nephron of Kidney

TheVisualMD

Fluid Filtration

TheVisualMD

Ammonia, Urine

TheVisualMD

Pyuria

James Heilman, MD

Urine

Markhamilton

Urine

OpenStax College

6:10

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection

Strong Medicine/YouTube

16:36

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick

Strong Medicine/YouTube

1:03

How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

1:06

How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Glucose in Urine Test

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
- Increased thirst
- More frequent urination
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
- Diabetes
- Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
- A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

TheVisualMD

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.

{"label":"Bilirubin Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"High levels of bilirubin could mean your liver is not functioning correctly. However, high levels can also be due to medications, exercise, or certain foods.","conditions":["Biliary tract disease","Cirrhosis","Gallstones in the biliary tract","Hepatitis","Liver disease","Tumors of the liver or gallbladder"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a bilirubin in urine test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms include:
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Dark-colored urine
- Abdominal pain
- Nausea and vomiting
- Fatigue
Because bilirubin in urine can indicate liver damage before other symptoms appear, your health care provider may order a bilirubin in urine test if you are at a higher risk for liver damage. Risk factors for liver disease include:
- Family history of liver disease
- Heavy drinking
- Exposure or possible exposure to hepatitis virus
- Obesity
- Diabetes
- Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container to your health care provider.
If bilirubin is found in your urine, it may indicate:
- A liver disease such as hepatitis
- A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
- A problem with liver function
A bilirubin in urine test is only one measure of liver function. If your results are abnormal, your health care provider may order additional blood and urine tests, including a liver panel. A liver panel is a series of blood tests that measure various enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver. It is often used to detect liver disease.
1. Bilirubin in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003595.htm [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Ketones in Urine Test

Ketones in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test

Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.

Ketones in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test

Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.

{"label":"Ketones in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":20},"text":"A negative test result is normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"S","long":"Small","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":20,"max":40},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Large","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":80},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]}],"value":10}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative test result is normal.
Related conditions
The test is often used to help monitor people at a higher risk of developing ketones. These include people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you have diabetes, ketones in urine can mean that you are not getting enough insulin. If you don't have diabetes, you may still be at risk for developing ketones if you:
- Experience chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea
- Have a digestive disorder
- Participate in strenuous exercise
- Are on a very low-carbohydrate diet
- Have an eating disorder
- Are pregnant
Your health care provider may order a ketones in urine test if you have diabetes or other risk factors for developing ketones. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of ketoacidosis. These include:
- Nausea or vomiting
- Abdominal pain
- Confusion
- Trouble breathing
- Feeling extremely sleepy
People with type 1 diabetes are at a higher risk for ketoacidosis.
A ketones in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will be given instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If you do the test at home, follow the instructions that are in your test kit. Your kit will include a package of strips for testing. You will either be instructed to provide a clean catch sample in a container as described above or to put the test strip directly in the stream of your urine. Talk to your health care provider about specific instructions.
1. Ketones in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003585.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=ketone_bodies_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

5:46

DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis

DrER.tv/YouTube

1:00

Symptoms of Ketoacidosis

Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube

5:50

Diabetes & Associated Complications

Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube

11:26

Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test

BruceBlaus

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density

A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density

A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.

{"label":"Urine Specific Gravity Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.8,"max":1.002},"text":"Your urine is too diluted.","conditions":["Diabetes","Kidney disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Pyelonephritis","Kidney failure","Overhydration"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.002,"max":1.03},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.03,"max":1.2},"text":"Your urine is too concentrated. ","conditions":["Liver disease","Adrenal glands disorder","Heart disease","Dehydration","Shock"]}],"value":1.02}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
1.002
1.03
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
Your doctor may order a urine specific gravity test as part of your routine health checkup, or to help diagnose or monitor the following conditions:
- Urinary tract infection
- Dehydration or overhydration
- Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)
- Kidney failure
- Shifts in sodium levels (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
- Diabetes
- Shock
- Heart failure
The normal value for urine specific gravity is 1.002-1.030.
Lower-than-normal values of urine gravity may indicate:
- Diabetes
- Kidney disorders (glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis)
- Kidney failure
- Drinking too much fluid (overhydration)
Higher-than-normal urine gravity test results may refer to an increased level of some substances in your urine, such as proteins, bacteria, glucose, urine crystals, red and white blood cells. These findings may occur in cases of:
- Liver disease
- Adrenal glands disorder
- Heart disease
- Dehydration (not consuming enough water, or losing too much fluid through sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea)
- Shock
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003587.htm [accessed on Oct 09, 2021]
2. Urine Specific Gravity Test: Overview, Tests, and Procedure [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
3. Urine specific gravity test: Procedure and results [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Hematuria

Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Hematuria by anatomic location

Source of Hematuria by anatomic location

Image by Copene

Phenazopyridine

Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron

The glomeruli are sets of looping blood vessels in nephrons--the tiny working units of the kidneys that filter wastes and remove extra fluid from the blood.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Urine samples

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction

Drawing of a swollen kidney that results from ureteropelvic junction obstruction. The point of blockage is labeled UPJ obstruction. UPJ obstruction occurs when urine is blocked where the ureter joins the kidney.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine

When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is usually eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid digestion. Under normal circumstances, very little, if any, bilirubin is excreted in the urine, but in cases of liver damage or a blockage of the bile ducts, some bilirubin can leak out and appear in the urine, turning it a darker color.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine Color Chart

Urine Color Chart - Hydration

Image by OpenStax College

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. Urine Test for Albumin If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin. Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria. A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways: Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine. Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of 30 mg/g or less is normal more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you. If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.

Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick

A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Struvite crystals (urine)

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Adequate water intake and kidney health

Adequate water intake and kidney health. Replacing the water lost through sweating and waste elimination is vital to our health. Remaining hydrated is one way to help prevent kidney stones, which can form when certain waste minerals are highly concentrated in the urine. In this 3-D visualization, a clear bottle pours water into a model of a human kidney.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine

Sample of human urine

Image by Markhamilton

Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs

There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.

Image by TheVisualMD

formation of urine

Anatomy and physiology of animals Summary of the processes involved in the formation of urine.

Image by Sunshineconnelly

male's urinary system

Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body

Image by BruceBlaus

Urine of patient with porphyria

Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.

Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron

NIDDK Image Library

Urine samples

TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

TheVisualMD

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction

NIDDK Image Library

Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine

TheVisualMD

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick

NIDDK Image Library

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Adequate water intake and kidney health

TheVisualMD

Urine

Markhamilton

Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs

TheVisualMD

formation of urine

Sunshineconnelly

male's urinary system

BruceBlaus

Urine of patient with porphyria

Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH

Blood in Urine Test

Blood in Urine Test

Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine

A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,

Blood in Urine Test

Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine

A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,

{"label":"Blood in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine exam. You may also need this test if you have seen blood in your urine or have other symptoms of a urinary disorder. These symptoms include:
- Painful urination
- Frequent urination
- Back pain
- Abdominal pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." It includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the needed amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
There are a variety of factors that can cause red or white blood cells to be present in the urine. Many are not cause for concern. Small amounts of blood in the urine may be due to certain medicines, intense exercise, sexual activity, or menstruation. If larger amounts of blood are found, your health care provider may request further testing.
Increased red blood cells in urine may indicate:
- A viral infection
- Inflammation of the kidney or bladder
- A blood disorder
- Bladder or kidney cancer
Increased white blood cells in urine may indicate:
- A bacterial urinary tract infection. This is the most common cause of a high white blood cell count in urine.
- Inflammation of the urinary tract or kidneys
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
1. Lab Tests Online: Blood in Urine (Hematuria) [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

12:53

Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)

mdconversation/YouTube

0:50

Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?

Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube

2:24

Blood in the Urine

St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube

Hematuria

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria

J3D3

0:08

Bleeding Tissue

TheVisualMD

Microhematuria

Bobjgalindo

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

PH of Urine Test

PH of Urine Test

Also called: Urine pH, Acid loading test

A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It is performed under a urinalysis test.

PH of Urine Test

Also called: Urine pH, Acid loading test

A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It is performed under a urinalysis test.

{"label":"PH of Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.5},"text":"This means that your urine is acidic. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of meat, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Metabolic acidosis","Respiratory acidosis","Xanthine kidney stones","Cystine kidney stones","Uric acid kidney stones","Diabetes","Diarrhea","Starvation","Fanconi syndrome","Milkman syndrome"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":8},"text":"Normal pH levels can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":14},"text":"This means that your urine is alkaline. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Kidney failure","Urinary tract infection","Calcium carbonate kidney stones","Calcium phosphate kidney stones","Struvite kidney stones","Respiratory alkalosis","Metabolic alkalosis"]}],"value":6.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
pH
4.5
8
Your result is Normal.
Normal pH levels can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
Some of the most common uses of the urine pH test are:
- Evaluate the risk of developing kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
- Assessment of metabolic acidosis
- Monitor treatment of uric acid kidney stones
- Help identify crystals in the urine
Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
A high urine pH (alkaline urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables. Other causes include:
- Kidney failure
- Urinary tract infection
- Kidney stones made up from calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate)
- Respiratory alkalosis
- Metabolic alkalosis
A low urine pH (acid urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of meat. Other causes include:
- Metabolic acidosis
- Respiratory acidosis
- Kidney stones made up from xanthine, cystine, and uric acid
- Diabetes
- Diarrhea
- Starvation
- Fanconi syndrome
- Milkman syndrome
1. 013037: pH, Urine | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Protein in Urine Test

Protein in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Protein

A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.

Protein in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Protein

A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a protein test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of kidney disease. These symptoms include:
- Difficulty urinating
- Frequent urination, especially at night
- Nausea and vomiting
- Loss of appetite
- Swelling in the hands and feet
- Fatigue
- Itching
A protein in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will receive instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If at home, you will use a test kit. The kit will include a package of strips for testing and instructions on how to provide a clean catch sample. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Your health care provider may also request you collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This "24-hour urine sample test" is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including protein, can vary throughout the day. Collecting several samples in a day may provide a more accurate picture of your urine content.
If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels. Your health care provider may recommend additional urinalysis tests if a high level of protein is found. This testing may include a 24-hour urine sample test.
If your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition. These include:
- Urinary tract infection
- Lupus
- High blood pressure
- Preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy, marked by high blood pressure. If it is not treated, preeclampsia can be life-threatening to the mother and baby.
- Diabetes
- Certain types of cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

TheVisualMD

Urobilinogen Test

Urobilinogen Test

Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen

A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.

Urobilinogen Test

Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen

A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered this test as part of your regular checkup, to monitor an existing liver condition, or if you have symptoms of a liver disease. These include:
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Nausea and/or vomiting
- Dark colored urine
- Pain and swelling in the abdomen
- Itchy skin
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. He or she will provide you with special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate:
- A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
- A blockage in the blood flow of the liver
- A problem with liver function
If your test results show a higher-than-normal level of urobilinogen, it may indicate:
- Hepatitis
- Cirrhosis
- Liver damage due to drugs
- Hemolytic anemia, a condition in which red blood cells are destroyed before they can be replaced. This leaves the body without enough healthy red blood cells
If your results are abnormal, it does not necessarily indicate you have a medical condition requiring treatment. Be sure to tell your health care provider about any medicines and supplements you are taking, as these can affect your results. If you are a woman, you should tell your health care provider if you are menstruating.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (4)

8:44

Bilirubin Metabolism

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Urinalysis

TheVisualMD

Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver

TheVisualMD

Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel

TheVisualMD

Nitrites in Urine Test

Nitrites in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Nitrite

A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.

Nitrites in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Nitrite

A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine checkup or if you have symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms of a UTI may include:
- Frequent urge to urinate, but little urine comes out
- Painful urination
- Dark, cloudy, or reddish colored urine
- Bad smelling urine
- Weakness and fatigue, particularly in older women and men
- Fever
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

0:45

Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview

Osmosis/YouTube

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: RBC urine

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: RBC urine

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{cells}/uL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.
Related conditions
{"label":"Red Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\/HPF","code":"\/[HPF]","name":"per high power field"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":20},"text":"This indicates hematuria. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":1.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
/HPF
3
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
This test is not usually ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
- To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
Is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells per high-powered field are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).; further information should be gathered to make a diagnose.
Presence of RBC’s in urine may be due to:
- Glomerular disorders
- Glomerulonephritis
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
- Renal disorders
- Polycystic kidney disease
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia
- Cancer
- Cystitis
- Pyelonephritis
- Nephrolithiasis
- Prostatitis
- Intake or certain drugs
- Trauma
1. Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
2. Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
3. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
4. https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Microhematuria

Bobjgalindo

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

White Blood Cells, Urine Test

White Blood Cells, Urine Test

Also called: Leukocytes in Urine

White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).

White Blood Cells, Urine Test

Also called: Leukocytes in Urine

White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{cells}/uL
10
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
{"label":"White Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\/HPF","code":"\/[HPF]","name":"per high power field"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":20},"text":"A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Urinary tract inflammation","Pyelonephritis","Glomerulonephritis","Interstitial nephritis","Renal inflammatory processes"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
/HPF
5
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
This test is not ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
The normal range for WBCs in urine is:
- <10 WBC/µl: not significant
- 10-100 WBC/µl: usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment
- >100 WBC/µl: suggestive of infection
It is also considered normal to have less than 5 WBCs/hpf. A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.
1. Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
2. Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
3. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
4. https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

Pyuria

Bobjgalindo

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.

{"label":"Epithelial Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Few","long":"Few","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"\"Few\" cells are generally considered in the normal range.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Moderate","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"\"Moderate\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Many","long":"Many","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"\"Many\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Few.
"Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered an epithelial cells in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if your visual or chemical urine tests showed abnormal results. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a urinary or kidney disorder. These symptoms may include:
- Frequent and/or painful urination
- Abdominal pain
- Back pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container will have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Results are often reported as an approximate amount, such as "few," moderate," or "many" cells. "Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range. "Moderate" or "many" cells may indicate a medical condition such as:
- Urinary tract infection
- Yeast infection
- Kidney disease
- Liver disease
- Certain types of cancer
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment. You may need more tests before you can get a diagnosis. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Urine Test

frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Urine

Markhamilton

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Urinary Casts Test

Urinary Casts Test

Also called: Urine Casts

Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.

Urinary Casts Test

Also called: Urine Casts

Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.

{"label":"Urinary Casts Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
- Hyaline casts: the presence of a few of these casts is usually normal and can occur in physiologic states (e.g., after exercise).
- Fatty casts: these casts can be found in people who have lipids (fat) in the urine and are usually related to a kidney disease complication, such as nephrotic syndrome, glomerulonephritis, or other forms of chronic renal diseases.
- Granular casts: these casts might be found after exercise, but also when certain kidney diseases are present.
- Red blood cell casts: these casts are related to a very small amount of bleeding from the kidney. Red blood cell casts are seen in many kidney diseases.
- Epithelial cell casts: the apparition of these casts implies damage to cells in the kidneys. These casts are seen in conditions such as heavy metal poisoning, and kidney transplant rejection, among others.
- Waxy casts: these casts can be found in people with long-term (chronic) kidney disease and chronic kidney failure.
- White blood cell (WBC) casts: these casts can be found when acute kidney infections are present.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Tumor Markers

Tumor Marker Tests

Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or normal cells in response to cancer in the body. These tests can help find out if your cancer has spread, if treatment is working, or if cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.

Tumor Marker Tests

Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or normal cells in response to cancer in the body. These tests can help find out if your cancer has spread, if treatment is working, or if cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.

These tests look for tumor markers, sometimes called cancer markers, in the blood, urine, or body tissues. Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in the body. Some tumor markers are specific to one type of cancer. Others can be found in several types of cancers.
Because tumor markers can also show up in certain noncancerous conditions, tumor marker tests are not usually used to diagnose cancer or screen people at low risk of the disease. These tests are most often done on people already diagnosed with cancer. Tumor markers can help find out if your cancer has spread, whether your treatment is working, or if your cancer has come back after you've finished treatment.
Tumor marker tests are most often used to:
- Plan your treatment. If tumor marker levels go down, it usually means the treatment is working.
- Help find out if a cancer has spread to other tissues
- Help predict the likely outcome or course of your disease
- Check to see if your cancer has come back after successful treatment
- Screen people at high risk for cancer. Risk factors can include family history and previous diagnosis of another type of cancer

You may need a tumor marker test if you are currently being treated for cancer, have finished cancer treatment, or have a high risk of getting cancer because of family history or other reasons.

The type of test you get will depend on your health, health history, and symptoms you may have. Below are some of the most common types of tumor markers and what they are used for.

CA 125 (cancer antigen 125)
Tumor marker for:	ovarian cancer
Used to:	See if cancer treatment is working See if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment

CA 15-3 and CA 27-29 (cancer antigens 15-3 and 27-29)
Tumor markers for:	breast cancer
Used to:	Monitor treatment in women with advanced breast cancer

PSA (prostate-specific antigen)
Tumor marker for:	prostate cancer
Used to:	Screen for prostate cancer Help diagnose prostate cancer Monitor treatment Check to see if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment

CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen)
Tumor marker for:	colorectal cancer, and also for cancers of the lung, stomach, thyroid, pancreas, breast, and ovary
Used to:	See if cancer treatment is working See if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment

AFP (Alpha-fetoprotein)
Tumor marker for:	liver cancer, and cancers of the ovary or testicles
Used to:	Help diagnose liver cancer Find out if cancer has spread (the stage of cancer) See if cancer treatment is working Predict chances for recovery

B2M (Beta 2-microglobulin)
Tumor marker for:	multiple myeloma, some lymphomas, and leukemias
Used to:	See if cancer treatment is working Predict chances for recovery

Depending in what type of test you had and how it was used, your results may:
- Help diagnose the type or stage of your cancer.
- Show whether your cancer treatment is working.
- Help plan future treatment.
- Show if your cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Tumor markers can be very useful, but the information they provide can be limited because:
- Some noncancerous conditions can cause tumor markers.
- Some people with cancer don't have tumor markers.
- Not all types of cancer have tumor markers.
So, tumor markers are almost always used with other tests to help diagnose and monitor cancer.
1. Tumor Markers - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
2. Tumor Markers [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]

Additional Materials (7)

3:07

What to Know About Germ Cell Tumor Markers, with Timothy Gilligan, MD

Cancer.Net/YouTube

6:33

Why Don't We Have Cancer-Sniffing Dogs?

SciShow/YouTube

9:15

Tumor Markers in Cancer Detection, Diagnosis and Management

USMLEVideoLectures/YouTube

9:47

Tumor Markers in Cancer diagnosis and Monitoring

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

4:49

Clinical Chemistry - Tumor Markers as Diagnostic Tests for Cancer

قناة لابوتيوب LaboTube Channel/YouTube

2:25

Understanding CA-125 Screening for Ovarian Cancer

Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube

1:49

Tracking cancer with a blood test

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker

Also called: AFP Tumor Marker, Alpha-Fetoprotein Tumor Marker, α-fetoprotein

An AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) tumor marker test measures the level of AFP in your blood. High levels of AFP can be a sign of liver cancer, cancer of the ovaries or testicles, and noncancerous liver disorders.

Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker

Also called: AFP Tumor Marker, Alpha-Fetoprotein Tumor Marker, α-fetoprotein

An AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) tumor marker test measures the level of AFP in your blood. High levels of AFP can be a sign of liver cancer, cancer of the ovaries or testicles, and noncancerous liver disorders.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
ng/mL
8.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used. These results are not applicable to pregnant women.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to order an AFP tumor marker test to:
- Help confirm or rule out a diagnosis of liver cancer, testicle cancer, or ovarian cancer.
- Monitor cancer treatment. AFP levels often go up if cancer is spreading and go down when treatment is working.
- See if cancer has returned after treatment.
- Monitor the health of people with cirrhosis (liver scarring) or chronic hepatitis.
An AFP tumor marker test is not usually used by itself to screen for or diagnose cancer. But it can help diagnose cancer when used with other tests.
In adult males and non-pregnant females, it is normal to find AFP values that range from 0.0 to 8.3 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL).
If your AFP levels are above normal, it might mean that you have a liver disease such as chronic viral hepatitis or cirrhosis. Other causes include liver cancer, being hepatocellular carcinoma the most common of this group, testicular cancer, ovarian cancer, or Hodgkin disease.
Higher AFP levels in pregnant women are normal, because of the fetus AFP production. Therefore, these results are not interpretable for pregnant females.
If you are being treated for cancer, you may be tested several times throughout your treatment. After repeated tests, your results may show:
- Your AFP levels are increasing. This may mean your cancer is spreading, and/or your treatment is not working.
- Your AFP levels are decreasing. This may mean your treatment is working.
- Your AFP levels have not increased or decreased. This may mean your disease is stable.
- Your AFP levels decreased, but then later increased. This may mean your cancer has come back after you've been treated.
1. Alpha Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
2. Mayo Clinic: Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker, Serum [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
3. Lab Corp: α-Fetoprotein (AFP), Tumor Marker [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
4. Lab Tests Online: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
5. URMC / Encyclopedia / Alpha-Fetoprotein Tumor Marker (Blood) [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
6. Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
7. Arrieta, Oscar et al. “The Progressive Elevation of Alpha Fetoprotein for the Diagnosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis.” BMC Cancer 7 (2007): 28. PMC. Web. 24 Aug. 2018. [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
8. AAFP: Serum Tumor Markers; Am Fam Physician. 2003 Sep 15;68(6):1075-1082. [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

4:34

Prenatal Diagnostic Testing

TheVisualMD

Mapping Your Future: Screening for Disease Risk

TheVisualMD

Amniocentesis

TheVisualMD

Megacystis

X.Compagnion

3:57

Maternal Serum Screening (MSS)

Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Tumor Marker Test

Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Tumor Marker Test

Also called: Beta-2 Microglobulin, β2-Microglobulin, B2M, B2MG, Thymotaxin

The test measures the amount of beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids, usually in the blood. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body in small amounts. High levels of B2M in body fluids may be indicative of certain cancers. The B2M tumor marker is used to determine prognosis and follow response to treatment.

Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Tumor Marker Test

Also called: Beta-2 Microglobulin, β2-Microglobulin, B2M, B2MG, Thymotaxin

The test measures the amount of beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids, usually in the blood. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body in small amounts. High levels of B2M in body fluids may be indicative of certain cancers. The B2M tumor marker is used to determine prognosis and follow response to treatment.

{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.21,"max":2.7},"text":"Healthy people have small amounts of B2M in their blood. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.7,"max":6},"text":"Increased levels of B2M means that a disease is likely to be present, and further testing needs to be done. Usually, higher levels correspond with higher stages of the disease; hence, worse prognosis."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/mL","code":"ug\/mL","name":"microgram per milliliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/mL
2.7
Your result is Normal.
Healthy people have small amounts of B2M in their blood. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test measures the amount of a protein called beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids. The test usually uses a sample of your blood. It may also be done using urine (pee) or in rare cases cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
B2M is a type of tumor marker. Tumor markers are substances that are often made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in the body. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body. Normally, you have only small amounts of B2M in your blood and urine. High levels of B2M in body fluids are often caused by these blood and bone marrow cancers:
- Multiple myeloma
- Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
- Certain types of lymphoma
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test can't diagnose cancer or any other condition. That's because there are so many conditions that can cause high levels of B2M. But if you've already been diagnosed with one of these blood and bone marrow cancers, a B2M test can provide important information about your cancer including:
- How much cancer you have in your body and how fast it's growing
- How your cancer may behave in the future
- How much your treatment is helping
This information can help you and your health care provider plan your care.
Other names: total beta-2 microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, B2M, B2MG, thymotaxin
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test is most often used if you have been diagnosed with certain cancers of the bone marrow or blood. Testing your B2M levels can help:
- Find out how much cancer is in your body
- Predict how your cancer will develop
- Pick your treatment and check whether it's working
- Check whether cancer has spread to your brain and/or spinal cord (This is done only if you have symptoms.)
A beta-2 microglobulin test usually uses a sample of your blood. In certain cases, you may need to provide a 24-hour urine sample, which means collecting all your urine for a full day. If your provider suspects that cancer has spread to your brain or spine, you may have a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a 24-hour urine sample, you will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
- To begin, urinate (pee) in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
- For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
- During the collection period, store the urine container in the refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
- 24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
- Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
For a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, a provider will do a procedure called a spinal tap (also known as a lumbar puncture). A spinal tap is usually done in a hospital. A provider numbs your skin with medicine and uses a thin, hollow needle to remove some fluid from between the bones in your lower spine. You usually go home the same day.
If your B2M levels were measured to learn about your cancer:
- The higher your B2M levels, the more cancer you have in your body. Higher levels are linked to cancers that tend to grow faster.
- If you have multiple myeloma, higher levels of B2M are linked with kidney problems.
If your B2M levels were measured to check how well your treatment is working, your provider may look at several test results over time to look for a trend:
- Increasing B2M levels may mean your treatment is not working.
- Decreasing B2M levels may mean your treatment is working.
- B2M levels that don't change may mean that your disease is stable and hasn't gotten better or worse.
If you have questions about your test results, talk with your provider.
B2M levels may be higher than normal in many conditions that aren't cancer. The amount of B2M in body fluids may be measured in conditions such as:
- Kidney disease
- HIV/AIDS
- Multiple sclerosis
1. Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Tumor Marker Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Tumor Marker Tests in Common Use - NCI. National Cancer Institute. Dec 7, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Test. City of Hope. [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

Electrophoresis - concentration - b-Globulin

TheVisualMD

Cancer Antigen 125 Test

Cancer Antigen 125 Test

Also called: CA-125 Tumor Marker, Glycoprotein Antigen, Ovarian Cancer Antigen

This test measures the amount of a protein called CA-125 in the blood. CA-125 levels are high in many women with ovarian cancer. It is not a screening test, but it can help find out if cancer treatment is working.

Cancer Antigen 125 Test

Also called: CA-125 Tumor Marker, Glycoprotein Antigen, Ovarian Cancer Antigen

This test measures the amount of a protein called CA-125 in the blood. CA-125 levels are high in many women with ovarian cancer. It is not a screening test, but it can help find out if cancer treatment is working.

{"label":"Cancer Antigen 125 Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"(i.U.)\/mL","code":"[IU]\/mL","name":"international unit per milliliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":35},"text":"Having a normal CA-125 result doesn't mean you don't have ovarian cancer. Some women with early ovarian cancer have a normal CA-125 level.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":100},"text":"Having a higher CA-125 result doesn't mean you have cancer. Many conditions other than cancer can cause CA-125 to rise, such as inflammatory disease, recent surgery, fibroids, menstrual cycle, and an ectopic pregnancy.","conditions":["Ovarian cancer","Inflammatory disease","Fibroids","Menstruation","Ectopic pregnancy"]}],"value":17.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(i.U.)/mL
35
Your result is Normal.
Having a normal CA-125 result doesn't mean you don't have ovarian cancer. Some women with early ovarian cancer have a normal CA-125 level.
Related conditions
A CA-125 blood test may be used to:
- Monitor treatment for ovarian cancer. If CA-125 levels go down, it usually means the treatment is working.
- Check to see if cancer has come back after successful treatment.
- Screen women who are at high risk for ovarian cancer.
You may need a CA-125 blood test if you are currently being treated for ovarian cancer. Your health care provider may test you at regular intervals to see if your treatment is working, and after your treatment is finished.
You may also need this test if you have certain risk factors for ovarian cancer. You may be at a higher risk if you:
- Have inherited a gene that puts you at higher risk of ovarian cancer. These genes are known as BRCA 1 and BRCA 2.
- Have a family member with ovarian cancer.
- Previously had cancer in the uterus, breast, or colon.
If you are being treated for ovarian cancer, you may be tested several times throughout your treatment. If testing shows your CA-125 levels have gone down, it usually means the cancer is responding to treatment. If your levels go up or stay the same, it may mean the cancer is not responding to treatment.
If you have finished your treatment for ovarian cancer, high CA-125 levels may mean your cancer has come back.
If you are not being treated for ovarian cancer and your results show high CA-125 levels, it can be a sign of cancer. But it may also be a sign of a noncancerous condition, such as:
- Endometriosis, a condition in which tissue that normally grows inside the uterus also grows outside the uterus. It can be very painful. It may also make it harder to get pregnant.
- Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), an infection of a woman's reproductive organs. It's usually caused by a sexually transmitted disease, such as gonorrhea or chlamydia.
- Uterine fibroids, noncancerous growths in the uterus
- Liver disease
- Pregnancy
- Menstruation, at certain times during your cycle
If you are not being treated for ovarian cancer, and your results show high CA-125 levels, your health care provider will probably order more tests to help make a diagnosis. Talk to your health care provider if you have questions about your results.
1. CA 125 Blood Test (Ovarian Cancer): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest of gynecologic cancers. More than 21,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed each year, with more than 15,000 deaths. A particular blood protein called cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) is often elevated in women with ovarian cancer, though small amounts of CA-125 are produced by normal tissues throughout the body and levels of CA-125 can be elevated by other conditions. The CA-125 test is used primarily to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for ovarian cancer. There are three different kinds of ovarian cancer: the most common type is epithelial ovarian cancer (90%) which originates from the surface epithelium of the ovary and is more likely to affect older women; germ cell ovarian cancer (5%), which originates from the cells that produce eggs and is more likely to affect younger women; and stromal ovarian cancer (5%), which originates from the connective tissue within the ovary. After age, the most important risk factor for ovarian cancer is family history. Ovarian cancer is relatively uncommon, but is the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women, partly due to diagnosis difficulty; its symptoms are vague, and ovarian cancer can shed cells that can invade other internal organs long before the presence of disease is even suspected.

Image by TheVisualMD

CA-125: Ovaries and Uterus

The cancer antigen 125 test (CA-125) is used to monitor treatment for ovarian cancer. If blood levels of CA-125 fall during treatment, it usually means the cancer is responding; if levels rise after treatment is complete, it may indicate that the cancer has returned.

Image by TheVisualMD

CA-125: Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

When ovarian cancer is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a pelvic exam to check for masses or growths on the ovaries. Other diagnostic tests include a transvaginal ultrasound, which produce detailed images of the ovaries and other reproductive organs.

Image by TheVisualMD

CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)

As our understanding of cancer has deepened and treatment options expanded, the emphasis has shifted to early detection and aggressive treatment. The hope is that earlier and more accurate diagnoses will push survival rates for ovarian cancer higher.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ovarian Cancer Fact Sheet

Ovarian cancer is cancer that begins in the ovaries. The ovaries make female hormones and produce a woman’s eggs. Ovarian cancer is a serious cancer that is more common in older women. Treatment is most effective when the cancer is found early.

Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment

Video by MainMD/YouTube

Premature Ovarian Aging and Early Menopause

Video by Center for Human Reproduction/YouTube

Ovarian cancer: beyond resistance

Video by nature video/YouTube

Ovarian Cancer

TheVisualMD

CA-125: Ovaries and Uterus

TheVisualMD

CA-125: Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

TheVisualMD

CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)

TheVisualMD

Ovarian Cancer Fact Sheet

Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

3:04

Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment

MainMD/YouTube

5:09

Premature Ovarian Aging and Early Menopause

Center for Human Reproduction/YouTube

2:22

Ovarian cancer: beyond resistance

nature video/YouTube

Cancer Antigen 15-3 Test

Cancer Antigen 15-3 Test

Also called: CA 15-3 Tumor Marker, CA-Breast, Cancer Antigen-Breast

CA 15-3 testing is mostly used in women who have been diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to monitor the response to treatment and to help watch for recurrence of the disease.

Cancer Antigen 15-3 Test

Also called: CA 15-3 Tumor Marker, CA-Breast, Cancer Antigen-Breast

CA 15-3 testing is mostly used in women who have been diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to monitor the response to treatment and to help watch for recurrence of the disease.

{"label":"Cancer Antigen 15-3 Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"(i.U.)\/mL","code":"[IU]\/mL","name":"international unit per milliliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":30},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":["Suggests limited tumor burden (less cancer is present)","Suggests breast-cancer patient is responding well to treatment"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":30,"max":100},"text":"Usually, the more advanced the breast cancer is, the higher the CA 15-3 level will be. The highest levels of CA 15-3 often are seen when the disease has already spread to other tissues (metastasized).","conditions":["Localized breast cancer","Metastatic breast cancer","Colon cancer","Lung cancer","Pancreatic cancer","Ovarian cancer","Prostate cancer","Liver cancer","Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis)","Benign breast disease"]}],"value":15}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(i.U.)/mL
30
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Suggests limited tumor burden (less cancer is present)
Suggests breast-cancer patient is responding well to treatment
Normal values of CA 15-3 are less than 30 units/mL. However, reference ranges can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Usually, the more advanced the breast cancer is, the higher the CA 15-3 level will be. The highest levels of CA 15-3 often are seen when the disease has already spread to other tissues (metastasized).
Nevertheless, besides breast cancer, CA 15-3 levels can be mild to moderately increased in other conditions, including:
- Colon cancer
- Lung cancer
- Pancreatic cancer
- Ovarian cancer
- Prostate cancer
- Liver cancer
- Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis)
- Benign breast disease

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Cancer

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

CA 15-3: Breast Tumor Size When Found by Imaging or Touch

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

CA 15-3: Breast Tissue and Lymph Node Network

TheVisualMD

2:42

What Are Tumor Markers for Breast Cancer?

Breast Cancer Answers®/YouTube

1:36

Biomarker Testing

Merck/YouTube

Cancer Antigen 19-9 Test

Cancer Antigen 19-9 Test

Also called: CA 19-9 Tumor Marker, Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Pancreatic Cancer Antigen

CA 19-9 testing is mostly used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment in individuals who have been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. However, this antigen can also be elevated in other conditions, diseases, or types of cancer.

Cancer Antigen 19-9 Test

Also called: CA 19-9 Tumor Marker, Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Pancreatic Cancer Antigen

CA 19-9 testing is mostly used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment in individuals who have been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. However, this antigen can also be elevated in other conditions, diseases, or types of cancer.

{"label":"Cancer Antigen 19-9 Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"U\/mL","code":"U\/mL","name":"enzyme unit per milliliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":35},"text":"Low amounts of CA 19.9 may be detected in healthy people. Low or stable counts may also indicate positive response to treatment or stabilized tumor growth.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":75},"text":"You may have cancer of the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, lung, colon, or stomach.","conditions":["Pancreatic cancer","Colorectal cancer","Lung cancer","Gallbladder cancer","Pancreatitis","Gallstones","Biliary infection (cholangitis)","Bile duct blockage","Liver disease","Cystic fibrosis"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":75,"max":130},"text":"You may have an infection of your pancreas, an infection of your gallbladder, liver disease, gallstones, or a disease called cystic fibrosis.","conditions":["Pancreatic cancer","Colorectal cancer","Lung cancer","Gallbladder cancer","Pancreatitis","Gallstones","Biliary infection (cholangitis)","Bile duct blockage","Liver disease","Cystic fibrosis"]}],"value":17.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
U/mL
35
75
Your result is Low.
Low amounts of CA 19.9 may be detected in healthy people. Low or stable counts may also indicate positive response to treatment or stabilized tumor growth.
Related conditions
A CA 19-9 blood test may be used to:
- Monitor pancreatic cancer and cancer treatment. CA 19-9 levels often go up as cancer spreads, and go down as tumors shrink.
- See if cancer has returned after treatment.
The test is sometimes used with other tests to help confirm or rule out cancer.
If you are being treated for pancreatic cancer or other type of cancer, you may be tested several times throughout your treatment. After repeated tests, your results may show:
- Your levels of CA 19-9 are increasing. This may mean your tumor is growing, and/or your treatment is not working.
- Your levels of CA 19-9 are decreasing. This may mean your tumor is shrinking and your treatment is working.
- Your levels of CA 19-9 have not increased or decreased. This may mean your disease is stable.
- Your CA 19-9 levels decreased, but then later increased. This may mean your cancer has come back after you've been treated.
If you do not have cancer and your results show a higher than normal level of CA 19-9, it may be a sign of one of the following noncancerous disorders:
- Pancreatitis, a noncancerous swelling of the pancreas
- Gallstones
- Bile duct blockage
- Liver disease
- Cystic fibrosis
If your health care provider suspects you have one of these disorders, he or she will probably order more tests to confirm or rule out a diagnosis.
Talk to your health care provider if you have questions about your results.
1. CA 19-9 Blood Test (Pancreatic Cancer): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
2. https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/9364/pancreatic-cancer/cases/44671 [accessed on Jan 15, 2020]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (7)

Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic Cancer: In Situ : The summary staging system categorizes cancer (shown here in the pancreas) according to its spread. In situ cancer is present only in cells in which it began.

Image by TheVisualMD

Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer

Amylase is one of several enzymes produced by the pancreas and secreted into the digestive tract to help break down nutrients (amylase is also produced by the salivary glands). The enzyme is usually present in the blood and urine only in small quantities, but when pancreatic tissue is injured, inflamed (pancreatitis) or when the pancreatic duct is blocked or a tumor is present, amylase can leak into the blood and urine. As cancerous tissue overwhelms the pancreas, its function is compromised and enzyme levels fall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer

Diagram showing the pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer

Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Pancreatic Cancer

Cancer Types _ Pancreatic Cancer Cells or Tissue _ Abnormal Cells or Tissue

Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI

Doctor explains Ca 19-9 blood test used in PANCREATIC CANCER | LAB TESTS explained

Video by Doctor O'Donovan/YouTube

Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

T1 stage - the tumor is inside the pancreas and is 2cm or less in any direction.

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TNM Staging for Pancreatic Cancer

TNM stands for Tumour, Node, Metastasis. This system describes the size of a primary tumour (T), whether there are lymph nodes with cancer cells in them (N) and whether the cancer has spread to a different part of the body (M).

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Pancreatic Cancer

TheVisualMD

Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer

TheVisualMD

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Pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Pancreatic Cancer

Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI

5:17

Doctor explains Ca 19-9 blood test used in PANCREATIC CANCER | LAB TESTS explained

Doctor O'Donovan/YouTube

5:55

Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

TNM Staging for Pancreatic Cancer

Cancer Research UK

CEA Test

CEA Test

Also called: Carcinoembryonic Antigen, CEA Assay

A CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) test measures CEA in a sample of blood or other body fluid. It helps check if treatment for certain cancers is working. The test is most commonly used in colorectal cancer.

CEA Test

Also called: Carcinoembryonic Antigen, CEA Assay

A CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) test measures CEA in a sample of blood or other body fluid. It helps check if treatment for certain cancers is working. The test is most commonly used in colorectal cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
ng/mL
3
5
20
Your result is Normal.
Related conditions
CEA stands for carcinoembryonic antigen. CEA is a protein that is a type of "tumor marker." Tumor markers are substances that are often made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer.
High levels of CEA are normal in healthy, unborn babies. After birth, CEA levels become very low or disappear completely. So, healthy adults should have little or no CEA in their bodies.
Cancers that may cause high levels of CEA include cancers of the:
- Colon and rectum (colorectal or bowel cancer)
- Prostate
- Ovary
- Lung
- Thyroid
- Liver
- Pancreas
- Breast
If you've been diagnosed with a cancer that can cause high CEA levels, CEA testing may help your health care provider learn more about your cancer and chance of recovery. The test is often used with other tests to check if cancer treatment is working.
CEA tests are not used to screen for or diagnose cancer. That's because:
- Cancers that often cause high CEA levels don't always cause high levels. You can have normal CEA test results even though you have one of these cancers.
- Many other health problems that aren't cancer can make CEA levels rise, including certain conditions that affect your liver, digestion, or breathing.
Most CEA tests use a sample of your blood to measure your CEA level. Sometimes the test uses a sample of fluid from your spine, chest, or abdomen (belly), but this is less common.
A CEA test is mostly used in people who have been diagnosed with cancers that often increase CEA levels. It's most commonly used in colorectal cancer. A provider may order a CEA test along with other tests to:
- Learn more about a cancer soon after it has been diagnosed. CEA levels can help predict the likelihood of recovery and/or the chance that cancer will come back after treatment.
- Check how well cancer treatment is working.
- See if cancer has returned after treatment.
If you've been diagnosed with a type of cancer that can cause high CEA levels, you may need CEA testing:
- Before treatment to:
  Help understand how serious your cancer is.
  Help guide treatment decisions.
  Get a measurement of your CEA level before treatment to compare with CEA levels after treatment.
- During cancer treatment to see if the treatment working.
- After treatment to check whether cancer has come back. You may need to have tests on a regular schedule.
To understand your CEA test results, your provider will consider the results of other tests and exams. Ask your provider to explain what your test results mean for your health and treatment.
If you had a test before starting cancer treatment, in general:
- A low level of CEA may mean your tumor is small and the cancer has not spread to other parts of your body. But some cancers don't make much CEA, so your provider may use other tests to learn more about how much cancer you have and if it's spread.
- A high level of CEA may mean you have a larger tumor and/or your cancer has spread. You'll need other tests to confirm how serious your cancer is.
If you had a test to monitor your cancer during or after treatment, your provider will compare your current CEA test results with your past test results. In general:
- Decreases in CEA over time often mean that treatment is working.
- Increases in CEA or high levels that stay high may mean that treatment isn't working. For example, if you had surgery for colorectal cancer, these levels may mean that the entire tumor wasn't removed or the cancer is growing back.
- Decreases in CEA after treatment followed by increases may mean cancer has come back.
CEA levels that remain high or increase after treatment don't always mean that treatment isn't working, or cancer is growing. So, if your CEA levels don't come down, your provider will likely order other tests to find out why.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. CEA Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 09, 2023]
2. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/diagnosis/tumor-markers-fact-sheet [accessed on Mar 13, 2019]
3. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/21906/carcinoembryonic-antigen-cea [accessed on Oct 03, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA in Colorectal Cancer Staging and Treatment

CEA tests are not used to screen for colorectal cancer, but they're frequently performed after the cancer has been diagnosed. CEA is useful in staging--performing tests to determine if the cancer has spread within the intestine or to distant parts of the body. CEA may also be used for treatment planning, as elevated levels may indicate a poorer prognosis. After surgery, CEA levels may be measured periodically to see if the cancer has spread. It is important to note that CEA is not a perfect predictor of how a patient will respond to treatment, nor is it conclusive in determining if cancer has spread. The American Society of Clinical Oncologists (ASCO) states that CEA should not be used as the sole basis for decision-making in colorectal cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA Testing During Chemotherapy

Whether CEA is tested during systemic treatment for colorectal cancer depends on the stage of the cancer. After surgery, the American Society of Clinical Oncologists (ASCO) recommends that patients with stage II or stage III cancer have a CEA test every 3 months, for a minimum of 3 years. However, if the patient is receiving chemotherapy, CEA testing should be delayed until after chemotherapy is completed. On the other hand, CEA is the marker of choice for monitoring stage IV (metastatic) colorectal cancer during systemic treatment. Patients with metastatic cancer, in which the cancer has spread to distant parts of the body, should have a CEA test every 1-3 months during chemotherapy to see if the treatment is working and whether the cancer is still spreading. ASCO recommends other tests be done in conjunction with the CEA tests.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

Colon cancer: Essential facts

Video by Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube

The Colon and Colon Cancer

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Colon Cancer: Don't Ignore Your Symptoms

Video by American Cancer Society/YouTube

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Video by Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

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Treating Colon Cancer

This animation explains how colon cancer forms and how it can be treated through chemotherapy and surgery.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Screening

Colorectal cancer is one of the few preventable forms of cancer thanks to effective screening. For many people, screening for colorectal cancer is an unpleasant thought, but knowing your options and taking a pro-active approach especially if you're over 50 can save your life. In this video, you can learn the "ins and outs" of colonoscopy, as well as learn about a new technique called virtual colonoscopy, which uses high-tech CT scans to screen the colon.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Video by TheVisualMD

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Dr. O'Kieffe and patient on preparing for a colonoscopy

A recent colonoscopy patient and gastroenterologist Dr. Donald O'Kieffe of Metro Gastroenterology, Chevy Chase, MD, explain what's involved in the preparation for your screening.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Dr. Klein on who should be screened

Dr. Mark Klein, a radiologist and colorectal cancer screening specialist at Washington Radiology Associates in Washington, DC, discusses who should be screened for colorectal cancer, and when.

Video by TheVisualMD

Colon cancer staging

Colon cancer staging : After colon cancer has been diagnosed, the next step is to perform tests to determine if the cancer has spread within the intestine or to distant parts of the body. This is called staging. Staging helps the doctor to decide the most appropriate treatment for the cancer at its current stage.

Image by TheVisualMD

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

Surgery is the main treatment for colorectal cancer. Polyps and very early stage cancers (Stage 0 and some early Stage I tumors) can be removed during a colonoscopy, using a variety of techniques. In late Stage I and in Stage II and III cancer, the cancerous part of the colon is removed surgically. The surgeon may perform a resection, consisting of a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it) and an anastomosis (sewing the parts of the colon back together). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed and biopsied. If it isn't possible to perform a resection (for instance, if the cancer is at the outlet of the rectum), a colostomy may be performed. In a colostomy, a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body, where it empties into a special bag. The colostomy may be temporary in order to allow the colon or rectum time to heal after surgery, or it may be permanent.

Image by TheVisualMD

Colon Anatomy & Function

Image by TheVisualMD

Colostomy

Colostomy Illustration

Image by Blausen.com staff. \"Blausen gallery 2014\". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 20018762

Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer refers to cancer of the colon and cancer of the rectum. The colon is the longest part of the large intestine, and the rectum is the last several inches of the large intestine, closest to the anus.

Image by TheVisualMD

What Is Colorectal Cancer?

The process of cell growth in the body is normally an orderly one. Cells grow and divide as necessary to produce more cells as they are needed. Cells that are old or damaged die, and are replaced with new cells.

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Treating Colorectal Cancer

There are three main treatment options for colorectal cancer:

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Colorectal Cancer Spread to Body Stage 4

Cancer spreads in three ways: by invading surrounding tissue, by invading the lymph system and traveling through lymph vessels to other places in the body, and by invading veins and capillaries and traveling through the bloodstream to other places in the body. Stage IV: Cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs. Stage IV colorectal cancer is not considered curable. Image 5 of 5.

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Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA in Colorectal Cancer Staging and Treatment

TheVisualMD

Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA Testing During Chemotherapy

TheVisualMD

1:23

The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

2:49

Colon cancer: Essential facts

Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube

10:05

The Colon and Colon Cancer

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

6:06

Colon Cancer: Don't Ignore Your Symptoms

American Cancer Society/YouTube

2:42

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

3:45

Treating Colon Cancer

TheVisualMD

4:13

Colorectal Cancer Screening

TheVisualMD

0:05

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

TheVisualMD

0:48

Dr. O'Kieffe and patient on preparing for a colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

0:21

Dr. Klein on who should be screened

TheVisualMD

Colon cancer staging

TheVisualMD

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

TheVisualMD

Colon Anatomy & Function

TheVisualMD

Colostomy

Blausen.com staff. \"Blausen gallery 2014\". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 20018762

Colorectal Cancer

TheVisualMD

What Is Colorectal Cancer?

TheVisualMD

Treating Colorectal Cancer

TheVisualMD

Colorectal Cancer Spread to Body Stage 4

TheVisualMD

Prostate-Specific Antigen Test

Prostate-Specific Antigen Test

Also called: PSA, Total PSA

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is a blood test that checks the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a protein made by the prostate gland. The amount of PSA may be higher in men who have prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or infection or inflammation of the prostate.

Prostate-Specific Antigen Test

Also called: PSA, Total PSA

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is a blood test that checks the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a protein made by the prostate gland. The amount of PSA may be higher in men who have prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or infection or inflammation of the prostate.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
ng/mL
4
10
Your result is Normal.
There is no specific normal or abnormal level of PSA in the blood, and levels may vary over time in the same man. Various factors can cause a man’s PSA level to fluctuate, such as inflammation, infections and medications among other factors.
Related conditions
A PSA test is used to screen for prostate cancer. Screening is a test that looks for a disease, such as cancer, in its early stages, when it's most treatable. Leading health organizations, such as the American Cancer Society and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), disagree on recommendations for using the PSA test for cancer screening. Reasons for disagreement include:
- Most types of prostate cancer grow very slowly. It can take decades before any symptoms show up.
- Treatment of slow-growing prostate cancer is often unnecessary. Many men with the disease live long, healthy lives without ever knowing they had cancer.
- Treatment can cause major side effects, including erectile dysfunction and urinary incontinence.
- Fast-growing prostate cancer is less common, but more serious and often life-threatening. Age, family history, and other factors can put you at higher risk. But the PSA test alone can't tell the difference between slow- and fast-growing prostate cancer.
To find out if PSA testing is right for you, talk to your health care provider.
You may get a PSA test if you have certain risk factors for prostate cancer. These include:
- A father or brother with prostate cancer
- Being African-American. Prostate cancer is more common in African American men. The reason for this is unknown.
- Your age. Prostate cancer is more common in men over the age of 50.
You may also get a PSA test if:
- You have symptoms such as painful or frequent urination, and pelvic and/or back pain.
- You've already been diagnosed with prostate cancer. The PSA test can help monitor the effects of your treatment.
High PSA levels can mean cancer or a noncancerous condition such as a prostate infection, which can be treated with antibiotics. If your PSA levels are higher than normal, your health care provider will probably order more tests, including:
- A rectal exam. For this test, your health care provider will insert a gloved finger into your rectum to feel your prostate.
- A biopsy. This is a minor surgical procedure, where a provider will take a small sample of prostate cells for testing.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
4. PSA - Clinical: Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Diagnostic, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
5. PSA. Lab Tests Online. [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
6. 010322: Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (29)

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Prostate Gland

Prostate Description Line drawing showing lateral view of the prostate gland, rectum, bladder, penis and testis.

Image by National Cancer Institute

Normal vs enlarged prostate

BPH - Prostate enlargement problems

Image by Akcmdu9

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What Is Prostate Cancer?

Delve into the prostate, understand this complex disease found in men that is challenging to diagnose and witness a cutting edge procedure that may change how prostate cancer is diagnosed in the future.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Prostate Cancer Treatment

Once someone is diagnosed with prostate cancer, the patient and his doctors decide a course of action, and create a treatment plan. Very often with prostate cancer, that means simply keeping an eye on the progression of the disease. Here, top doctors lay out the most common prostate cancer treatment options, explain the tools and methods used as well as the risk factors involved.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Standard Biopsy for Prostate Cancer

National Cancer Institute urologist and surgeon Dr. Peter Pinto explains the process of the standard multi-core or "blind" biopsy of the prostate.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Visualizing the Prostate

Unlike for many other cancers, there are no standardized imaging protocols, apart from the use of transrectal ultrasound (TRUS), for the early detection and diagnosis of prostate cancer. This is a critical need. Prostate cancer is a disease for which it is crucial to detect and diagnose cancers early and accurately, both because early prostate cancer is usually without symptoms and because treatment side effects can be severe. Fortunately, new technologies are currently being developed, and even being used in some medical facilities, with promising results. By providing more specific and accurate detection and diagnosis results, these more sophisticated forms of prostate imaging and analysis will help in detecting early cancers, and in making the decision of whether to treat for prostate cancer when abnormalities are detected.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Moving Forward with Prostate Imaging

Unlike for many other cancers, there are no standardized imaging protocols, apart from the use of transrectal ultrasound (TRUS), for the early detection and diagnosis of prostate cancer. This is a critical need. Prostate cancer is a disease for which it is crucial to detect and diagnose cancers early and accurately, both because early prostate cancer is usually without symptoms and because treatment side effects can be severe. Fortunately, new technologies are currently being developed, and even being used in some medical facilities, with promising results. By providing more specific and accurate detection and diagnosis results, these more sophisticated forms of prostate imaging and analysis will help in detecting early cancers, and in making the decision of whether to treat for prostate cancer when abnormalities are detected.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Prostate Cancer Prognosis

A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Risks of Overdiagnosis of Prostate Cancer

University of Chicago Hospital radiologist Dr. Aytekin Oto talks about the challenge that doctors face in treating less aggressive forms of prostate cancer.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Risks of Treatment for Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer patients are likely to have a number of treatment options to choose from. If you have prostate cancer, you may feel pressured to make a decision quickly. But take the time to learn as much as you can about prostate cancer, your prognosis, and the treatments that are appropriate for your case. Talk to your doctor and, preferably, get a second opinion as well. Bear in mind that a surgeon may tend to recommend surgery and a radiation oncologist to recommend radiation therapy. Consider your own feelings about these treatments and their possible side effects.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Treatment Options for Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer patients are likely to have a number of treatment options to choose from. If you have prostate cancer, you may feel pressured to make a decision quickly. But take the time to learn as much as you can about prostate cancer, your prognosis, and the treatments that are appropriate for your case. Talk to your doctor and, preferably, get a second opinion as well. Bear in mind that a surgeon may tend to recommend surgery and a radiation oncologist to recommend radiation therapy. Consider your own feelings about these treatments and their possible side effects.

Video by TheVisualMD

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MRI for Prostate Cancer

A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.

Video by TheVisualMD

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PET/CT for Prostate Cancer

A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.

Video by TheVisualMD

Prostate Anatomy by Zones with insets

Prostate cancer usually starts in certain zones of the prostate. Knowledge of these different zones helps the doctor to decide where to biopsy tissue and where to look for cancer spread. In this image, the central zone is shown as orange, the transition zone is shown as green, and the peripheral zone is shown as yellow.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Gland Zones

The prostate gland is a small gland that sits below the bladder (the gland lies close to the wall of the rectum, which allows it to be felt in a digital rectal exam). The prostate gland can be divided up in two different ways, by lobes or zones; there are four lobes and five zones. The zone system of classification is used mostly for pathology; the largest zone, the peripheral zone, comprises about three-quarters of the prostate and is where most cancer occurs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle

Visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of a posterior view of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, ductus deferens and Cowper's glands. The ductus deferens joins with the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct. The seminal vesicles act to secrete a thick alkaline fluid that mixes with the sperm as it passes into the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra. The prostate gland secretes a lubricant that helps to prevent infection in the urethra and protects and energizes sperm. The Cowper's gland produces a lubricating fluid which is secreted into the urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Reproductive System Showing Prostate Cancer

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral cross-section of an enlarged cancerous prostate, as well as bladder, penis, and testicles. Prostate cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in men over the age of 75 and the third leading cause of cancer death in men of all ages. Prostate enlargement in older men is usually benign but can be monitored for malignancy through the use of a blood test for prostate specific antigen (PSA) as well as through more invasive exams such as transrectal ultrasound and tranperineal biospy. Early cancers are sometimes treated with removal of the prostate while late-stage cancers are often treated with hormone and/or radiation therapy in combination with removal of the testicles (orchidectomy) to lower the level of testosterone and decrease cell growth. 2 of 2.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Gland

Visualization of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is the largest accessory gland of the male reproductive system. Two thirds of the prostate is glandular while the remaining third is fibromuscular. Prostatic secretions help to prevent infection in the urethra, energizes sperm and keep the urethral lining moist.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Male Reproductive System

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral cross-section of a healthy, normal prostate, as well as bladder, penis, and testicles. Prostate cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in men over the age of 75 and the third leading cause of cancer death in men of all ages. Prostate enlargement in older men is usually benign (noncancerous) but can be monitored for malignancy through the use of a blood test for prostate specific antigen (PSA) as well as through more invasive exams such as transrectal ultrasound and tranperineal biospy. Early cancers are sometimes treated with removal of the prostate while late-stage cancers are often treated by hormone and/or radiation therapy in combination with removal of the testicles (orchidectomy) to lower the level of testosterone and decrease cell growth. 1 of 2.

Image by TheVisualMD

What Is Prostate Cancer?

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Cancer Symptoms

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Prostate Function

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Cancer Grading with Gleason Scale

After biopsy, cancer cells are graded

Image by TheVisualMD

Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer

Some risk factors for prostate cancer are controllable, some aren't. Knowing what the risk factors are can help you to lower your chances of getting prostate cancer and to make decisions about beginning screening. Every man should talk with his general practitioner or urologist and discuss the benefits and shortcomings of PSA screening and whether to have it. Risk factors for prostate cancer include: AGE Risk increases dramatically after age 50. RACE Men of African descent are at higher risk. LIFESTYLE Men in North America and northwestern Europe have an increased risk. FAMILY HISTORY Having a brother or father who has the disease raises risk. GENETICS Some genes have been linked to prostate cancer. DIET High-fat diet increases the chances of getting prostate cancer. HORMONES High levels of testosterone can cause or accelerate the disease.

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Prostate Cancer Symptoms

Prostate cancer usually causes no symptoms in its early stages. Often there are no symptoms until the disease has spread beyond the prostate gland. Symptoms of advanced prostate cancer can include: 1) blood in the urine or semen, 2) difficulty, pain, or frequency in urinating, 3) pain in the lower back, pelvis, hips, or thigh bones, 4) compression of the spine, 5) pain with ejaculation, and 6) anemia and fatigue.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Gland

Prostate and Seminal Vesicles sagittal and axial slices : Derived from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data, the axial and sagittal slices (cross sections) through the prostate reveal the glandular tissue of the prostate as well as the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra. The inner coils of the seminal vesicles are also visible within the slices. Seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles mixes with sperm from the testes, via the ductus deferens, within the ejaculatory duct. The contents of the ejaculatory duct are then deposited into the urethra. There prostatic fluid is added to the mix along with contributions from the bulbourethral glands, forming semen. The prostatic urethra most often carries urine from the bladder and through the prostate.

Image by TheVisualMD

Side Effects of Treatment for Prostate Cancer

The side effects of prostate cancer treatment can be severe and sometimes permanent. They include impotence, incontinence, bleeding, and nerve damage.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prostate Gland

MRI Slices of the Prostate : Radiologists view different cross-sectional slices of the prostate, including the sagittal and axial slices, in order to detect any abnormalities.

Image by TheVisualMD

Decipher Test for Prostate Cancer Recurrence

Range of scores for the Decipher test showing low, intermediate, and high risk of prostate cancer metastasis. By estimating the future risk of prostate cancer spread and death, the Decipher test could help patients and their doctors make treatment decisions.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Prostate Gland

National Cancer Institute

Normal vs enlarged prostate

Akcmdu9

4:26

What Is Prostate Cancer?

TheVisualMD

2:35

Prostate Cancer Treatment

TheVisualMD

0:51

Standard Biopsy for Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

1:00

Visualizing the Prostate

TheVisualMD

0:34

Moving Forward with Prostate Imaging

TheVisualMD

0:39

Prostate Cancer Prognosis

TheVisualMD

0:40

Risks of Overdiagnosis of Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

0:42

Risks of Treatment for Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

0:33

Treatment Options for Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

0:27

MRI for Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

0:33

PET/CT for Prostate Cancer

TheVisualMD

Prostate Anatomy by Zones with insets

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Prostate Gland Zones

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Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle

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Male Reproductive System Showing Prostate Cancer

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Prostate Gland

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Male Reproductive System

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What Is Prostate Cancer?

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Prostate Cancer Symptoms

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Prostate Function

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Prostate Cancer Grading with Gleason Scale

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Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer

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Prostate Cancer Symptoms

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Prostate Gland

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Side Effects of Treatment for Prostate Cancer

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Prostate Gland

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Decipher Test for Prostate Cancer Recurrence

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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