Skip to content

Journeys of Life StoryMD Health Communities

Diarrhea and Cancer Treatment

Table of Contents

Diarrhea and Cancer Treatment

A man suffers from diarrhea and holds toilet paper roll

Image by wuestenigel

Diarrhea and Cancer Treatment

Depiction of a person suffering from diarrhea

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

Diarrhea and Cancer Treatment

What Is Diarrhea?

Diarrhea means having bowel movements that are soft, loose, or watery more often than normal. If diarrhea is severe or lasts a long time, the body does not absorb enough water and nutrients. This can cause you to become dehydrated or malnourished.

What Causes Diarrhea?

Cancer treatments, or the cancer itself, may cause diarrhea or make it worse. Some medicines, infections, and stress can also cause diarrhea. Tell your health care team if you have diarrhea.

What Are the Dangers of Diarrhea?

Diarrhea that leads to dehydration (the loss of too much fluid from the body) and low levels of salt and potassium (important minerals needed by the body) can be life threatening. Call your health care team if you feel dizzy or lightheaded, have dark yellow urine or are not urinating, or have a fever of 100.5 °F (38 °C) or higher.

Ways to Manage Diarrhea

You may be advised to take steps to prevent complications from diarrhea:

Drink plenty of fluid each day. Most people need to drink 8 to 12 cups of fluid each day. Ask your doctor or nurse how much fluid you should drink each day. For severe diarrhea, only clear liquids or IV (intravenous) fluids may be advised for a short period.
Eat small meals that are easy on your stomach. Eat six to eight small meals throughout the day, instead of three large meals. Foods high in potassium and sodium (minerals you lose when you have diarrhea) are good food choices, for most people. Limit or avoid foods and drinks that can make your diarrhea worse.
Check before taking medicine. Check with your doctor or nurse before taking medicine for diarrhea. Your doctor will prescribe the correct medicine for you.
Keep your anal area clean and dry. Try using warm water and wipes to stay clean. It may help to take warm, shallow baths. These are called sitz baths.

Questions to Ask Your Health Care Team about Diarrhea

Prepare for your visit by making a list of questions to ask. Consider adding these questions to your list:

What is causing the diarrhea?
What symptoms should I call you about?
How much liquid should I drink each day?
Can I speak to a registered dietitian to learn more about foods and drinks that are best for me?
What medicine or other steps can I take to prevent diarrhea and to decrease rectal pain?

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (7)

AntiDiarrheaMedicines

Styroks/Wikimedia

3:21

How to manage Diarrhea during cancer treatment? | OncoPower

OncoPower/YouTube

5:12

Side Effects Of Treatment: Diarrhea

St. Jude India ChildCare Centres/YouTube

3:11

Caregiver Series: Managing Side Effects - Diarrhea

American Cancer Society/YouTube

2:48

Dealing with diarrhea for bladder cancer patients

Bladder Cancer Advocacy Network/YouTube

3:01

Diarrhea During and After Cancer Treatment

SCCA Patient Education/YouTube

4:04

Chemotherapy-Induced Diarrhea

Learn Oncology/YouTube

What Is Diarrhea?

Bristol Stool Chart

Image by Cabot Health, Bristol Stool Chart

What Is Diarrhea?

Diarrhea is frequent, loose, and watery bowel movements.

Diarrhea is frequent, loose, and watery bowel movements. Acute diarrhea lasts more than 4 days but less than 2 weeks. Symptoms of acute diarrhea may be loose stools and passing more than 3 unformed stools in one day. Diarrhea is chronic (long-term) when it goes on for longer than 2 months.

Diarrhea can occur at any time during cancer treatment. It can be physically and emotionally stressful for patients who have cancer.

Source: PDQ® Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board. PDQ Gastrointestinal Complications. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.

Additional Materials (2)

What is diarrhea?

WebHamster (talk) (Uploads)

Diarrhea

PracticalCures.com

What Causes It?

Last Chemo Today

Image by Sgerbic /Wikimedia

What Causes Diarrhea In Cancer Patients?

In cancer patients, the most common cause of diarrhea is cancer treatment.

Causes of diarrhea in cancer patients include the following:

Cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, bone marrow transplant, and surgery.
- Some chemotherapy and targeted therapy drugs cause diarrhea by changing how nutrients are broken down and absorbed in the small intestine. More than half of patients who receive chemotherapy have diarrhea that needs to be treated.
- Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer. As it attacks cancer cells, it also attacks healthy cells and tissues. This may result in diarrhea and flu-like symptoms.
- Radiation therapy to the abdomen and pelvis can cause inflammation of the bowel. Patients may have problems digesting food, and have gas, bloating, cramps, and diarrhea. These symptoms may last up to 8 to 12 weeks after treatment or may not happen for months or years. Treatment may include diet changes, medicines, or surgery.
- Patients who are having radiation therapy and chemotherapy often have severe diarrhea. Hospital treatment may not be needed. Treatment may be given at an outpatient clinic or with home care. Intravenous (IV) fluids may be given or medicines may be prescribed.
- Patients who have a donor bone marrow transplant may develop graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Stomach and intestinal symptoms of GVHD include nausea and vomiting, severe abdominal pain and cramps, and watery, green diarrhea. Symptoms may show up 1 week to 3 months after the transplant.
- Surgery on the stomach or intestines.
The cancer itself.
Stress and anxiety from being diagnosed with cancer and having cancer treatment.
Medical conditions and diseases other than cancer.
Infections.
Antibiotic therapy for certain infections. Antibiotic therapy can irritate the lining of the bowel and cause diarrhea that often does not get better with treatment.
Laxatives.
Fecal impaction in which the stool leaks around the blockage.
Certain foods that are high in fiber or fat.

Source: PDQ® Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board. PDQ Gastrointestinal Complications. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.

Additional Materials (5)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Chemotherapy into the abdomen

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Chemotherapy

OpenClipart-Vectors/Pixabay

Catheter for Chemotherapy

National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Chemotherapy

Bill Branson (Photographer)

Radiation Therapy May Cause Diarrhea

NIH Medical Arts / National Cancer Institute (NCI)

How Is It Diagnosed?

Diarrhea - Fecal matter moving right through the bowel

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Diarrhea Assessed in Cancer Patients?

Assessment includes a physical exam, lab tests, and questions about diet and bowel movements.

Because diarrhea can be life-threatening, it is important to find out the cause so treatment can begin as soon as possible. The doctor may ask the following questions to help plan treatment:

How often have you had bowel movements in the past 24 hours?
When was your last bowel movement? What was it like (how much, how hard or soft, what color)? Was there any blood?
Was there any blood in your stool or any rectal bleeding?
Have you been dizzy, very drowsy, or had any cramps, pain, nausea, vomiting, or fever?
What have you eaten? What and how much have you had to drink in the past 24 hours?
Have you lost weight recently? How much?
How often have you urinated in the past 24 hours?
What medicines are you taking? How much and how often?
Have you traveled recently?

Tests and procedures may include the following:

Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.The exam will include checking blood pressure, pulse, and breathing; checking for dryness of the skin and tissue lining the inside of the mouth; and checking for abdominal pain and bowel sounds.
Digital rectal exam (DRE): An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual. The exam will check for signs of fecal impaction. Stool may be collected for laboratory tests.
Fecal occult blood test: A test to check stool for blood that can only be seen with a microscope. Small samples of stool are placed on special cards and returned to the doctor or laboratory for testing.
Stool tests: Laboratory tests to check the water and sodium levels in stool, and to find substances that may be causing diarrhea. Stool is also checked for bacterial, fungal, or viral infections.
Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
- The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
- The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
Electrolyte panel: A blood test that measures the levels of electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride.
Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
Abdominal x-ray: An x-ray of the organs inside the abdomen. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. Abdominal x-rays may also be done to look for a bowel obstruction or other problems.

Source: PDQ® Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board. PDQ Gastrointestinal Complications. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.

Digital Rectal Examination

Digital Rectal Examination

Also called: DRE, Digital Rectal Exam

A digital rectal examination (DRE) is a test in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into your rectum to assess your pelvic organs. It is commonly used to check the prostate gland in men, but it can also be used to evaluate the uterus and ovaries in women.

Digital Rectal Examination

Also called: DRE, Digital Rectal Exam

A digital rectal examination (DRE) is a test in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into your rectum to assess your pelvic organs. It is commonly used to check the prostate gland in men, but it can also be used to evaluate the uterus and ovaries in women.

{"label":"Digital Rectal Examination Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result means that your doctor didn't feel any abnormalities during the exam, such as a growth or an organ enlargement.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"This means that your doctor found something abnormal during the test. ","conditions":["Benign prostatic hypertrophy","Prostatitis","Prostate cancer","Colon cancer","Rectum cancer","Hemorrhoids","Anal fissures","Abscess","Gastrointestinal bleeding"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that your doctor didn't feel any abnormalities during the exam, such as a growth or an organ enlargement.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to perform this test in the following situations:
- If you are bleeding through your rectum
- If you have pelvic pain
- If you have recently had an unexplained change in your bowel habits
- To collect a stool sample to check for occult (hidden) blood; this is usually done as part of the screening for rectal or colon cancer
- If you are a man who has symptoms of enlarged prostate or prostate infection
- Routinely to check for the size of the prostate and to look for bumps or other prostate abnormalities in men over 50 years old
A normal result means that your doctor did not find any abnormalities during the exam; however, this doesn’t mean that you don’t have a problem. Your doctor may want to order further testing.
If your result was abnormal, it means that your doctor found something during the test. This may happen for several reasons, such as:
- Bleeding in the digestive tract
- Anal fissure (small tear in the lining of the anus)
- Abscess (pus collection) in the rectum or anus
- Hemorrhoids (swollen veins in the rectum or anus)
- Cancer of the colon or rectum
- Enlargement or abnormal growths of an organ, such as the rectum, bladder, prostate in men, or cervix, uterus, or ovaries in women.
If the DRE test indicates a problem may exist, your doctor may order additional tests.
1. Digital rectal exam: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 21, 2018]
2. Prostate Tests | NIDDK [accessed on Dec 21, 2018]
3. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rectal-examination/ [accessed on Apr 17, 2019]
4. https://www.webmd.com/colorectal-cancer/digital-rectal-examination [accessed on Apr 17, 2019]
5. https://www.verywellhealth.com/the-digital-rectal-exam-2782260 [accessed on Apr 17, 2019]
6. https://www.verywellhealth.com/vasovagal-reflex-1945072 [accessed on Apr 17, 2019]
7. https://www.cancer.net/navigating-cancer-care/diagnosing-cancer/tests-and-procedures/digital-rectal-exam-dre [accessed on Sep 16, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Digital Rectal Exam

The prostate gland is a small gland that sits below the bladder and encircles the urethra; the gland lies close to the wall of the rectum, which allows it to be felt in a digital rectal exam, or DRE, which is performed to determine the gland is enlarged.

Image by TheVisualMD

Active Surveillance & Watchful Waiting

Not all prostate cancer treatment is radical. Active surveillance and watchful waiting are two approaches to treatment that seek to avoid the often severe side effects of curative prostate treatment. They do this by actively monitoring signs and symptoms and taking action only when necessary. Active surveillance is for men with early prostate cancer who don't have symptoms. It monitors progression of cancer through PSA and DRE testing, and includes curative treatment, such as radiation therapy, if PSA levels rise rapidly. Watchful waiting is for older men who have slow-growing cancers or men with health problems that prevent them from having surgery. This approach includes regular PSA and DRE testing, and may include hormone therapy or other palliative treatment if symptoms, such as urinary retention or pain, become acute.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-section diagram of a digital rectal examination showing the physician's index finger inserted into the patient's rectum to feel the size and shape of the prostate

Digital rectal exam (DRE)

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Prostate Cancer (Labelled) - 3D Medical Animation || ABP ©

Video by AnimatedBiomedical/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Exam, Digital Rectal

Digital rectal exam; drawing shows a side view of the male reproductive and urinary anatomy, including the prostate, rectum, and bladder; also shows a gloved and lubricated finger inserted into the rectum to feel the prostate. Digital rectal exam (DRE). The doctor inserts a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum and feels the prostate to check for anything abnormal.

Image by National Cancer Institute / National Cancer Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Digital Rectal Exam

TheVisualMD

Active Surveillance & Watchful Waiting

TheVisualMD

Cross-section diagram of a digital rectal examination showing the physician's index finger inserted into the patient's rectum to feel the size and shape of the prostate

NIDDK Image Library

0:32

Prostate Cancer (Labelled) - 3D Medical Animation || ABP ©

AnimatedBiomedical/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Exam, Digital Rectal

National Cancer Institute / National Cancer Institute

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Also called: FOBT, Stool Hemoccult, Hemoccult Test, Guaiac Fecal Occult Blood Test, Fecal Immunochemical Test, FIT Test

A fecal occult blood test looks for blood in the stool. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool. Blood in stool may indicate hemorrhoids, colorectal cancer, or another condition.

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Also called: FOBT, Stool Hemoccult, Hemoccult Test, Guaiac Fecal Occult Blood Test, Fecal Immunochemical Test, FIT Test

A fecal occult blood test looks for blood in the stool. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool. Blood in stool may indicate hemorrhoids, colorectal cancer, or another condition.

{"label":"gFOBT reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative test result means that there is no blood in the stool.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be due to problems that cause bleeding in the stomach or intestinal tract.","conditions":["Colon cancer or other gastrointestinal tumors","Colon polyps","Bleeding veins in the esophagus or stomach (esophageal varices and portal hypertensive gastropathy)","Inflammation of the esophagus (esophagitis)","Inflammation of the stomach (gastritis) from gastrointestinal infections","Hemorrhoids","Crohn disease or ulcerative colitis","Peptic ulcer"]}],"hideunits":true,"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative test result means that there is no blood in the stool.
Related conditions
{"label":"FIT reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative or normal result means the test did not detect any blood in the stool. However, because cancers in the colon may not always bleed, you may need to do the test a few times to confirm that there is no blood in your stool.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If the FIT results come back positive for blood in the stool, your doctor will want to perform other tests, usually including a colonoscopy. The FIT test does not diagnose cancer. Screening tests such as a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy can also help detect cancer. Both the FIT test and other screenings can catch colon cancer early, when it is easier to treat.","conditions":["Colorectal cancer","Colon polyps","Colon ulcers","Hemorrhoids"]}],"hideunits":true,"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative or normal result means the test did not detect any blood in the stool. However, because cancers in the colon may not always bleed, you may need to do the test a few times to confirm that there is no blood in your stool.
Related conditions
A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) looks at a sample of your stool (poop) to check for blood. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool.
Blood in your stool means there is bleeding in the digestive tract. The bleeding may be caused by a variety of conditions, including:
- Polyps, abnormal growths on the lining of the colon or rectum
- Hemorrhoids, swollen veins in your anus or rectum
- Diverticulosis, a condition with small pouches in the inside wall of the colon
- Ulcers, sores in the lining of the digestive tract
- Colitis, a type of inflammatory bowel disease
- Colorectal cancer, a type of cancer that starts in the colon or rectum
Colorectal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in the United States. A fecal occult blood test can screen for colorectal cancer to help find the disease early when treatment may be most effective.
Other names: FOBT, stool occult blood, occult blood test, Hemoccult test, guaiac smear test, gFOBT, immunochemical FOBT, iFOBT; FIT
Your health care provider may order a fecal occult blood test if you have symptoms of a condition that could involve bleeding in your digestive tract. Or you may have the test to screen for colorectal cancer when you don't have any symptoms.
Expert medical groups strongly recommend that people get regular screening tests for colorectal cancer. Most medical groups recommend that you start screening tests at age 45 or 50 if you have an average risk of developing colorectal cancer. They recommend regular testing until at least age 75. Talk with your provider about your risk for colorectal cancer and when you should get a screening test.
A fecal occult blood test is one or several types of colorectal screening tests. Other tests include:
- A stool DNA test. This test checks your stool for blood and cells with genetic changes that may be a sign of cancer.
- Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. Both tests use a thin tube with a camera to look inside your colon. A colonoscopy allows your provider to see your entire colon. A sigmoidoscopy shows only the lower part of your colon.
- CT colonography, also called "virtual colonoscopy." For this test, you usually drink a dye before having a CT scan that uses x-rays to take detailed 3-dimensional pictures of your entire colon and rectum.
There are pros and cons of each type of test. Your provider can help you figure out which test is right for you.
Usually, your provider will give you a kit to collect samples of your stool (poop) at home. The kit will include instructions on how to do the test.
There are two main types of fecal occult blood tests:
- The guaiac fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) uses a chemical (guaiac) to find blood in stool. It usually requires stool samples from two or three separate bowel movements.
- The fecal immunochemical test (iFOBT or FIT) uses antibodies to find blood in stool. Research shows that FIT testing is better at finding colorectal cancers than gFOBT testing. A FIT test requires stool samples from one to three separate bowel movements, depending on the brand of the test.
Different test kits have different instructions, so it's very important to follow the specific instructions that come with your kit. The typical process for gathering a stool sample usually includes these general steps:
- Collecting a bowel movement. Your kit may include a special paper to place over your toilet to catch your bowel movement. Or you may use plastic wrap or a clean, dry container. If you are doing a guaiac test, be careful not to let any urine mix in with your stool.
- Taking a stool sample from the bowel movement. Your kit will include a wooden stick or applicator brush for scraping the stool sample from your bowel movement. Follow the instructions for where to gather the sample from the stool.
- Preparing the stool sample. You will either smear the stool on a special test card or insert the applicator with the stool sample into a tube that came with your kit.
- Labeling and sealing the sample as directed.
- Repeating the test on your next bowel movement as directed if more than one sample is needed.
- Returning the samples as directed. This might be mailing them or taking them to your provider's office or a lab.
You do not need any special preparations for many fecal occult blood tests. But for some guaiac fecal occult blood tests (gFOBTs), certain foods, supplements, and medicines may affect the results of the test. If you are having one of these tests, your provider will tell you what you need to avoid and for how long. For example, you might need to avoid:
- Nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and aspirin. If you take aspirin for heart problems, talk with your provider before stopping your medicine. You may be able to take acetaminophen during this time but check with your provider before taking it.
- Vitamin C in amounts over 250 mg a day. This includes vitamin C from supplements, fruit juices, or fruit.
- Red meat, such as beef, lamb, and pork. Traces of blood from these meats may show up in your stool.
- Certain raw fruits and vegetables.
1. Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
2. Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]

Additional Materials (4)

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

Surgery is the main treatment for colorectal cancer. Polyps and very early stage cancers (Stage 0 and some early Stage I tumors) can be removed during a colonoscopy, using a variety of techniques. In late Stage I and in Stage II and III cancer, the cancerous part of the colon is removed surgically. The surgeon may perform a resection, consisting of a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it) and an anastomosis (sewing the parts of the colon back together). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed and biopsied. If it isn't possible to perform a resection (for instance, if the cancer is at the outlet of the rectum), a colostomy may be performed. In a colostomy, a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body, where it empties into a special bag. The colostomy may be temporary in order to allow the colon or rectum time to heal after surgery, or it may be permanent.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Colorectal cancer includes cancer of both the colon and rectum. It is the fourth most common cancer in the United States and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths affecting both men and women equally. The CDC recommends that everyone age 50 or over be screened. When diagnosed early, patients have a 90% 5-year survival rate.

Video by TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Fecal Occult Blood Test

A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) finds blood in the stool by placing a stool sample on a chemically treated card, pad, or cloth wipe. A fecal occult blood test may be used to check for colorectal cancer, but it is never used to diagnose the condition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fecal impaction

Fecal impaction : Plain abdominal X-ray showing a huge fecal impaction extending from the pelvis upwards to the left subphrenic space and from the left towards the right flank, measuring over 40 cm in length and 33 cm in width.

Image by Di Saverio S, Tugnoli G, Orlandi PE, Casali M, Catena F, et al.

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

TheVisualMD

4:12

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Fecal Occult Blood Test

TheVisualMD

Fecal impaction

Di Saverio S, Tugnoli G, Orlandi PE, Casali M, Catena F, et al.

Bristol Stool Scale Test

Stool Assessment

Also called: Bowel Assessment, Bristol Stool Chart

The Bristol Stool scale is a medical tool used to assess human stool (poop) based on its shape and how formed or loose it is. Stools are assigned a number from 1 to 7, from hardest to loosest. It may also be used to help diagnose gastrointestinal (GI) issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Stool Assessment

Also called: Bowel Assessment, Bristol Stool Chart

The Bristol Stool scale is a medical tool used to assess human stool (poop) based on its shape and how formed or loose it is. Stools are assigned a number from 1 to 7, from hardest to loosest. It may also be used to help diagnose gastrointestinal (GI) issues such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

{"label":"Bristol stool scale reference range","scale":"lin","step":1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"1","long":"Type 1","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Type 1 stool identifies the hardest form of stool that is small and lumpy in appearance. This type of stool can look like rocks, pebbles, or nuts and can be difficult or painful to pass. It can also be black in color. Type 1 stool indicates severe constipation. You should increase fiber intake, drink plenty of water and exercise regularly to get the body moving.","conditions":["Severe constipation"],"icon":"\/optimized\/8ok55xEh4q\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"2","long":"Type 2","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"Type 2 stool identifies sausage-shaped, lumpy stool that can cause some discomfort or pain when passing. Type 2 stool indicates mild constipation. You should increase fiber intake, drink plenty of water and exercise regularly to get the body moving.","conditions":["Mild constipation"],"icon":"\/optimized\/voJXXxwsvq\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"3","long":"Type 3","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"Type 3 stool looks like a sausage but with cracks on its surface (can be black). Type 3 stool is one of two types that indicate healthy stool. However, the rough texture or cracks may point towards a lack of hydration, so try to drink more fluids.","conditions":[],"icon":"\/optimized\/OoYBBrXtMd\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"4","long":"Type 4","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":5},"text":"Type 4 stool looks like a sausage or snake, smooth and soft (average stool). Type 4 stool is one of two types that indicate healthy stool, as it is easier to pass.","conditions":[],"icon":"\/optimized\/PqELLQnc1d\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"5","long":"Type 5","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":6},"text":"Type 5 stool looks like soft blobs with clear cut edges. This result indicates that your stool lacks fiber. This could be due to a sudden loss of weight or being on a diet.","conditions":[],"icon":"\/optimized\/Qd9PPQBTgo\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"6","long":"Type 6","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":7},"text":"Type 6 stool has fluffy pieces with ragged edges. In most cases, type 6 stools are mushy rather than formed in appearance. Type 6 stool indicates mild diarrhea or an imbalance in colon bacteria. If mushy stools become frequent, it could lead to dehydration or nutrient deficiencies.","conditions":["Mild diarrhea"],"icon":"\/optimized\/JA0yyQYFOo\/thumbnail.png"},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"7","long":"Type 7","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":7,"max":8},"text":"Type 7 stools are very loose and watery and will not have any form or shape to them. Type 7 stools indicate severe diarrhea. It could also mean an infection in the colon. In this case, consume electrolytes and sip water frequently. If the symptoms persist for more than a week, seek medical attention.","conditions":["Severe diarrhea"],"icon":"\/optimized\/VdKxx1Wuwq\/thumbnail.png"}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"{type}","code":"{type}","name":"type"}],"hideunits":false,"value":3}[{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{type}
2
3
4
5
6
7
Your result is Type 2.
Type 2 stool identifies sausage-shaped, lumpy stool that can cause some discomfort or pain when passing. Type 2 stool indicates mild constipation. You should increase fiber intake, drink plenty of water and exercise regularly to get the body moving.
Related conditions
Mild constipation
{"label":"Stool color reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"B","long":"Black","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Black or tarry stool with a foul smell is called melena. This may be a sign of a problem in the upper digestive tract. It most often indicates that there is bleeding in the stomach, small intestine, or right side of the colon. A variety of foods and medications can also cause black stools.","conditions":["GI bleeding","Bismuth medications","Activated charcoal","Iron supplements","Black licorice","Blueberries"],"icon":"\/optimized\/8dnbbaytvd\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"B","long":"Brown","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Typically, healthy stool color should range from light to dark brown. The brownish color results from broken-down red blood cells and stomach bile mixing, indicating that the digestive system is functioning correctly.","conditions":[],"icon":"\/optimized\/pqDRRQeTPo\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Y","long":"Yellowish","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"Yellowish stool is normal for babies who are breastfeeding. But if an adult has yellow stool that's greasy and smelly, it may suggest the presence of undigested fat in the stool.","conditions":["Cystic fibrosis","Chronic pancreatitis","Celiac disease","Biliary obstruction","Giardiasis","Weight loss medications"],"icon":"\/optimized\/JdPvvnZfjA\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"R","long":"Reddish","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"Reddish stool is a sign of bleeding in the colon. Bright red blood may indicate bleeding in the lower part of the colon, while darker red blood usually means bleeding in the higher part of the colon. Some foods can also cause red stool, which resembles blood, such as beets, red licorice, tomato juice among others.","conditions":["GI bleeding","Anal fissure","Bowel infection","Colon polyp","Constipation","Colon cancer","Hemorrhoids","Inflammatory bowel disease","Crohn\u2019s disease","Ulcerative colitis","Diverticular disease"],"icon":"\/optimized\/LA1ZZQLSQo\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"BR","long":"Bright red","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":5},"text":"Bright red stool is a sign of bleeding in the lower colon, rectum or anus. Some foods can also cause red stool, which resembles blood, such as beets, red licorice, tomato juice among others.","conditions":["Anal fissure","Bowel infection","Colon polyp","Constipation","Colon cancer","Hemorrhoids","Inflammatory bowel disease","Crohn\u2019s disease","Ulcerative colitis","Diverticular disease","Lower GI bleeding"],"icon":"\/optimized\/OoYBBr4cMd\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"G","long":"Green","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":6},"text":"Newborns pass a dark green stool called meconium. Green vegetables like spinach, iron supplements or antibiotics may cause green stool. Greenish stool could also indicate a bacterial infection (such as salmonella or E. coli), viral infection (norovirus) or a parasite (Giardia) causing a rapid transit \"gush\" of unabsorbed bile.","conditions":["Meconium","Green vegetables","Iron supplements","Antibiotics","Salmonella","E. coli infection","Norovirus infection","Giardiasis","Gallbladder removal","Irritable bowel syndrome"],"icon":"\/optimized\/Rda55V9iXd\/thumbnail.svg"},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"WOLC","long":"White or light-colored","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":7},"text":"The stool can be white or light-colored if it contains little or no bile. The pale color may signify a condition (biliary obstruction) where the flow of bile to the intestine is obstructed, such as obstruction of the bile duct from a tumor or gallstone in the duct or nearby pancreas.","conditions":["Bile deficiency","Iron supplements","Liver disorder","Pancreas disorder","Upper GI bleeding"],"icon":"\/optimized\/Nq4yyQ7I7A\/thumbnail.svg"}],"hideunits":true,"value":1.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"borderline":1},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":2}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Brown.
Typically, healthy stool color should range from light to dark brown. The brownish color results from broken-down red blood cells and stomach bile mixing, indicating that the digestive system is functioning correctly.
Related conditions
1. Alicia Wooldridge, MD. Bristol Stool Chart: Stool Types, Sizes & More - K Health. Jun 30, 2023 [accessed on Apr 09, 2024]
2. Erhun Kasırga. The importance of stool tests in diagnosis and follow-up of gastrointestinal disorders in children. Turkish Archives of Pediatrics/Türk Pediatri Arşivi. Apr 15, 2024. doi:10.14744/TurkPediatriArs.2018.00483 [accessed on Apr 09, 2024]
3. Bowel Record Chart | Pediatric General Surgery | Stanford Medicine. Apr 15, 2024 [accessed on Apr 09, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

Bristol stool chart

Kyle Thompson

White Blood Cells in Stool Test

White Blood Cells in Stool Test

Also called: Stool for White Cells, Leukocytes in Stool, Fecal Leukocyte Stain, Stool WBC, Fecal WBC, Fecal Leukocyte Test, FLT, Fecal Leukoctye Gram Stain Screen, FGST

A white blood cell in stool (poop) test looks for white blood cells (leukocytes) in stool. The test is used to find out whether diarrhea is caused by conditions that involve inflammation in the digestive system.

White Blood Cells in Stool Test

Also called: Stool for White Cells, Leukocytes in Stool, Fecal Leukocyte Stain, Stool WBC, Fecal WBC, Fecal Leukocyte Test, FLT, Fecal Leukoctye Gram Stain Screen, FGST

A white blood cell in stool (poop) test looks for white blood cells (leukocytes) in stool. The test is used to find out whether diarrhea is caused by conditions that involve inflammation in the digestive system.

{"label":"White Blood Cells in Stool Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative result means no white blood cells (leukocytes) were found in the sample. If you or your child's results were negative, the symptoms are probably not caused by an infection.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"A positive result means white blood cells (leukocytes) were found in your stool sample. If you or your child's results show leukocytes in stool, it means there is some kind of inflammation in the digestive tract. The more leukocytes that are found, the higher the chance that you or your child has a bacterial infection.","conditions":["Bacterial infection","Inflammatory bowel disease"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means no white blood cells (leukocytes) were found in the sample. If you or your child's results were negative, the symptoms are probably not caused by an infection.
Related conditions
This test looks for white blood cells in a sample of your stool (poop). White blood cells are also called leukocytes, so this test is sometimes called a leukocytes in stool test.
White blood cells are part of your immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases. White blood cells in your stool are usually a sign that you have an infection or other condition in your digestive system that's causing inflammation.
A white blood cell in stool test is used if you have diarrhea that could be caused by inflammation. Diarrhea from inflammation is severe and lasts for more than a couple days. It can include blood in stool, abdominal (belly) pain, and fever. It may be caused by:
- Certain bacterial infections, such as:
  Clostridium difficile (C. diff). This infection mostly happens after taking antibiotics that kill the "good germs" that keep C. diff bacteria from growing in your body.
  Some types of bacteria that cause "food poisoning," including:
  Salmonella. Most infections come from contaminated food, but you can get salmonella from infected animals, especially reptiles and birds.
  Shigella. Infection with shigella is called shigellosis. You can get it from food and touching contaminated surfaces and then touching your mouth.
  Campylobacter. Infection can happen from food and contact with dog and cat feces (poop).
- Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes:
  Ulcerative colitis
  Crohn's disease
- A parasite (Entamoeba histolytica) which causes a disease called "amebiasis." Amebiasis is most common in tropical places with poor sanitary conditions.
A white blood cell in stool test can't diagnose the exact condition that's causing diarrhea. But it can help narrow down the possible causes to conditions that either do or don't involve inflammation.
A white blood cell in stool test is used to find out whether diarrhea is caused by conditions that involve inflammation in the digestive system.
It's mainly used for people who have diarrhea symptoms that suggest inflammation. These symptoms include:
- Watery diarrhea three or more times a day that doesn't get better after several days
- Abdominal (belly) cramps and/or pain
- Blood and/or mucus in stool
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Weight loss
A white blood cell in stool test can't diagnose the condition that's causing diarrhea, so it's often used with other tests.
Most diarrhea goes away on its own after a day or two, and your health care provider doesn't need to find the cause. But you may need a white blood cell in stool test and other tests if you have symptoms of diarrhea from inflammation that don't improve after a few days.
Knowing the cause of your diarrhea helps your provider choose the right treatment. That's important because ongoing diarrhea can lead to serious health problems, including dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
See your provider right away if you have:
- Signs of dehydration, including dry mouth, dark urine (pee), fatigue, or dizziness
- Diarrhea for more than 2 days, or for more than 24 hours in a young child or infant
- A fever of 102 degrees or higher
- Severe pain in the abdomen (belly) or rectum
- Stool that is black and tarry or contains blood or pus
- In adults: frequent vomiting or diarrhea 6 or more times in 24 hours
You will need to provide a stool sample for your test. Your provider will probably give you a container or kit with instructions on how to collect the sample. There are different ways to collect stool samples, so follow the instructions carefully. In general, you'll need to:
- Label the container with your name, the collection date, and time.
- Collect a stool sample as instructed. This usually involves using a clean, dry container, or special paper or plastic wrap placed over the toilet to catch the stool.
- Make sure the stool doesn't mix with any urine, toilet paper, or water from the toilet.
- Close the container tightly.
- Wash your hands well with soap and water.
- Return the container according to the instructions.
If you're collecting a sample from diapers, you'll get special instructions for using plastic wrap inside of a clean diaper. In certain cases, a provider may use a swab to take a stool sample from the rectum.
1. White Blood Cell (WBC) in Stool: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 09, 2023]
2. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/36941/white-blood-cells-wbc-stool [accessed on Apr 05, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Complete Blood Count

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
- Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
- Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
- Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
- Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
- Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
- Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
- Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
- Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
- High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (25)

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood sample

During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.

Image by United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.

Image by MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.

Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation

Image by Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best. Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Complete Blood Count

Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt1

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt2

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Blood Flow

Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.

Video by TheVisualMD

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Video by Seeker+/YouTube

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

TheVisualMD

Blood sample

United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

4:18

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

7:04

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

4:11

Complete Blood Count

Tom Wade MD/YouTube

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

16:12

Complete Blood Count pt1

Med Immersion/YouTube

22:14

Complete Blood Count pt2

Med Immersion/YouTube

0:06

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:07

Anemic Blood Flow

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

8:29

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Seeker+/YouTube

10:42

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

1:32

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Norton Healthcare/YouTube

2:39

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

OncLiveTV/YouTube

Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

{"label":"Red blood cell count reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.9},"text":"If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are low, you have anemia (a condition where the blood is unable to transport enough oxygen to the tissues and organs). ","conditions":["Anemia","Leukemia","Malnutrition","Multiple myeloma","Kidney failure","Pregnancy"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.9,"max":5.5},"text":"Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.5,"max":20},"text":"If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are high, you have polycythemia (a condition that causes a decreased blood flow). RBC count normally increases for several weeks when in a higher altitude.","conditions":["Dehydration","Heart disease","Polycythemia vera","Scarring of the lungs","Lung disease","Kidney cancer"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"million\/\u03bcL","code":"10*6\/uL","name":"million per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":4.7}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
million/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Vision problems
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Anemia
- Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
- Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
- Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
- Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
- Lung disease
- Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
- Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
- Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
- Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
1. Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

Red blood cells

Red blood cells

Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm

Image by TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cell Development

This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red blood cells

John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

7:45

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Nursing School Explained/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

3:01

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

0:12

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

0:31

Red Blood Cell Development

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

{"label":"WBC count reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.4},"text":"A low white blood cell count, called leukopenia, can result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as immune deficiencies, severe infections, and bone marrow disorders, among others. ","conditions":["Cancer","Severe infection","Bone marrow failure","Damage to the bone marrow","Drug toxicity","Aplastic anemia","Nutritional deficiencies","Autoimmune disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.4,"max":10.8},"text":"Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10.8,"max":50},"text":"A high white blood cell count, called leukocytosis, may result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as infections, inflammatory diseases, and physical stress, among others. ","conditions":["Infections","Inflammatory conditions","Allergic responses","Leukemia","Trauma","Burns","Physical stress"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":7.1}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
thousand/μL
3.4
10.8
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white blood cells (WBCs) in your blood. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are part of your immune system. They are a type of blood cell made in your bone marrow and found in your blood and lymph tissue (part of your immune system). If you are injured or get sick, the white blood cells will travel through your bloodstream and tissues to where they are needed. There, they will help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
- Neutrophils
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count, Leukocyte Count, WBC
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose or monitor disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
- Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
- Bacterial or viral infections
- Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
- Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
- Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV
- Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests to help confirm your diagnosis. These other tests could include a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. The symptoms of an infection may include:
- Fever
- Chills
- Body aches
- Headache
- Wound that is red, has pus, or won't heal
- Ongoing cough
The symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on where in the body the inflammation is and the type of disease you have.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may want to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
Conditions that may cause a high white blood count, also called leukocytosis, include:
- An infection
- An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
- An allergy
- Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
- Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
Smoking, stress, a reaction to a medicine, or pregnancy may also cause your body to make more white blood cells, which leads to a high white blood count.
Conditions that may cause a low white blood count, also called leukopenia, include:
- Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
- Cancers that affect the bone marrow.
- An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus.
- HIV.
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your provider. Your provider will consider your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other blood tests to understand your white blood count results.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
- A higher-than-normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
- A lower-than-normal amount is known as neutropenia.
- A higher-than-normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
- A lower-than-normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
1. White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 08, 2024]
2. WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (37)

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

Immune Response to Bacteria

Video by NIAID/YouTube

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Formed Elements of Blood

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells

Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

Image by NIAID

Neutrophil

Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

Innate immune system

Image by US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens

Image by TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

Image by OpenStax College

Innate immune system

Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.

Image by OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.

Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.

Image by TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.

Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.

Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

Image by BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

Video by CLL Society/YouTube

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

White Blood Count

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

6:49

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

1:47

Immune Response to Bacteria

NIAID/YouTube

14:59

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

3:02

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

15:02

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

TheVisualMD

White blood cells

NIAID

Neutrophil

NIAID

Innate immune system

US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

OpenStax College

Innate immune system

OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

3:12

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

1:17:17

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

CLL Society/YouTube

16:52

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

TheVisualMD

Platelets

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

{"label":"Platelet count reference range","scale":"lin","step":1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VL","long":"Very low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":50},"text":"A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. If your platelet count is very low, your risk for bleeding is higher. Even every day activities can cause bleeding. Thrombocytopenia can be life-threatening, especially if you have serious bleeding or bleeding in your brain. ","conditions":["Autoimmune disorders","Leukemia","Von Willebrand disease","Glanzmann's thrombasthenia","Bernard-Soulier syndrome","Storage pool disease","Acquired platelet dysfunction","Heavy alcohol intake","Severe bleeding"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":150},"text":"A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. Bleeding can happen inside your body, underneath your skin, or from the surface of your skin.","conditions":["Thrombocytopenia","Autoimmune disorders","Leukemia","Von Willebrand disease","Glanzmann's thrombasthenia","Bernard-Soulier syndrome","Storage pool disease","Acquired platelet dysfunction","Heavy alcohol intake"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":150,"max":450},"text":"A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":450,"max":1000},"text":"A higher-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.","conditions":["Thrombocytosis","Essential thrombocythemia","Bone marrow disease","Infections","Spleen removal"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":300}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
thousand/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Normal.
A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells. They form in your bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue in your bones. Platelets are essential for blood clotting. A blood clot is a mass of blood that forms when platelets, proteins, and cells in the blood stick together. When you get hurt, your body forms a blood clot to stop the bleeding.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood:
- A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding.
- A higher-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, PLT, PLT count thrombocyte count
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having lower-than-normal or higher-than-normal platelets.
Symptoms of lower-than-normal platelets include:
- Bleeding for a long time after a minor cut or injury.
- Nosebleeds.
- Unexplained bruising.
- Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae.
- Purplish, red, or brown spots on your skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
- Menstrual periods that have a heavy flow or last a long time.
- Blood in your urine, stool (poop), or from your rectum (where stool passes out of your body).
Symptoms of higher-than-normal platelets include:
- Numbness of hands and feet
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Weakness
- Pain, swelling, and warmth in your lower legs
If your results show a lower-than-normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may be a sign of:
- A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma.
- A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles.
- An autoimmune disease. This is a type of disease that causes your body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
- Infection or damage to your bone marrow.
- Cirrhosis.
- Vitamin B12 deficiency (not enough).
- Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant people. It is not known to cause any harm to a pregnant person or their developing baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher-than-normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may be a sign of:
- Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
- Anemia
- Inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- A viral or bacterial infection
- Severe blood loss
Your provider may consider your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other blood tests to understand the results of your platelet tests.
1. Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 27, 2024]
2. Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

Platelet Development

Illustration of Platelet Development

Image by OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

Video by American Red Cross/YouTube

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Platelet Development

OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

KnuteKnudsen (talk)

0:48

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Merck Manuals/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

3:54

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

1:47

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

American Red Cross/YouTube

10:35

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

{"label":"Hemoglobin reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":13.8},"text":"Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.","conditions":["Iron deficiency","Vitamin B12 deficiency","Folate deficiency","Sickle cell disease","Thalassemia","Cirrhosis","Bone marrow damage","Chronic disease","Acute or chronic bleeding"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":13.8,"max":17.2},"text":"Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":17.2,"max":30},"text":"High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions.","conditions":["Polycythemia","Dehydration","Bone marrow diseases","Severe lung disease","Heart disease","Smoking","Living at high altitudes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"g\/dL","code":"g\/dL","name":"gram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":15.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Normal.
Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
- Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
- A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
- A diet low in iron and other minerals
- A long-term infection
- Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Different types of anemia
- Thalassemia
- Iron deficiency
- Liver disease
- Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Lung disease
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Haemoglobin

Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

Video by DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

Molecule of hemoglobin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.

Image by TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

14:34

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Khan Academy/YouTube

10:01

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

CrashCourse/YouTube

5:31

Haemoglobin

Wellcome Trust/YouTube

1:43

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

{"label":"Hematocrit reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":40.7},"text":"A hematocrit level below the normal range, meaning the person has too few red blood cells, is called anemia.","conditions":["Anemia","Bleeding","Bone marrow cancers and disorders","Chronic illness","Chronic kidney disease","Destruction of red blood cells (hemolysis)","Leukemia","Malnutrition","Too little iron, folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 in the diet","Too much water in the body"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40.7,"max":50.3},"text":"Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50.3,"max":100},"text":"A hematocrit level above the normal range, meaning too many red blood cells, may indicate polycythemia or erythrocytosis. High hematocrits can be seen in people living at high altitudes and in chronic smokers.","conditions":["Polycythemia vera","Congenital heart disease","Exposure to high altitude","Failure of the right side of the heart","Low levels of oxygen in the blood","Scarring or thickening of the lungs","Too little water in the body (dehydration)"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":45.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
- Headache
- Feeling light-headed or dizzy
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
- Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
- Blurred or double vision and blind spots
- Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
- Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Bone marrow disease
  Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Lung disease
  Congenital heart disease
  Heart failure
  Polycythemia
- Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
  Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
  Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood

Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.

Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.

Image by Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.

Image by Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

Composition of Blood

Image by OpenStax College

Hematology | Hematocrit

Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

Haematocrit or PCV

Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Video by Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

4:40

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Blood

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

0:53

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

OpenStax College

10:46

Hematology | Hematocrit

Ninja Nerd/YouTube

8:32

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

7:06

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Strong Medicine/YouTube

6:14

Haematocrit or PCV

LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

9:16

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

14:32

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

6:19

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

MCV

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

{"label":"MCV reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":76},"text":"A low MCV indicates that the red blood cells are smaller than normal, or microcytic.","conditions":["Microcytic anemia","Iron-deficiency\u00a0anemia\u00a0or other types of anemia","Thalassemia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":76,"max":96},"text":"A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":200},"text":"A high MCV indicates that the red blood cells are larger than normal, or macrocytic.","conditions":["Macrocytic anemia","Vitamin B12 deficiency","Folic acid deficiency","Liver disease","Hypothyroidism"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"fL","code":"fL","name":"femtoliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":86}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
- Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
  A lack of vitamin B12
  A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
- Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
- Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
- A sudden loss of blood
- Kidney failure
- Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
1. MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (22)

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Hemolytic Anemia

Video by DrER.tv/YouTube

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

RBC Indices

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1

Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Blood Components

This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.

Image by TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel

1

2

3

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic. 2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal. 3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Interactive by TheVisualMD

5:57

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

4:39

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

9:42

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:56

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

NHLBI/YouTube

3:24

Hemolytic Anemia

DrER.tv/YouTube

3:16

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

iMedicalSchool/YouTube

9:54

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

9:02

RBC Indices

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

Blood Components

TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

TheVisualMD

Urinalysis Test

Urinalysis Test

Also called: Urine Test

A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.

Urinalysis Test

Also called: Urine Test

A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.

A urinalysis test consists in the evaluation of the macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye, can be seen through a microscope) characteristics of a urine sample to detect and measure various substances and compounds that the body filter through the kidneys.
Usually, these characteristics are done as a single panel and are not done separately as it had been before. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
The structure of the test includes:
- Macroscopic aspects:
  Color
  Appearance
  Odor
- Chemical examination:
  pH
  Density
  Proteins
  Glucose
  Urobilinogen
  Bilirubin
  Leucocytes
  Nitrites
  Blood
  Ketones
- Microscopic aspects include:
  Blood cells (white and red cells)
  Epithelial cells
  Bacteria
  Crystals or casts
The most common uses of the urine test are:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
- To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
- Drug screening
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
Macroscopic findings
- Appearance (Clarity): normal urine is typically clear. If the urine seems to be cloudy or with floating particles, it may be indicative of urinary tract infection.
- Color: most often shades of yellow. Unusual colors might be because of certain foods, medications or a specific condition.
- Odor: normally it is relatively mild and not too noticeable.
Chemical examination
- pH: this measures the acidity. Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
- Density (specific gravity): this measures how diluted or concentrated is your urine. Normal urine density is usually from 1.003 to 1.035.
- Proteins: urine can have small amounts of proteins; however, finding high protein levels may indicate kidney disease or diabetes mellitus.
- Glucose: no glucose should be found in the urine of a healthy individual.
- Urobilinogen: normal results range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/dL.
- Bilirubin: no bilirubin should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. Positive findings may suggest liver disease.
- Nitrite: no nitrites should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. When positive is highly indicative of urinary tract infection.
- Ketones: normally is not found. However, it can be positive if you have been fasting for long periods of time, or if you have diabetes mellitus.
Microscopic aspects
- Red blood cells (RBC’s): is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).
- White blood cells (WBC’s): under normal conditions, this parameter should be negative. A positive result is suggestive of urinary tract infection.
- Epithelial cells: from 1 to 5 squamous/hpf is considered to be normal. Higher results may indicate contamination of the urine sample by improper collection methods.
- Bacteria: it is normal to find up to 1+ bacteria; more than this is abnormal and should be analyzed to discern whether is caused by an infection or by improper sample storage.
- Crystals or casts: no crystals or casts should be found in the urine of healthy individuals. When present, it may be indicative of kidney disease or kidney stones.
1. Mayo Clinic: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
2. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review; Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1153-1162. [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
3. University of Utah: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]

Additional Materials (22)

Urine Hydration chart

Image by Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia

Test Tube Containing Urine

Visualization of a test tube containing urine. Urine comprises mainly of water - 96% and the remaining 4% is urea and sodium.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

Image by Bobjgalindo

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Urine samples

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine collection container

Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Cancer screening

Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Male Urinary System

Image of a male showing his urinary system. The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, produces, stores, and eliminates urine. It also helps to maintain the fluid balance in humans. The male urinary system consists of two kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, prostate, and urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nephron of Kidney

The nephron is composed of looping and folding tubules that at first glance look like an impossibly tangled knot of highways, side roads and interchanges. But in fact, the nephron directs the traffic flow effortlessly. When stretched out, a nephron would be almost a couple of feet in length and there are about a million nephrons in each kidney. A nephron is composed of two basic parts: the glomerulus and the tubule. The glomerulus, part of the vascular system, is a tuft of capillaries that filters the wastes and fluid from the blood. The tubules then catch, concentrate and excrete the waste into the urine. The walls of the tubules are made of specialized cells, which serve as \"check points\" for the waste flowing by them. Hormonal sensors in these cells determine which substances should be excreted as waste and which substances will be reabsorbed into the blood to nourish the body's cells. The specific materials the cells are assigned to reabsorb or secrete include water and essential nutrients, salts and minerals, depending on where in the tubules the cells are located. From the glomerulus until the collecting duct, intricate and minute calculations are at constant play within the nephron. The production of urine does not just result in a waste product but also protects the fine balance of substances required to keep the body healthy.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Filtration

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. The kidneys also play a key role in maintaining the body's fluid balance within a very narrow range. Even a 1% increase in blood sodium, for example, will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink in order to return the fluid balance to normal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ammonia, Urine

Ammonia is a waste product generated by intestinal bacteria during the digestion of protein. From the intestine, ammonia is transported to the liver, where it is converted into urea, which is then excreted in the urine by the kidneys. The conversion and elimination of ammonia can be impaired by liver disease or kidney damage, which can result in a dangerous build up of ammonia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pyuria

Urine may contain pus (a condition known as pyuria) as seen from a person with sepsis due to a urinary tract infection.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Urine

Sample of human urine

Image by Markhamilton

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Urine Hydration chart

Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia

Test Tube Containing Urine

TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

TheVisualMD

White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)

Bobjgalindo

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample

Doruk Salancı

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample

Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Urine samples

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Urine collection container

frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Male Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Nephron of Kidney

TheVisualMD

Fluid Filtration

TheVisualMD

Ammonia, Urine

TheVisualMD

Pyuria

James Heilman, MD

Urine

Markhamilton

6:10

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection

Strong Medicine/YouTube

16:36

Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick

Strong Medicine/YouTube

1:03

How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

1:06

How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Glucose in Urine Test

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

{"label":"Glucose in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":15},"text":"Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":40},"text":"If high levels of glucose in urine are found in pregnant women, it may indicate\u00a0gestational diabetes. A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.","conditions":["Diabetes","Pregnancy","Renal glycosuria"]}],"value":7.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
- Increased thirst
- More frequent urination
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
- Diabetes
- Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
- A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

TheVisualMD

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.

Bilirubin in Urine Test

Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.

{"label":"Bilirubin Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"High levels of bilirubin could mean your liver is not functioning correctly. However, high levels can also be due to medications, exercise, or certain foods.","conditions":["Biliary tract disease","Cirrhosis","Gallstones in the biliary tract","Hepatitis","Liver disease","Tumors of the liver or gallbladder"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a bilirubin in urine test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms include:
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Dark-colored urine
- Abdominal pain
- Nausea and vomiting
- Fatigue
Because bilirubin in urine can indicate liver damage before other symptoms appear, your health care provider may order a bilirubin in urine test if you are at a higher risk for liver damage. Risk factors for liver disease include:
- Family history of liver disease
- Heavy drinking
- Exposure or possible exposure to hepatitis virus
- Obesity
- Diabetes
- Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container to your health care provider.
If bilirubin is found in your urine, it may indicate:
- A liver disease such as hepatitis
- A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
- A problem with liver function
A bilirubin in urine test is only one measure of liver function. If your results are abnormal, your health care provider may order additional blood and urine tests, including a liver panel. A liver panel is a series of blood tests that measure various enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver. It is often used to detect liver disease.
1. Bilirubin in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003595.htm [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Ketones in Urine Test

Ketones in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test

Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.

Ketones in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test

Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.

{"label":"Ketones in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":20},"text":"A negative test result is normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"S","long":"Small","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":20,"max":40},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Large","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":80},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]}],"value":10}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative test result is normal.
Related conditions
The test is often used to help monitor people at a higher risk of developing ketones. These include people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you have diabetes, ketones in urine can mean that you are not getting enough insulin. If you don't have diabetes, you may still be at risk for developing ketones if you:
- Experience chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea
- Have a digestive disorder
- Participate in strenuous exercise
- Are on a very low-carbohydrate diet
- Have an eating disorder
- Are pregnant
Your health care provider may order a ketones in urine test if you have diabetes or other risk factors for developing ketones. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of ketoacidosis. These include:
- Nausea or vomiting
- Abdominal pain
- Confusion
- Trouble breathing
- Feeling extremely sleepy
People with type 1 diabetes are at a higher risk for ketoacidosis.
A ketones in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will be given instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If you do the test at home, follow the instructions that are in your test kit. Your kit will include a package of strips for testing. You will either be instructed to provide a clean catch sample in a container as described above or to put the test strip directly in the stream of your urine. Talk to your health care provider about specific instructions.
1. Ketones in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003585.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=ketone_bodies_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

5:46

DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis

DrER.tv/YouTube

1:00

Symptoms of Ketoacidosis

Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube

5:50

Diabetes & Associated Complications

Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube

11:26

Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test

BruceBlaus

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density

A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.

Urine Specific Gravity Test

Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density

A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.

{"label":"Urine Specific Gravity Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.8,"max":1.002},"text":"Your urine is too diluted.","conditions":["Diabetes","Kidney disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Pyelonephritis","Kidney failure","Overhydration"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.002,"max":1.03},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.03,"max":1.2},"text":"Your urine is too concentrated. ","conditions":["Liver disease","Adrenal glands disorder","Heart disease","Dehydration","Shock"]}],"value":1.02}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
Your doctor may order a urine specific gravity test as part of your routine health checkup, or to help diagnose or monitor the following conditions:
- Urinary tract infection
- Dehydration or overhydration
- Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)
- Kidney failure
- Shifts in sodium levels (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
- Diabetes
- Shock
- Heart failure
The normal value for urine specific gravity is 1.002-1.030.
Lower-than-normal values of urine gravity may indicate:
- Diabetes
- Kidney disorders (glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis)
- Kidney failure
- Drinking too much fluid (overhydration)
Higher-than-normal urine gravity test results may refer to an increased level of some substances in your urine, such as proteins, bacteria, glucose, urine crystals, red and white blood cells. These findings may occur in cases of:
- Liver disease
- Adrenal glands disorder
- Heart disease
- Dehydration (not consuming enough water, or losing too much fluid through sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea)
- Shock
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003587.htm [accessed on Oct 09, 2021]
2. Urine Specific Gravity Test: Overview, Tests, and Procedure [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
3. Urine specific gravity test: Procedure and results [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Hematuria

Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Hematuria by anatomic location

Source of Hematuria by anatomic location

Image by Copene

Phenazopyridine

Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron

The glomeruli are sets of looping blood vessels in nephrons--the tiny working units of the kidneys that filter wastes and remove extra fluid from the blood.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Urine samples

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction

Drawing of a swollen kidney that results from ureteropelvic junction obstruction. The point of blockage is labeled UPJ obstruction. UPJ obstruction occurs when urine is blocked where the ureter joins the kidney.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine

When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is usually eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid digestion. Under normal circumstances, very little, if any, bilirubin is excreted in the urine, but in cases of liver damage or a blockage of the bile ducts, some bilirubin can leak out and appear in the urine, turning it a darker color.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine Color Chart

Urine Color Chart - Hydration

Image by OpenStax College

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. Urine Test for Albumin If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin. Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria. A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways: Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine. Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of 30 mg/g or less is normal more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you. If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.

Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick

A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Struvite crystals (urine)

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.

Image by Doruk Salancı

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Adequate water intake and kidney health

Adequate water intake and kidney health. Replacing the water lost through sweating and waste elimination is vital to our health. Remaining hydrated is one way to help prevent kidney stones, which can form when certain waste minerals are highly concentrated in the urine. In this 3-D visualization, a clear bottle pours water into a model of a human kidney.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urine

Sample of human urine

Image by Markhamilton

Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs

There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.

Image by TheVisualMD

formation of urine

Anatomy and physiology of animals Summary of the processes involved in the formation of urine.

Image by Sunshineconnelly

male's urinary system

Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body

Image by BruceBlaus

Urine of patient with porphyria

Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.

Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron

NIDDK Image Library

Urine samples

TheVisualMD

Urine in Vial

TheVisualMD

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction

NIDDK Image Library

Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine

TheVisualMD

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick

NIDDK Image Library

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Adequate water intake and kidney health

TheVisualMD

Urine

Markhamilton

Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs

TheVisualMD

formation of urine

Sunshineconnelly

male's urinary system

BruceBlaus

Urine of patient with porphyria

Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH

Blood in Urine Test

Blood in Urine Test

Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine

A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,

Blood in Urine Test

Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine

A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,

{"label":"Blood in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine exam. You may also need this test if you have seen blood in your urine or have other symptoms of a urinary disorder. These symptoms include:
- Painful urination
- Frequent urination
- Back pain
- Abdominal pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." It includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the needed amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
There are a variety of factors that can cause red or white blood cells to be present in the urine. Many are not cause for concern. Small amounts of blood in the urine may be due to certain medicines, intense exercise, sexual activity, or menstruation. If larger amounts of blood are found, your health care provider may request further testing.
Increased red blood cells in urine may indicate:
- A viral infection
- Inflammation of the kidney or bladder
- A blood disorder
- Bladder or kidney cancer
Increased white blood cells in urine may indicate:
- A bacterial urinary tract infection. This is the most common cause of a high white blood cell count in urine.
- Inflammation of the urinary tract or kidneys
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
1. Lab Tests Online: Blood in Urine (Hematuria) [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

12:53

Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)

mdconversation/YouTube

0:50

Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?

Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube

2:24

Blood in the Urine

St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube

Hematuria

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria

J3D3

0:08

Bleeding Tissue

TheVisualMD

Microhematuria

Bobjgalindo

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

PH of Urine Test

PH of Urine Test

Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test

A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.

PH of Urine Test

Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test

A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.

{"label":"Urine pH reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.5},"text":"This means that your urine is acidic. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of meat, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Metabolic acidosis","Respiratory acidosis","Xanthine kidney stones","Cystine kidney stones","Uric acid kidney stones","Diabetes","Diarrhea","Starvation","Fanconi syndrome","Milkman syndrome"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":8},"text":"A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":14},"text":"This means that your urine is alkaline. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Kidney failure","Urinary tract infection","Calcium carbonate kidney stones","Calcium phosphate kidney stones","Struvite kidney stones","Respiratory alkalosis","Metabolic alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"hideunits":false,"value":6.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
pH
4.5
8
Your result is Normal.
A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.
Related conditions
Some of the most common uses of the urine pH test are:
- Evaluate the risk of developing kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
- Assessment of metabolic acidosis
- Monitor treatment of uric acid kidney stones
- Help identify crystals in the urine
Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
A high urine pH (alkaline urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables. Other causes include:
- Kidney failure
- Urinary tract infection
- Kidney stones made up from calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate)
- Respiratory alkalosis
- Metabolic alkalosis
A low urine pH (acid urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of meat. Other causes include:
- Metabolic acidosis
- Respiratory acidosis
- Kidney stones made up from xanthine, cystine, and uric acid
- Diabetes
- Diarrhea
- Starvation
- Fanconi syndrome
- Milkman syndrome
1. 013037: pH, Urine | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Protein in Urine Test

Protein in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Protein

A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.

Protein in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Protein

A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.

{"label":"Protein in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels.<br \/>\n<br \/>\nIf your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Lupus","High blood pressure","Preeclampsia","Diabetes","Certain types of cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a protein test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of kidney disease. These symptoms include:
- Difficulty urinating
- Frequent urination, especially at night
- Nausea and vomiting
- Loss of appetite
- Swelling in the hands and feet
- Fatigue
- Itching
A protein in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will receive instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If at home, you will use a test kit. The kit will include a package of strips for testing and instructions on how to provide a clean catch sample. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Your health care provider may also request you collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This "24-hour urine sample test" is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including protein, can vary throughout the day. Collecting several samples in a day may provide a more accurate picture of your urine content.
If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels. Your health care provider may recommend additional urinalysis tests if a high level of protein is found. This testing may include a 24-hour urine sample test.
If your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition. These include:
- Urinary tract infection
- Lupus
- High blood pressure
- Preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy, marked by high blood pressure. If it is not treated, preeclampsia can be life-threatening to the mother and baby.
- Diabetes
- Certain types of cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

TheVisualMD

Urobilinogen in Urine Test

Urobilinogen in Urine Test

Also called: Urobilinogen, Urinary Urobilinogen

This test measures the amount of urobilinogen in a sample of urine. Urobilinogen in the urine is the result of bilirubin breakdown in the intestines. The test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.

Urobilinogen in Urine Test

Also called: Urobilinogen, Urinary Urobilinogen

This test measures the amount of urobilinogen in a sample of urine. Urobilinogen in the urine is the result of bilirubin breakdown in the intestines. The test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.

{"label":"Urobilinogen reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.2},"text":"If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate a blockage in the blood flow of the liver or structures that carry bile from your liver or a problem with liver function.","conditions":["Bile duct obstruction","Gallbladder issues","Liver issues"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.2,"max":1},"text":"It is normal to have a small amount of urobilinogen in urine. A normal result indicates a healthy liver function.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Urinary urobilinogen may be increased in the presence of a hemolytic process such as hemolytic anemia. It may also be increased with infectious hepatitis, or with cirrhosis.","conditions":["Hepatitis","Cirrhosis","Liver damage","Hemolytic anemia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":0.6}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
0.2
1
Your result is Normal.
It is normal to have a small amount of urobilinogen in urine. A normal result indicates a healthy liver function.
Related conditions
A urobilinogen in urine test measures the amount of urobilinogen in your urine (pee). Normal urine contains some urobilinogen. Too much urobilinogen in urine may be a sign of a liver disease, such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, or certain types of anemia. Little or no urobilinogen may be a sign of other problems with your liver, gallbladder, or bile ducts.
Urobilinogen comes from bilirubin. Your body makes bilirubin during the normal process of breaking down old red blood cells. Your liver uses the bilirubin to make bile, a fluid that helps you digest food in your intestines. Some bile flows through ducts (small tubes) from your liver directly into your intestines. The rest is stored in your gallbladder for when you need it.
Good bacteria in your intestines breaks down the bilirubin in your bile and makes urobilinogen. Some of the urobilinogen leaves your body in your stool (poop). Some of it enters your bloodstream and returns to your liver, where it's "recycled" into bile. A small amount of urobilinogen leaves your body in urine.
Little or no urobilinogen in urine may mean that something is blocking bile from flowing into your intestines. High levels of urobilinogen in urine may be a sign that:
- Your liver is making too much bilirubin because your body breaks down red blood cells faster than it can make them. This condition is called hemolytic anemia.
- Your liver can't recycle urobilinogen into bile because of liver disease.
Other names: urine test; urine analysis; UA, chemical urinalysis
Your health care provider may order this test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing liver condition. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of a liver disease or hemolytic anemia.
The symptoms of liver disease may include:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Lack of appetite
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Swelling and/or pain in your abdomen (belly)
- Swelling in your ankles and legs
- Dark-colored urine (pee) and/or light-colored stool (poop)
- Frequent itching
The symptoms of hemolytic anemia may include:
- Fatigue
- Dizziness
- Heart palpitations (feeling that your heart is skipping a beat, fluttering, or beating too hard or too fast)
- Headache
- Confusion
- Jaundice
- Larger than normal liver or spleen
You will need to give a urine sample for the test. A health care professional may give you a cleansing wipe, a small container, and instructions for how to use the "clean catch" method to collect your urine sample. It's important to follow these instructions so that germs from your skin don't get into the sample:
1. Wash your hands with soap and water and dry them.
2. Open the container without touching the inside.
3. Clean your genital area with the cleansing wipe:
  For a penis, wipe the entire head (end) of the penis. If you have a foreskin, pull it back first.
  For a vagina, separate the labia (the folds of skin around the vagina) and wipe the inner sides from front to back.
4. Urinate into the toilet for a few seconds and then stop the flow. Start urinating again, this time into the container. Don't let the container touch your body.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container should have markings to show how much urine is needed.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Put the cap on the container and return it as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may be a sign of:
- A blockage in the ducts that carry bile from your liver or gallbladder to your intestines
- A blockage in the blood flow through the liver
- A problem with liver function
If your test results show a higher-than-normal level of urobilinogen, it may be a sign of:
- Hepatitis
- Cirrhosis
- Liver damage due to medicines
- Hemolytic anemia
If your test results aren't normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines and supplements can affect your results, so be sure to let your provider know what you are taking.
Learn more about laboratory tests, reference ranges, and understanding results.
1. Urobilinogen in Urine: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jul 29, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (4)

8:44

Bilirubin Metabolism

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Urinalysis

TheVisualMD

Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver

TheVisualMD

Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel

TheVisualMD

Nitrites in Urine Test

Nitrites in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Nitrite

A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.

Nitrites in Urine Test

Also called: Urine Nitrite

A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.

{"label":"Nitrites in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a urinary tract infection.","conditions":["UTI"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine checkup or if you have symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms of a UTI may include:
- Frequent urge to urinate, but little urine comes out
- Painful urination
- Dark, cloudy, or reddish colored urine
- Bad smelling urine
- Weakness and fatigue, particularly in older women and men
- Fever
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

Urine Color Chart

OpenStax College

0:45

Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview

Osmosis/YouTube

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: RBC urine

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.

Red Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: RBC urine

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.

{"label":"Red Blood Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"units":[{"printSymbol":"cells\/\u00b5L","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"One cross (+)","long":"One cross (+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":25},"text":"This indicates that small but significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Repeat test may be necessary and should be looked at in clinical setting.","conditions":["Persistent microscopic haematuria","Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Two crosses (++)","long":"Two crosses (++)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"This indicates that significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
cells/µL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.
Related conditions
This test is not usually ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
- To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
Is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells per high-powered field are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).; further information should be gathered to make a diagnose.
Presence of RBC’s in urine may be due to:
- Glomerular disorders
- Glomerulonephritis
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
- Renal disorders
- Polycystic kidney disease
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia
- Cancer
- Cystitis
- Pyelonephritis
- Nephrolithiasis
- Prostatitis
- Intake or certain drugs
- Trauma
1. Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
2. Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
3. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
4. https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Hematuria

James Heilman, MD

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Bobjgalindo

Hematuria by anatomic location

Copene

Microhematuria

Bobjgalindo

Phenazopyridine

James Heilman, MD

White Blood Cells in Urine Test

White Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: Leukocytes in Urine

White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).

White Blood Cells in Urine Test

Also called: Leukocytes in Urine

White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).

{"label":"White Blood Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"units":[{"printSymbol":"cells\/\u00b5L","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Borderline","long":"Borderline","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":100},"text":"This is usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment. Discuss your result with your doctor. ","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Vaginal infection"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":200},"text":"A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Urinary tract inflammation","Pyelonephritis","Glomerulonephritis","Interstitial nephritis","Renal inflammatory processes"]}],"value":5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
cells/µL
10
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
This test is not ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
- Overall check up
- To monitor pregnant women
- If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
1. Clean your genitals
2. Start to urinate in the toilet
3. Stop halfway through
4. Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
5. Stop again and close the container
6. Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
The normal range for WBCs in urine is:
- 10 WBC/µl: not significant
- 10-100 WBC/µl: usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment
- >100 WBC/µl: suggestive of infection
It is also considered normal to have less than 5 WBCs/hpf. A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.
1. Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
2. Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
3. Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
4. https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

Pyuria

Bobjgalindo

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.

Epithelial Cells in Urine Test

The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.

{"label":"Epithelial Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Few","long":"Few","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"\"Few\" cells are generally considered in the normal range.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Moderate","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"\"Moderate\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Many","long":"Many","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"\"Many\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Few.
"Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range.
Related conditions
Your provider may have ordered an epithelial cells in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if the results of your visual or chemical urine tests weren't normal. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a urinary or kidney disorder. These symptoms may include:
- Frequent and/or painful urination
- Abdominal pain
- Back pain
You will need to give a urine sample of your urine for the test. A health care professional may give you a cleansing wipe, a small container, and instructions for how to use the "clean catch" method to collect your urine sample. It's important to follow these instructions so that germs from your skin don't get into the sample:
1. Wash your hands with soap and water and dry them.
2. Open the container without touching the inside.
3. Clean your genital area with the cleansing wipe:
  For a penis, wipe the entire head (end) of the penis. If you have a foreskin, pull it back first.
  For a vagina, separate the labia (the folds of skin around the vagina) and wipe the inner sides from front to back.
4. Urinate into the toilet for a few seconds and then stop the flow. Start urinating again, this time into the container. Don't let the container touch your body.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container should have markings to show how much urine is needed.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Put the cap on the container and return it as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
Results are often reported as a general amount, such as "few," moderate," or "many" cells. A normal result is typically "few" cells. "Moderate" or "many" cells may be a sign of a medical condition, such as:
- Urinary tract infection
- Yeast infection
- Kidney disease
- Liver disease
- Certain types of cancer
If your results are not normal, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. You may need more tests before your provider can make a diagnosis. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Learn more about laboratory tests, references ranges, understanding results.
1. Epithelial Cells in Urine: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jul 29, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Uric acid crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Struvite crystals (urine)

Doruk Salancı

Urine Test

frolicsomepl/Pixabay

Urine

Markhamilton

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Urinary Casts Test

Urinary Casts Test

Also called: Urine Casts

Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.

Urinary Casts Test

Also called: Urine Casts

Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.

{"label":"Urinary Casts Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
- Hyaline casts: the presence of a few of these casts is usually normal and can occur in physiologic states (e.g., after exercise).
- Fatty casts: these casts can be found in people who have lipids (fat) in the urine and are usually related to a kidney disease complication, such as nephrotic syndrome, glomerulonephritis, or other forms of chronic renal diseases.
- Granular casts: these casts might be found after exercise, but also when certain kidney diseases are present.
- Red blood cell casts: these casts are related to a very small amount of bleeding from the kidney. Red blood cell casts are seen in many kidney diseases.
- Epithelial cell casts: the apparition of these casts implies damage to cells in the kidneys. These casts are seen in conditions such as heavy metal poisoning, and kidney transplant rejection, among others.
- Waxy casts: these casts can be found in people with long-term (chronic) kidney disease and chronic kidney failure.
- White blood cell (WBC) casts: these casts can be found when acute kidney infections are present.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Electrolyte Panel

Electrolyte Panel

Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes

An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.

Electrolyte Panel

Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes

An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.

Electrolytes are minerals that have an electrical charge when they are dissolved in water or body fluids. You have electrolytes in your blood, urine, tissues, and other body fluids. They are important because they help:
- Balance the amount of water in your body
- Balance your body's acid-base (pH) level
- Move nutrients into your cells
- Move waste out of your cells
- Support your muscle and nerve function
- Keep your heart rate and rhythm steady
- Keep your blood pressure stable
- Keep your bones and teeth healthy
Electrolytes are in your blood, urine (pee), tissues, and other body fluids. An electrolyte panel is used to check for electrolyte, fluid, or pH imbalances.
An electrolyte panel, also known as a serum electrolyte test, is a blood test that measures levels of the body's main electrolytes:
- Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in your body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
- Chloride, which also helps control the amount of fluid in your body. In addition, it helps maintain healthy blood volume and blood pressure.
- Potassium, which helps your cells, heart, and muscles work properly.
- Bicarbonate, which helps maintain your body's acid- base balance (pH). It also plays an important role in moving carbon dioxide through the bloodstream.
- Calcium, which helps make and keep your bones and teeth strong.
- Magnesium, which helps your muscles, nerves, and heart work properly. It also helps control blood pressure and blood glucose (blood sugar) levels.
- Phosphate, which works together with the mineral calcium to build strong bones and teeth.
You get these electrolytes from the foods you eat and the fluids you drink.
The levels of electrolytes in your body can become too low or too high. This can happen when the amount of water in your body changes. The amount of water that you take in should equal the amount you lose. If something upsets this balance, you may have too little water (dehydration) or too much water (overhydration).
Abnormal levels of any of these electrolytes can be a sign of a serious health problem, including kidney disease, high blood pressure, and a life-threatening type of arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat).
Other names: serum electrolyte test, electrolyte blood test, electrolyte lab test, lytes, sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), carbon dioxide (CO2)
You may need this test if you have symptoms indicating that your body's electrolytes may be out of balance. These include:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Confusion and irritability
- Weakness
- Irregular or fast heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Diarrhea or constipation
- Fatigue
- Headaches
- Muscle weakness, cramps, or spasms
- Numbness or tingling in your arms, legs, fingers, and toes

Your results will include measurements for each electrolyte. Abnormal electrolyte levels can be caused by many different conditions, including:

Dehydration.
Kidney disease.
Heart disease.
Diabetes.
Lung infection (such as tuberculosis).
Malabsorption, a condition in which your body is not getting enough nutrients from the foods you eat.
Liver disease.
Acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.

An electrolyte imbalance can also happen if you take certain medicines, such as:

Antibiotics
Antacids, especially if you take large amounts
Chemotherapy medicines
Diuretics ("water pills"), which are used to treat high blood pressure and other conditions
Steroid medicines

Your specific results will depend on which electrolyte or electrolytes are affected and whether levels are too low or too high. If your electrolyte levels were not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical problem needing treatment. Many factors can affect electrolyte levels. These include taking in too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids and blood pressure medicines may cause abnormal results.

An electrolyte imbalance means that the level of an electrolyte is too low or too high. The names of the imbalances are:

Electrolyte	Too low	Too high
Bicarbonate	Acidosis	Alkalosis
Calcium	Hypocalcemia	Hypercalcemia
Chloride	Hypochloremia	Hyperchloremia
Magnesium	Hypomagnesemia	Hypermagnesemia
Phosphate	Hypophosphatemia	Hyperphosphatemia
Potassium	Hypokalemia	Hyperkalemia
Sodium	Hyponatremia	Hypernatremia

If you have questions about your results, talk to your provider.

1. Electrolyte Panel: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (10)

8:05

Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

3:26

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

EmpoweRN/YouTube

9:43

Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

4:19

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Bicarbonate

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

{"label":"Carbon dioxide reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":22},"text":"Low results may indicate a wide range of conditions, such as electrolyte imbalance. ","conditions":["Hypocapnia","Addison's disease","Acidosis","Ketoacidosis","Shock","Kidney disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":22,"max":28},"text":"Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":28,"max":60},"text":"High results may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Hypercapnia","Lung diseases","Disorders of the adrenal glands","Hormonal disorders","Kidney disorders","Alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":25}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"pCO2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"hideunits":false,"value":40}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
- Trouble breathing
- Confusion
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
- Lung diseases
- Cushing's syndrome
- Kidney failure
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
- Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Shock
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
- Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Calcium

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

{"label":"Calcium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":8.2},"text":"Abnormally low levels may result in abdominal cramps, muscle cramps, or tingling fingers.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malnutrition","Vitamin D deficiency","Magnesium deficiency","Pancreatitis","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Neurological disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8.2,"max":10.2},"text":"A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10.2,"max":18},"text":"Abnormally high levels of calcium can result in fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, increased thirst and urination.","conditions":["Excess vitamin D intake","Hyperparathyroidism","Paget's disease of the bone","Overuse of antacids","Certain cancers","Sarcoidosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":9.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
8.2
10.2
Your result is Normal.
A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.
Related conditions
{"label":"Calcium (ionized) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4.5},"text":"Low blood levels of ionized calcium can cause your heart rate to slow down or speed up, cause muscle spasms, and even result in a coma.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malabsorption","Osteomalacia","Pancreatitis","Renal failure","Rickets","Vitamin D deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":5.6},"text":"Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, \"free\" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.6,"max":15},"text":"High levels of ionized calcium in your blood may be due to a sedentary lifestyle or lack of mobility, use of medications and supplements or certain medical conditions.","conditions":["Hypocalciuria","Hyperparathyroidism","Hyperthyroidism","Milk-alkali syndrome","Multiple myeloma","Paget disease","Sarcoidosis","Thiazide diuretics","Thrombocytosis","Tumors","Vitamin A excess","Vitamin D excess"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
4.5
5.6
Your result is Normal.
Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, "free" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.
Related conditions
A blood calcium test is used to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose or monitor many types of medical conditions, including conditions that affect your bones, kidneys, digestive system, thyroid, and parathyroid glands.
There are two types of calcium blood tests that measure different forms of blood calcium:
- Total calcium test measures all the calcium in your blood. You have two types of blood calcium that are normally present in about equal amounts:
  "Bound calcium" is attached to proteins in your blood.
  "Free calcium" is not attached to proteins. It's also called ionized calcium. This form of blood calcium is active in many body functions.
  Normally, your body tightly controls the balance of bound and ionized calcium, so a total calcium test gives a good estimate of how much ionized calcium you have.
  A total calcium test is the most common test for blood calcium. It's often part of a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), which are both routine screening tests.
- An ionized calcium test measures only the "free calcium" in your blood that isn't attached to proteins. An ionized calcium test is more difficult to do, so it's usually ordered if the results of a total calcium test aren't normal. You may also have this test if you have a condition that affects your body's ability to balance the amounts of ionized and bound calcium in your blood, or if you are seriously ill or having surgery.
Your health care provider may have ordered a basic or comprehensive metabolic panel, which includes a calcium blood test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have this test to diagnose or monitor conditions that can affect your blood calcium or if you have symptoms of abnormal calcium levels.
Symptoms of high calcium levels may include:
- Digestive symptoms, such as:
  Constipation
  Nausea and vomiting
  Abdominal (belly) pain
  Loss of appetite
- Increased thirst
- Urinating (peeing) more than usual
- Kidney stones
- Bone, joint, and muscle symptoms, such as weakness, aches, and pains
- Fatigue
- A change in mental health, such as depression or confusion
Symptoms of low calcium levels may include:
- Dry skin, coarse hair, and nails that easily break (after a long period of low levels)
- Muscle cramps, spasms, or stiffness
- Tingling in the lips, tongue, fingers, and feet
- Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Seizures, if calcium levels are extremely low
Many people with high or low calcium levels don't have any symptoms. So your provider may order a calcium test if you have a known condition that may affect your calcium levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Thyroid or parathyroid disease
- Malnutrition
- Problems absorbing calcium
- Certain types of cancer
Results from a total calcium test that are higher than normal may be a sign of many types of conditions, such as:
- Overactive parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone
- Certain types of cancer, including cancer that spreads to the bone
- Bone disorders, including Paget's disease of the bone
- Taking too much vitamin D over a long period of time
Results from a total calcium test that are lower than normal may be a sign of:
- Low blood protein levels, which may be caused by liver disease or malnutrition
- Underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too little parathyroid hormone
- Too little calcium in your diet
- Too little vitamin D or magnesium
- Pancreatitis
- Kidney disease
If your results from a total calcium blood test are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Your diet and certain medicines can affect your calcium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Calcium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
3. Calcium blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
4. Calcium Test - Testing.com. Nov 29, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (9)

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

8:00

Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

11:47

Hypercalcemia - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology

Osmosis/YouTube

5:49

Calcium Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium regulation

Mikael Haggstrom

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.

TheVisualMD

Dairy and non-dairy food sources of calcium

Brookepinsent

Calcium Ion

TheVisualMD

Chloride

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

{"label":"Chloride (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":101}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
- Vomiting over a long period of time
- Diarrhea
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Dehydration
- Trouble breathing
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Kidney disease
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Heart failure
- Lung disease
- Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
4. Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Additional Materials (12)

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride

Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner

Cross section Human Stomach

Cross section Human Stomach

Image by TheVisualMD

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up

TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach

TheVisualMD

3:26

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

EmpoweRN/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

4:52

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

4:07

Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium chloride

Firetwister _ Markus Brunner

Cross section Human Stomach

TheVisualMD

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

TheVisualMD

Magnesium

Magnesium Blood Test

Also called: Magnesium, Mag, Hypomagnesemia Test, Hypermagnesemia Test

This test measures the amount of magnesium in your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that is important for strong bones and muscles, heart health, energy production, and nerve function. A magnesium deficiency or excess magnesium can be a sign of a serious health problem.

Magnesium Blood Test

Also called: Magnesium, Mag, Hypomagnesemia Test, Hypermagnesemia Test

This test measures the amount of magnesium in your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that is important for strong bones and muscles, heart health, energy production, and nerve function. A magnesium deficiency or excess magnesium can be a sign of a serious health problem.

{"label":"Magnesium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1.6},"text":"Low blood levels may suggest either not enough magnesium intake, low absorption, or excess in urine excretion. Magnesium deficiency produces neuromuscular disorders. It may cause weakness, tremors, tetany, and convulsions.","conditions":["Hypomagnesemia","Malnutrition","Alcoholism","Gastrointestinal disorders\u00a0","Chron\u2019s disease","Prolonged diarrhea","Severe burns","Hypoparathyroidism","Uncontrolled diabetes","Long-term use of diuretics","Preeclampsia or eclampsia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.6,"max":2.3},"text":"Magnesium is one of many electrolytes in your body and normal levels of magnesium are important for the maintenance of heart and nervous system function.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.3,"max":5},"text":"High magnesium levels are usually not caused by an excess of intake, but because the kidneys do not excrete it properly. Increased magnesium levels relate mostly to patients in renal failure. ","conditions":["Hypothyroidism","Hyperparathyroidism","Dehydration","Kidney failure","Diabetic acidosis","Use of laxatives","Intake of certain antacids","Addison disease"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":1.9}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
1.6
2.3
Your result is Normal.
Magnesium is one of many electrolytes in your body and normal levels of magnesium are important for the maintenance of heart and nervous system function.
Related conditions
A magnesium blood test measures the amount of magnesium in a sample of your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that you get from many kinds of foods you eat. Some examples include nuts, seeds, beans, fortified breakfast cereals, green leafy vegetables, and milk.
Your body needs magnesium to help your muscles, nerves, and heart work properly. Magnesium also helps control blood pressure and blood glucose, also called blood sugar. It's important for building strong bones, and it supports your immune system.
Magnesium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body.
Most of your body's magnesium is stored in your bones, organs, and other body tissue. Only a small amount is found in your blood. Your body tightly controls the amount of magnesium in your blood mainly through your:
- Kidneys. They filter extra magnesium from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your magnesium level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
- Intestines. They control how much magnesium you absorb from the foods you eat.
Abnormal levels of blood magnesium can be caused by many different conditions. So, a magnesium test may be used to help diagnose a variety of disorders.
A magnesium blood test is used to check the level of magnesium in your blood. It's done if your health care provider thinks your levels may not be normal:
- A low magnesium level is also called magnesium deficiency or hypomagnesemia. This condition is more common than levels that are too high.
- A high magnesium level is also called hypermagnesemia. This condition is uncommon. Most cases happen in people who have kidney failure.
A magnesium blood test may also be used to help find the cause of abnormal levels of other minerals, including calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. That's because magnesium plays a role in how your body absorbs these minerals.
You may need a magnesium blood test if you have symptoms that could be caused by abnormal magnesium levels.
Symptoms of low magnesium include:
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea and vomiting
- Fatigue and weakness
- Muscle cramps
- Numbness and/or tingling
- Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Seizures (if magnesium levels are extremely low)
Symptoms of high magnesium are much the same as symptoms of low magnesium. They may also include:
- Diarrhea
- Abdominal (belly) cramping
- Cardiac arrest from extremely high levels of magnesium
You may also need to have your magnesium levels checked to monitor your health if you:
- Have a condition that's linked to abnormal magnesium levels, such as:
  Chronic kidney disease
  Diabetes that's not well controlled
  Alcohol use disorder
  Malabsorption syndrome
  Malnutrition
  Chronic (long-lasting) diarrhea
  Low levels of potassium and/or calcium
- Take medicine that can decrease magnesium levels, for example:
  Diuretics ("water pills")
  Certain antibiotics
  Proton pump inhibitors to reduce stomach acid
- Take medicine that can increase magnesium levels, for example:
  Aspirin
  Medicines that contain magnesium, such as laxatives for constipation and certain antacids for heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
  Lithium
- Are being treated with magnesium and/or calcium.
If the results of your magnesium blood test are abnormal, your provider will use your medical history and the results of other tests to diagnose the cause. Many different conditions can affect magnesium levels, so ask your provider to explain what your test results mean.
In general, low magnesium levels may mean that:
- You're not getting enough magnesium in your diet. Older adults and people with alcohol use disorder or malnutrition are more likely to have this problem.
- Your body isn't able absorb magnesium, even if you eat the right amount. Causes of this problem include digestive disorders, such as Crohn's disease, or taking certain medicines.
- Your body is getting rid of too much magnesium. Causes include kidney problems, long-term diarrhea, and diabetes, which can cause frequent urination (peeing) if blood glucose levels are too high.
Other health conditions linked to low magnesium include underactive parathyroid glands and pregnancy, which increases the need for magnesium.
Higher than normal magnesium levels may mean that:
- You're getting too much magnesium from dietary supplements, laxatives, antacids, or certain prescription medicines. It's rare to get too much magnesium from food alone.
- Your body has a problem getting rid of magnesium. The most common cause is kidney failure.
Other health conditions linked to high magnesium include dehydration, hypothyroidism, Addison disease, and overactive parathyroid glands.
Treatment for abnormal magnesium levels will depend on your condition.
1. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/magnesium [accessed on Sep 08, 2019]
2. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/30781/magnesium [accessed on Sep 08, 2019]

Additional Materials (9)

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Magnesium Ion

Magnesium, the fourth most abundant mineral in the body, is found in bone, the cells of body tissues, organs, and blood. Essential to more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body, magnesium helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps the heart rhythm steady, supports immunity, helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal blood pressure, and keeps bones strong. It may assist in the prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Most dietary magnesium comes from vegetables, particularly dark green, leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard and spinach. Other good sources include mustard greens, summer squash, broccoli, blackstrap molasses, halibut, turnip greens, pumpkin seeds, and peppermint.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium Ion

Magnesium, the fourth most abundant mineral in the body, is found in bone, the cells of body tissues, organs, and blood. Essential to more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body, magnesium helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps the heart rhythm steady, supports immunity, helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal blood pressure, and keeps bones strong. It may assist in the prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Most dietary magnesium comes from vegetables, particularly dark green, leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard and spinach. Other good sources include mustard greens, summer squash, broccoli, blackstrap molasses, halibut, turnip greens, pumpkin seeds, and peppermint.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Alcoholism

Most magnesium is stored in bones and tissues and then released as needed to keep blood levels stable (which means blood levels may be normal even as stores are depleted). Magnesium deficiency is often associated with alcoholism and malnutrition. While mild deficiency may cause few or no symptoms, severe or persistent deficiency can result in fatigue, nausea, muscle cramps, numbness or tingling, confusion, seizures, and cardiac arrhythmia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nerve Function/Nerve Damage

Magnesium is necessary for healthy nerve function. The body maintains magnesium levels by regulating how much it absorbs and how much is excreted or recycled by the kidneys. Magnesium deficiencies can be caused by malnutrition, malabsorption, or kidney damage. Excess magnesium is usually easily eliminated, but persistently high levels (often caused by supplementation or antacid overuse) can cause depression of the central nervous system or cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Muscle Function

Magnesium is necessary for normal skeletal muscle contraction. Magnesium is also important to the function of smooth muscle. Magnesium will sometimes be used in emergency rooms to open up the airways of people having severe asthma attacks by relaxing the smooth muscle tissue surrounding the bronchi. Because of its calming effect on smooth muscle, the symptoms of migraines may similarly ease with magnesium supplementation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Foods High in Magnesium

Food sources of magnesium: bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinach

Magnesium: Muscle Function

Magnesium is necessary for healthy muscle contraction. Among the symptoms of magnesium deficiency are muscle cramps, twitching, and weakness. Magnesium is also sometimes given to relax the smooth muscles surrounding the bronchi, thereby reducing the risk of death from severe asthma attacks.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium: Nerve Function

Magnesium is necessary for healthy nerve function. And although excessive magnesium levels are rare and usually easily corrected through elimination in the urine, persistent or severe magnesium toxicity can cause depression of the central nervous system or cardiac or respiratory arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

4:19

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

Magnesium Ion

TheVisualMD

Magnesium Ion

TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Alcoholism

TheVisualMD

Nerve Function/Nerve Damage

TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Muscle Function

TheVisualMD

Foods High in Magnesium

Magnesium: Muscle Function

TheVisualMD

Magnesium: Nerve Function

TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

{"label":"Phosphate Blood Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VL","long":"Very low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Phosphorus levels of less than 1.0 mg\/dL is considered a critical result and may be life-threatening.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2.5},"text":"Low levels of phosphorous may result in muscle weakness, destruction of red cells, and bone deformity.","conditions":["Hypophosphatemia","Overuse of diuretics","Excess level of calcium in the blood","Malnutrition","Alcoholism","Severe burns","Hypokalemia","Hypothyroidism","Diabetic ketoacidosis after treatment","Chronic antacid use","Osteomalacia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.5,"max":4.5},"text":"The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":10},"text":"High phosphorus concentration may lead to osteoporosis and heart disease. Children have naturally higher levels of phosphorus since it is necessary for bone development.<br \/>\n","conditions":["Diabetic ketoacidosis","Overconsumption of phosphurus","Hypoparathyroidism","Renal failure","Liver disease","Hypocalcemia","Phosphate dietary intake"]}],"value":3.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
1
2.5
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.
Related conditions
A phosphate in blood test measures the amount of phosphate in a sample of your blood. Phosphate contains the mineral phosphorus. So, a phosphate test is sometimes called a phosphorus test.
Phosphate is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Your body also needs phosphates for many other important processes, such as:
- Building strong bones and teeth. Most of the phosphate in your body is found in your bones where it is combined with the mineral calcium.
- Making energy.
- Helping your nerves and muscles work properly.
The phosphorus in phosphate comes from the foods you eat, including nuts and seeds, dairy products, dried beans, meats, poultry, and eggs. Your body tightly controls the amount of phosphate in your blood mainly through your:
- Kidneys. They filter extra phosphate from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your phosphate level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
- Intestines. They control how much phosphorous you absorb from the foods you eat.
The amount of phosphate in your blood is also linked to your levels of:
- Calcium. When blood calcium levels increase, phosphate levels decrease. And when calcium levels decrease, phosphate levels increase.
- Vitamin D. It helps your body use phosphate.
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is made by parathyroid glands in your neck. It helps balance phosphate and calcium levels in your blood.
Abnormal phosphate levels may be a sign of problems with the systems in your body that control phosphate levels. To help understand the cause of abnormal levels, the test is often done with blood tests that measure calcium, vitamin D, and PTH.
Other names: phosphorus test, P, PO4, phosphorus-serum, phosphate, inorganic phosphorus
A phosphate in blood test is often used with other tests to help diagnose and/or monitor:
- Kidney disease, especially chronic kidney disease. High phosphate levels are a common sign that the kidneys aren't working well to get rid of extra phosphate in the blood.
- Bone disorders. High phosphate levels can pull calcium out of bones and weaken them over time.
- Parathyroid disorders. Parathyroid hormones control the balance of phosphate and calcium in the blood. A phosphate test can help show how well the parathyroid glands are working.
A phosphate test may also be used to monitor people who:
- Have diabetes that isn't well controlled
- Have signs of an acid-base imbalance (having too much or too little acid in your blood)
Phosphate levels that are either high or mildly low usually don't cause any symptoms on their own. But you may need a phosphate test with other tests if you:
- Have had an abnormal result on a calcium blood test. A calcium test may be part of a routine exam. Abnormal levels are often linked to abnormal phosphate levels.
- Have symptoms of low calcium levels. High levels of phosphate can lower calcium levels in your blood, which can cause symptoms, such as:
  Nails that break easily, and/or hair that becomes coarse
  Rash and/or itchy skin
  Muscle cramps
  Bone pain
  Seizures
  Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Have symptoms of severely low phosphate levels. This condition can become life-threatening and needs immediate treatment. Symptoms may include:
  Muscle pain and/or weakness
  Bone pain
  Changes in your mental condition, such as feeling confused or very irritable
  Seizures
  Coma
You may also need to have your phosphate levels checked if you have or may have a condition that can cause abnormal phosphate levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Malnutrition
- Malabsorption syndrome
- A parathyroid gland disorder
- Using certain medicines
The results of your phosphate test may say "phosphorus levels" or "phosphate levels." These terms mean the same thing. The meaning of your test results depends on your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other tests.
In general:
A higher than normal phosphate level is called hyperphosphatemia. High levels are linked to many conditions, including:
- Late stages of chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. If damaged kidneys can't filter out extra phosphate, it can build up in your blood. If you have a condition that affects your kidneys, eating too much phosphorus-rich food may also lead to high phosphate levels.
- Hypoparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands don't make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). When PTH is low, calcium levels are low and phosphate levels are high.
- Acidosis. This means having too much acid in your blood from a pH imbalance. It may be caused by a lung disorder or other health conditions, including kidney disease.
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include steroids, laxatives, and enemas that contain phosphate.
A lower than normal phosphate level is called hypophosphatemia. Mildly low levels often aren't a health problem. But many conditions that cause low levels may need treatment, including:
- Hyperparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands make too much parathyroid hormone, which leads to high levels of blood calcium and low levels of phosphate.
- Vitamin D deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to osteomalacia, a condition that causes soft bones. In children, this condition is called rickets.
- Getting too little phosphorus from food. This is uncommon in the U.S. But some people are more likely to have trouble getting enough phosphorus, including:
  Premature babies
  People who have certain rare genetic disorders, severe malnutrition, alcohol use disorder, or problems absorbing nutrients
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include antacids that contain aluminum hydroxide or calcium carbonate and certain prescription diuretics ("water pills").
If your phosphate levels are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Also, children often have higher phosphate levels because their bones are still growing. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/33136/phosphorus [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]
2. https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8408 [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (11)

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods : The phosphorus test is used to monitor the levels of phosphorus in the blood. Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

Along with calcium, phosphorus is an important building block of teeth.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

Phosphorus is an essential mineral, required by every cell in the body for normal function. It helps filter kidney waste; plays a critical role in energy storage and use; helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues, and cells; and is involved in the production of DNA and RNA. Phosphorus aids in the balance and use of many vitamins and minerals. It works closely with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. Phosphorus is found in milk, grains, and protein-rich foods.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Space filling model of Phosphate

Image by Benjah-bmm27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

Video by familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. About 80% of phosphorus resides in the bones and teeth. Because alcohol can leach phosphorus from the bones, phosphorus deficiency is often associated with alcoholism, especially when combined with malnutrition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Higher-than-normal levels of phosphorus are often caused by kidney disease or a diet that has too much phosphorus and too little calcium; a fine balance must be maintained between dietary calcium and phosphorus for optimum bone density.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

TheVisualMD

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Benjah-bmm27

19:27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

TheVisualMD

Potassium

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

{"label":"Potassium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypokalemia","long":"Hypokalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.5},"text":"Low levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting and diarrhea, or the side effects of drugs including, mostly commonly, diuretics.","conditions":["Acute or chronic diarrhea","Cushing syndrome (rare)","Diuretics","Hyperaldosteronism","Hypokalemic periodic paralysis","Not enough potassium in the diet","Renal artery stenosis","Renal tubular acidosis (rare)","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5.2},"text":"Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hyperkalemia","long":"Hyperkalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.2,"max":10},"text":"Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia, which is most commonly caused by reduced kidney function, particularly in dialysis patients.","conditions":["Addison disease (rare)","Blood transfusion","Certain medicines","Crushed tissue injury","Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis","Hypoaldosteronism (very rare)","Kidney insufficiency or failure","Metabolic or respiratory acidosis","Red blood cell destruction","Too much potassium in your diet"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mmol\/L","code":"mmol\/L","name":"millimole per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":4.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mmol/L
3.5
5.2
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Fatigue
- Muscle weakness
- Nausea
- Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Irregular heartbeat
- Muscle cramps
- Weak or twitching muscles
- Fatigue
- Nausea
- Constipation
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
- Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
- Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
- Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
- Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
- The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
- A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
- Use of prescription diuretics
- Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
- Using too many laxatives
- Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
- Kidney disease
- Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
- A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

Video by DoctorOz/YouTube

Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

What Causes Cramps?

Video by Life Noggin/YouTube

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

Video by Fox News/YouTube

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.

Image by TheVisualMD

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

4:52

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

5:18

3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

DoctorOz/YouTube

4:03

Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

1:46

What Causes Cramps?

Life Noggin/YouTube

3:26

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Wendy Westwood/YouTube

3:35

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

Fox News/YouTube

13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

TheVisualMD

Sodium

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

{"label":"Sodium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":139}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
- Thirst
- Urinating (peeing) very little
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
- A disorder of the adrenal glands
- A kidney disease
- Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
- A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
  Kidney diseases
  Cirrhosis of the liver
  Heart failure
  Certain brain and lung diseases
  Certain types of cancer
  Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
- Addison disease
- Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Sodium Food

Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.

Image by TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.

Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Image by Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sodium: Blood Vessels

A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.

Image by TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter

Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

3:07

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

NURSINGcom/YouTube

3:33

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

NURSINGcom/YouTube

6:46

You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

4:42

Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Sodium Food

TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

TheVisualMD

Sodium: Blood Vessels

TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

How Is It Treated?

Gut Flora

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Diarrhea Treated?

Treatment of diarrhea depends on what is causing it.

Treatment depends on the cause of the diarrhea. The doctor may make changes in medicines, diet, and/or fluids.

A change in the use of laxatives may be needed.
Medicine to treat diarrhea may be prescribed to slow down the intestines, decrease fluid secreted by the intestines, and help nutrients be absorbed.
Diarrhea caused by cancer treatment may be treated by changes in diet. Eat small frequent meals and avoid the following foods:
- Milk and dairy products.
- Spicy foods.
- Alcohol.
- Foods and drinks that have caffeine.
- Certain fruit juices.
- Foods and drinks that cause gas.
- Foods high in fiber or fat.
A diet of bananas, rice, apples, and toast (the BRAT diet) may help mild diarrhea.
Drinking more clear liquids may help decrease diarrhea. It is best to drink up to 3 quarts of clear fluids a day. These include water, sports drinks, broth, weak decaffeinated tea, caffeine-free soft drinks, clear juices, and gelatin. For severe diarrhea, the patient may need intravenous (IV) fluids or other forms of IV nutrition.
Diarrhea caused by graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD) is often treated with a special diet. Some patients may need long-term treatment and diet management.
Probiotics may be recommended. Probiotics are live microorganisms used as a dietary supplement to help with digestion and normal bowel function. A bacterium found in yogurt called Lactobacillus acidophilus, is the most common probiotic.
Patients who have diarrhea with other symptoms may need fluids and medicine given by IV.

Source: PDQ® Supportive and Palliative Care Editorial Board. PDQ Gastrointestinal Complications. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.

Additional Materials (1)

Diarrhea Treatment

PracticalCures.com

Share and discuss

Share your story, discuss an issue or get
advice from the community

Create conversation

Sign up here for full access to StoryMD

Get free access to in-depth articles and track your personal health.

Create Free Account Sign In