Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, an inherited disorder, is a condition characterized by neurological and behavioral abnormalities and the overproduction of uric acid in the body. This can lead to gouty arthritis as well as kidney and bladder stones. It occurs almost exclusively in males. Explore more about this rare syndrome.
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
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Summary
Dermatophagia
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Dermatophagia
Dermatophagia - extreme nail biting / biting of skin to point of an obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) or other condition leading to self mutilating behaviour such as autistic spectrum disorders (as is the case in this example) or Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome.
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What Is Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome?
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is a condition that occurs almost exclusively in males. It is characterized by neurological and behavioral abnormalities and the overproduction of uric acid. Uric acid is a waste product of normal chemical processes and is found in blood and urine. Excess uric acid can be released from the blood and build up under the skin and cause gouty arthritis (arthritis caused by an accumulation of uric acid in the joints). Uric acid accumulation can also cause kidney and bladder stones.
The nervous system and behavioral disturbances experienced by people with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome include abnormal involuntary muscle movements, such as tensing of various muscles (dystonia), jerking movements (chorea), and flailing of the limbs (ballismus). People with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome usually cannot walk, require assistance sitting, and generally use a wheelchair. Self-injury (including biting and head banging) is the most common and distinctive behavioral problem in individuals with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome.
Source: MedlinePlus Genetics
Additional Materials (5)
DNA
DNA
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Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
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Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
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Lesh-Nyhan Syndrom Bill
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Lesch nyhan syndrome
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DNA
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9:42
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
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2:35
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
Neha Arsha/YouTube
4:52
Lesh-Nyhan Syndrom Bill
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2:58
Lesch nyhan syndrome
LonnieFailed/YouTube
What Is Lesch Nyhan Syndrome?
Uric Acid: Uric Acid Is a Waste Product
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Uric Acid: Uric Acid Is a Waste Product
Uric acid is produced when the body breaks down substances called purines. Purines have two sources: They're end products of the breakdown of body proteins, and they're also found in a number of foods, including liver, anchovies, lentils, spinach, and beer. Uric acid is filtered out of the blood as a waste product by the kidneys. Two thirds of the uric acid produced daily is excreted by the kidneys, and the remaining one third leaves the body in the stool. Levels of uric acid in the body vary widely during the day as well as from day to day and from season to season, so several uric acid tests may be performed over an extended period of time.
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What Is Lesch Nyhan Syndrome?
HPRT1 gene and is inherited in an X-linked recessive manner. Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Affected people often do not survive past the first or second decade of life due to renal failure.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (1)
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
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9:42
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
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Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Information
HPRT metabolism - Purine metabolism
Image by Torres RJ, Puig JG/Wikimedia
HPRT metabolism - Purine metabolism
Purine metabolism. The metabolic scheme shows the first and rate-limiting step of de novo purine synthesis mediated by the enzyme 5'-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) amidotransferase, and the salvage pathway mediated by hypoxanthine phosphorybosyltransferase (HPRT) and adenine phosphorybosyltransferase (APRT). The de novo synthesis occurs through a multi-step process and requires the contribution of four aminoacids, one PRPP, two folates and three ATP to synthesize an inosine monophosphate (IMP) molecule. HPRT catalyzes the salvage synthesis of inosine monophosphate (IMP) and guanosine monophosphate (GMP) from the purine bases hypoxanthine and guanine respectively, utilizing PRPP as a co-substrate. The HPRT defect results in the accumulation of its substrates, hypoxanthine and guanine, which are converted into uric acid by means of xanthine oxidase. Elevated APRT activity may also contribute to purine overproduction.
Image by Torres RJ, Puig JG/Wikimedia
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Information
What is Lesch-Nyhan syndrome?
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (LNS) is a rare, inherited disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT). LNS is an X-linked recessive disease-- the gene is carried by the mother and passed on to her son. LNS is present at birth in baby boys. The lack of HPRT causes a build-up of uric acid in all body fluids, and leads to symptoms such as severe gout, poor muscle control, and moderate retardation, which appear in the first year of life. A striking feature of LNS is self-mutilating behaviors - characterized by lip and finger biting - that begin in the second year of life. Abnormally high uric acid levels can cause sodium urate crystals to form in the joints, kidneys, central nervous system, and other tissues of the body, leading to gout-like swelling in the joints and severe kidney problems. Neurological symptoms include facial grimacing, involuntary writhing, and repetitive movements of the arms and legs similar to those seen in Huntington's disease. Because a lack of HPRT causes the body to poorly utilize vitamin B12, some boys may develop a rare disorder called megaloblastic anemia.
Is there any treatment?
Treatment for LNS is symptomatic. Gout can be treated with allopurinol to control excessive amounts of uric acid. Kidney stones may be treated with lithotripsy, a technique for breaking up kidney stones using shock waves or laser beams. There is no standard treatment for the neurological symptoms of LNS. Some may be relieved with the drugs carbidopa/levodopa, diazepam, phenobarbital, or haloperidol.
What is the prognosis?
The prognosis for individuals with LNS is poor. Death is usually due to renal failure in the first or second decade of life.
Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke / NIH
Additional Materials (1)
Lesch nyhan syndrome
Video by LonnieFailed/YouTube
2:58
Lesch nyhan syndrome
LonnieFailed/YouTube
Inheritance
X-linked Recessive inheritance
Image by National Institutes of Health/Derivative work: Drsrisenthil/Wikimedia
X-linked Recessive inheritance
X-linked recessive inheritance: Because of the difference in sex chromosomes, the probability of passing on an X-linked recessive disorder also differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will carry one copy of the mutated gene. With each pregnancy, a woman who carries an X-linked recessive disorder has a 50 percent chance of having sons who are affected and a 50 percent chance of having daughters who carry one copy of the mutated gene.
Image by National Institutes of Health/Derivative work: Drsrisenthil/Wikimedia
How Is Lesch Nyhan Syndrome Inherited?
Lesch Nyhan syndrome is caused by mutations in the HPRT1 gene. A female who is a carrier of Lesch Nyhan syndrome has a 50% chance of passing on the mutated HPRT1 gene in each pregnancy. This is because a carrier female will randomly pass on one of her X chromosome to each child. Sons who inherit the mutated gene will be affected, and daughters who inherit the mutated gene will be carriers. This means that with each pregnancy, a female who is a carrier has a:
50% (1 in 2) chance of having an unaffected son or daughter
25% (1 in 4) chance of having an affected son
25% chance of having a carrier daughter
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (1)
Lesh-Nyhan Syndrom Bill
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4:52
Lesh-Nyhan Syndrom Bill
puleable/YouTube
Prevention
Prenatal Blood Test
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Prenatal Blood Test
Prenatal Blood Test
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How Can a Carrier of Lesch Nyhan Syndrome Prevent Having an Affected Child?
To find out whether a fetus is affected during a pregnancy, prenatal testing can be performed either by molecular genetic testing or biochemical genetic testing. Molecular genetic testing may be done if the specific mutation in the HPRT1 gene has been identified in the family. The usual procedure is to first determine fetal sex by performing chromosome analysis on fetal cells obtained by chorionic villus sampling (at about 10 to 12 weeks gestation), or by amniocentesis (usually performed at about 15 to 18 weeks gestation). If the fetus is known to be male, DNA from fetal cells can then be tested for the mutation in the family. If the specific mutation in the HPRT1 gene in the family is not known, biochemical genetic testing is preferred. This testing also requires either chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, but involves measuring HPRT enzyme activity in the cells obtained during the procedure. If Lesch Nyhan syndrome is confirmed in the fetus by either method of testing, pregnancy options including pregnancy termination may be discussed with a health care provider.
As an alternative to prenatal diagnosis during the pregnancy, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) before a pregnancy may be available if the mutation in the family is known. PGD is done after in vitro fertilization (IVF) to diagnose a genetic condition in an embryo before it is introduced into the uterus. When having PGD, only embryos known to be unaffected are introduced into the uterus for a possible pregnancy.
People interested in genetic testing, prenatal diagnosis, and/or preimplantation genetic diagnosis should speak with a genetics professional.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (2)
Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit
An ultrasound is a simple test during pregnancy that will give your healthcare provider a detailed look at your baby's progress. Learn helpful tips for what to expect and how to stay healthy while pregnant.
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Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)
Noninvasive Prenatal Testing - Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)
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Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit
TheVisualMD
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)
TheVisualMD
Uric Acid Test
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
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mg/dL
3.4
7
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
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This test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of your blood or urine (pee). Uric acid is a normal waste product that your body makes when it breaks down chemicals called purines. Purines come from your cells when they die. Purines are also found in many foods and beverages.
Most uric acid dissolves in your blood. Your kidneys filter the uric acid out of your blood, and it leaves your body in your urine. If uric acid builds up in your blood, it can form needle-shaped crystals in and around your joints. This condition is called gout.
Gout is a type of arthritis that causes painful swelling in your joints. High uric acid levels can also cause kidney stones, or kidney failure. But not everyone with high levels of uric acid will have these problems.
A uric acid blood test may be used to:
Help diagnose gout, usually when done with a synovial fluid analysis.
Monitor uric acid levels in people who are having cancer chemotherapy or certain other cancer treatments. When treatment kills cancer cells quickly, they release large amounts of purines into the blood. This can lead to serious problems from high uric acid levels. Testing helps catch an increase in uric acid so it can be treated early.
A uric acid urine test may be used to:
Help find out whether high levels of uric acid are causing kidney stones
Monitor the risk of developing kidney stones in people who have gout
You may need a uric acid blood test if you:
Have symptoms of gout. Symptoms usually happen in one joint at a time. The big toe is most commonly affected, but your other toes, ankle, or knee may have symptoms, which include:
Intense pain
Swelling
Redness
Feeling warm
Had or are having certain types of cancer treatments.
You may also need a uric acid urine test if you:
Have symptoms of a kidney stone, including:
Sharp pain in your lower abdomen (belly), side, groin or back
Blood in your urine
Frequent urge to urinate (pee)
Not being able to urinate at all or only urinating a little bit
Pain when urinating
Cloudy or bad-smelling urine
Nausea and vomiting
Fever and chills
Have gout and your health care provider wants to monitor your risk for developing kidney stones
A uric acid test may be done as a blood test or a urine test. Your provider will decide which test you need.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a uric acid urine test, you'll need to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a 24-hour urine sample test. You will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
Usually, you don't need any special preparations for a uric acid blood test. Many medicines, including aspirin, can affect your uric acid levels. Taking niacin (vitamin B-3) can also affect your results. So, be sure to tell your provider about all the medicines you take. But don't stop taking any medicines without talking with your provider first.
There is no known risk to having a uric acid blood or urine test.
High uric acid levels in a blood test may happen if:
Your body makes too much uric acid
Your kidneys can't remove uric acid from your blood
You are eating too many foods that cause high levels of purines such as:
Red meat and organ meats, including liver and kidney
Certain kinds of seafood, including shellfish, anchovies, sardines, trout, and tuna
Alcohol (all types)
High fructose corn syrup in soda and sweets
Your provider may order more tests to help diagnose what's causing the problem. High levels of uric acid may be related to many conditions, including:
Gout
Kidney disease
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body (metastatic cancer)
Side effects from certain cancer treatments
Alcohol use disorder
Preeclampsia, a condition that can cause dangerously high blood pressure in pregnant women
Low levels of uric acid in blood are uncommon and usually don't cause health problems. Health conditions that are related to low uric acid levels are usually diagnosed using other tests.
High uric levels in urine, may be related to:
Gout
Kidney stones or having a high risk for kidney stones
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body
Obesity
An inherited genetic condition, such as Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, that makes it hard for your body to get rid of uric acid
Low levels of uric acid in urine may be related to kidney disease, lead poisoning, or alcohol use disorder.
If your results show a high level of uric acid in your blood or urine, it doesn't always mean you have a condition that needs treatment. Many people have high levels of uric acid without having health problems.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider. Medicines and/or changes in your diet may help you keep your uric acid levels in a healthy range.
Uric Acid Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
LabCorp: Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia (High Uric Acid) [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric acid - blood : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
URIC - Clinical: Uric Acid, Serum [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia: Symptoms, Treatment, and More [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (15)
Uric Acid: Uric Acid Is a Waste Product
Uric acid is produced when the body breaks down substances called purines. Purines have two sources: They're end products of the breakdown of body proteins, and they're also found in a number of foods, including liver, anchovies, lentils, spinach, and beer. Uric acid is filtered out of the blood as a waste product by the kidneys. Two thirds of the uric acid produced daily is excreted by the kidneys, and the remaining one third leaves the body in the stool. Levels of uric acid in the body vary widely during the day as well as from day to day and from season to season, so several uric acid tests may be performed over an extended period of time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric Acid: Obesity and Gout
Gout is linked with obesity--and as the incidence of obesity has escalated, so has that of gout. Gout prevalence has doubled over the last 20 years or so. About 70% of people with gout are overweight, and 14% are obese (defined as having a body mass index of 30 or over). People who are obese are two to four times more likely to develop gout and are likely to develop it at a younger age. It's not entirely clear why obesity is linked with gout, but it's thought that it may be due to the increased insulin resistance associated with obesity. Moderate-intensity exercise benefits gout because it helps to control uric acid levels in the body while stretching and strengthening joints. The best forms of exercise for gout place minimal stress on the joints, such as swimming and water aerobics.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid
Fluorescent uric acid : Spiked rods of monosodium urate crystals photographed under polarized light from a synovial fluid sample. Formation of en: monosodium urate crystals in the joints are associated with gout.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Nitrogenous Wastes
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. "Moose" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS)
Image by CNX Openstax
Who Is Likely to Develop Gout?
Chronic Gout : Gouty tophi on knee and elbow of middle aged nurse
Image by NickGorton
What Is Gout?
Gout in left foot : A side-by-side comparison shot of gout in the main toe of the left foot, showing significant swelling of the surrounding tissue.
Image by Fatlittlebastard
What Are the Four Stages of Gout?
Gout in foot.
Image by vagawi
Gripped by Gout - Avoiding the Ache and Agony - NIH News in Health
Gout and Pseudogout, Joint Pain- Everything You Need To Know- Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
2:19
Psuedogout - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
7:00
How Do Kidney Stones Form? How Can We Prevent Them?
VIP Urology/YouTube
1:10
How to Recognize the Signs and Symptoms of Kidney Stones
Howcast/YouTube
Prenatal Panel
Prenatal Panel
Also called: First Trimester Prenatal Tests, Obstetric Panel, OB Panel
A prenatal panel is a group of blood tests done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for conditions that can affect the health of a mother and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications.
Prenatal Panel
Also called: First Trimester Prenatal Tests, Obstetric Panel, OB Panel
A prenatal panel is a group of blood tests done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for conditions that can affect the health of a mother and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications.
A prenatal panel is group of blood tests that are done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for diseases and infections that can affect the health of a pregnant woman and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications. A prenatal panel usually includes the following tests:
Complete blood count (CBC). This test measures the different parts and features of your blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. A CBC can help diagnose a variety of health problems, such as anemia, clotting disorders, and infections.
Blood type and Rh factor. This test finds out your blood type (A, B, AB, or O) and checks your Rh factor. Rh factor is a type of protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood cells have this protein, you are Rh positive. If they don't, you are Rh negative. If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood.
Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection. This test shows if you have immunity to rubella. This means you have been vaccinated against rubella or have been infected with it in the past. If a woman gets infected with rubella during pregnancy, it can put her baby at risk for serious birth defects.
Hepatitis B and C are viruses that infect the liver. The hepatitis virus can be passed from a pregnant woman to her unborn baby. Most pregnant women are tested for hepatitis B. Hepatitis C is not routinely tested, because is not common. But you may be tested if you have certain risk factors.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Most pregnant women are tested for chlamydia and syphilis early in pregnancy. You may also be tested for gonorrhea if you have certain risk factors. An STD can lead to miscarriage or infect your baby during delivery. An STD can be dangerous to a newborn. It may cause blindness, breathing problems, or other health issues.
HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system and can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). If you have HIV, you may pass along the virus to your unborn baby. Many pregnant women are tested for HIV, and some states require testing.
A prenatal panel is used to find health problems early in pregnancy. Many conditions can be treated during pregnancy to avoid complications. The test may also be used to guide treatments for a baby immediately after birth.
Your health care provider will probably order these tests as part of a routine prenatal visit. The tests are done in the first trimester of pregnancy, often at the first prenatal visit.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a prenatal panel.
There is no risk to your unborn baby and very little risk to you. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results were not normal, you and/or your baby may get treatment to prevent serious health problems. Examples of some abnormal results and treatment include:
Rh incompatibility. You will receive medicine that prevents your body from making antibodies against your baby's red blood cells.
Infections (hepatitis, STDs, HIV). You will receive medicine to treat the infection. If you have a hepatitis B infection, your baby will get a vaccine within a few hours of birth.
No immunity to rubella. You'll need to avoid anyone who has rubella while you are pregnant. After your baby is born, you should get vaccinated.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
In addition to a prenatal panel, you may also get a urine test during your first trimester. Pregnancy urine tests are used to:
Diagnose a urinary tract infection
Check glucose levels. High levels of glucose in urine may be a sign of gestational diabetes, a type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy. If your urine glucose was high, your provider may order a blood glucose test to confirm the diagnosis.
Check protein levels. High levels of protein in urine can be a sign of a number of health problems, including kidney disease, infection, or stress. If your urine protein was high, your provider will probably order more tests.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/prenatal-panel/ [accessed on Sep 27, 2021]
https://www.babycenter.com/0_common-first-trimester-blood-tests_9273.bc [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/first-trimester-tests#1 [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/essential-blood-tests-during-first-trimester-of-pregnancy/ [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/blood-tests-during-pregnancy [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/first-trimester-tests#1 [accessed on Jan 25, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/conditions/pregnancy-first-trimester-12-weeks [accessed on Jan 25, 2019]
Additional Materials (4)
Pregnancy
Timeline of pregnancy by weeks and months of gestational age.
Image by Haggstrom, Mikael \"Medical gallery of Mikael Haggstrom 2014\" Wikiversity Journal of Medicine
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy
The uterus expands making up a larger and larger portion of the woman's abdomen. At left anterior view with months labeled, at right lateral view labeling the last 4 weeks. During the final stages of gestation before childbirth the fetus and uterus will drop to a lower position.
Image by Ernst Bumm and Albrecht Mayer
Weight Gain During Pregnancy
Flowchart showing the recommended weight limits for lifting at work during pregnancy as a function of lifting frequency, weeks of gestation, and the position of the lifted object relative to the lifter's body.
Image by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Pregnancy
Pregnancy
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436
Pregnancy
Haggstrom, Mikael \"Medical gallery of Mikael Haggstrom 2014\" Wikiversity Journal of Medicine
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy
Ernst Bumm and Albrecht Mayer
Weight Gain During Pregnancy
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Pregnancy
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436
Pregnancy Test
Pregnancy Test
Also called: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Test, HCG Test, HCG total OB
A pregnancy test can tell whether you're pregnant by checking a urine or blood sample for hCG, a hormone made during pregnancy. HCG levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 14 days after conception by a urine test.
Pregnancy Test
Also called: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Test, HCG Test, HCG total OB
A pregnancy test can tell whether you're pregnant by checking a urine or blood sample for hCG, a hormone made during pregnancy. HCG levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 14 days after conception by a urine test.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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(mi.U.)/mL
5
25
Your result is Negative.
Normal levels of the hCG hormone in women who are not pregnant.
Related conditions
{"label":"hCG (urine) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"If you have a negative result, you should consider these results to be uncertain, as they may indicate a false negative. Until you can be sure that you\u2019re not pregnant, you should be cautious and avoid doing anything that could hurt a developing fetus.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If you have a positive result, it means that the test detected hCG in your urine. Your next step should be to consult your doctor. They can confirm pregnancy with an exam and additional testing, if necessary.","conditions":["Pregnancy"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
If you have a negative result, you should consider these results to be uncertain, as they may indicate a false negative. Until you can be sure that you’re not pregnant, you should be cautious and avoid doing anything that could hurt a developing fetus.
Related conditions
A pregnancy test can tell whether you're pregnant by checking a sample of your urine (pee) or blood for a specific hormone. The hormone is called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). High levels of hCG are a sign of pregnancy. hCG increases quickly in the first ten weeks after a fertilized egg attaches to the inside wall of the uterus.
Urine tests for pregnancy are most accurate when you do the test a week or two after you've missed your menstrual period. If you take a urine test too close to the time you got pregnant, the test could say that you are not pregnant even when you really are. That's because your body may not yet have made enough hCG to show up on the test.
You can have an hCG urine test at your health care provider's office or you can do the test yourself with an at-home test kit. These tests are basically the same, so many people use a home pregnancy test before calling their provider. If you follow the instructions carefully, home pregnancy tests are about 97-99% accurate. They can give you the results in minutes.
Blood tests for pregnancy can be done at your provider's office or a lab. These tests can find very small amounts of hCG, so they can accurately show whether you're pregnant before you've missed your period. But hCG blood tests aren't commonly used to check for pregnancy. That's because urine tests are less expensive, very accurate, and provide quicker results than blood tests. hCG blood test results may take hours to more than a day.
Other names: human chorionic gonadotropin test, HCG test, qualitative hCG blood test, quantitative hCG blood test, Beta-hCG urine test, total chorionic gonadotropin, hCG total OB
A pregnancy test is used to find out whether you're pregnant.
You may need this test if you think you're pregnant. Symptoms of pregnancy vary from person to person. The most common sign of early pregnancy is a missed period. Other common signs of early pregnancy may include:
Swollen, tender breasts
Fatigue
Frequent need to urinate (pee)
Nausea and vomiting (also called morning sickness)
Feeling bloated or swollen in your abdomen (belly) or body
If you need to have medical treatment that could harm an unborn baby, you may also need a pregnancy test to make sure that you aren't pregnant.
Home pregnancy tests are quick and easy to use. You can buy a home pregnancy test kit without a prescription. The kits include test sticks or strips that react to hCG in your urine. The steps for doing a test depend on the brand, so it's very important to follow the instructions that come with your test. For most test kits, you'll either:
Hold the test stick or strip in your urine stream
Collect your urine in a cup and dip the test stick or strip into the cup
After waiting a certain number of minutes, you'll check your results on the test stick or strip. The instructions will tell you what to look for. In general, to get the most accurate results with any home pregnancy test, you'll need to:
Check the expiration date before you use the test.
Test your first morning urine. Morning urine usually has more hCG than urine later in the day.
Use a timer. If you guess the timing, your results may not be accurate.
Blood tests are done at your provider's office or a lab. A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This process usually takes less than five minutes.
If you're doing a urine test, don't drink large amounts of fluid before collecting your sample. That could dilute the hCG in your urine, and it may not show up on the test. Otherwise, you don't need any special preparations for a pregnancy test that uses urine or blood.
There is no known risk to having a urine test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you're pregnant.
A negative result means hCG wasn't found in your sample, so you may not be pregnant. But a negative result doesn't always mean you're not pregnant. If you did a home urine test too soon, your body may not have made enough hCG to show up the test.
hCG levels increase every day during early pregnancy, so it's a good idea to repeat the test again in a week. If you get negative (not pregnant) results on two home tests, but you still think you're pregnant, call your provider. If you get a negative result on a test that your provider does, ask your provider if you need another test.
A positive result means that hCG was found in your sample. That usually means that you're pregnant. It's important to see your provider as soon as possible to make sure you get the right care. If you did a home test, your provider may do another test to confirm your pregnancy.
If you're taking medicine to help you get pregnant (fertility drugs), your test results may show that you're pregnant when you're not. Your provider can check to see whether you're really pregnant.
Most pregnancy tests simply measure whether or not you have hCG in your sample. But certain pregnancy tests also measure how much hCG you have. These tests are called quantitative hCG tests, and they're usually done on blood samples.
The amount of hCG in your body can give your provider important information about your pregnancy and the health of your unborn baby. Quantitative hCG tests are sometimes used to help:
Find out the age of the fetus if you're very early in your pregnancy
Monitor your pregnancy if you have a high risk of miscarriage
Check for certain problems, such as:
Ectopic pregnancy, which is a fertilized egg that tries to grow outside of the uterus. The egg cannot grow into a baby when it's in the wrong place. It must be removed to avoid damage to your organs. This can be a medical emergency.
Molar pregnancy (hydatidiform mole), which is an abnormal growth of tissue in the uterus. It's caused by a fertilized egg with such severe genetic problems that it cannot become a baby. The growth can turn into cancer and must be removed.
Problems in the unborn baby, including Down syndrome, other chromosome problems, and certain birth defects (hCG testing is usually part of a group of prenatal screening tests called a "triple" or "quadruple" screen test.)
Your provider may also order a quantitative hCG blood test to help diagnose or monitor health conditions that aren't related to pregnancy. These include ovarian and testicular cancer along with other conditions that can increase hCG levels.
Pregnancy Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 29, 2024]
Quest Diagnostics: hCG, Total, Quantitative [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]
Possible Meanings of a High hCG Level in Pregnancy [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]
American Pregnancy: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): The Pregnancy Hormone [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (41)
hCG testing for pregnancy
Diagram of typical immunoassay home pregnancy test which detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (A) A urine sample is applied to the stick. If pregnant, this should contain hCG. (B) As the sample is absorbed into the stick it goes through free dye-labeled antibodies that recognize and stick to hCG. (C) An anchored set of antibodies stick to and capture hCG molecules (and the attached dye-labeled antibodies), creating the first line. In the "not pregnant" sample no hCG is attached to the dye-labeled antibodies, so they wash past this point and no line appears. (D) A second anchored set of antibodies captures the dye-labeled antibodies, providing a positive control to indicate that the test is working properly.
Image by Madprime
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time
hCG testing for pregnancy is available to women of child-bearing age. The \"quad\" screen, of which hCG is a component, is especially recommended for women with higher-risk pregnancies as indicated by factors such as maternal age, family history, and disease history. Levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 12-14 days after conception by a urine test. In general the hCG levels will double every 72 hours. The level will reach its peak in the first 8-11 weeks of pregnancy and then will decline and level off for the remainder of the pregnancy.
Image by TheVisualMD
PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests
The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.
Image by TheVisualMD
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
In the very earliest stages of pregnancy, a developing placenta begins to secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The hormone enters maternal circulation once an embryo is implanted in the endometrium, shown in this image. hCG testing is used widely to detect pregnancy. Because hCG levels begin to rise immediately after conception, the test enables accurate, early detection.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Image by OpenStax College
How do pregnancy tests work? - Tien Nguyen
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
How to Take a Clear Blue Pregnancy Test | Parents
Video by Parents/YouTube
How Accurate are Pregnancy Tests? | Pregnancy Questions | Parents
Video by Parents/YouTube
Focus on Health: Quad Screen
Video by Virginia Women's Center/YouTube
Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy
Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy
Image by osmosis
Fallopian Tube and Ovary - Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.
Fallopian Tube and Ovary: Medical visualization of a cross-section of the ovary, as well as the associated fallopian tube; seen inside the cross-section are a developing follicle, corpus luteum, and corpus albicans. The ovaries are the site of egg production and maturation within the human female. Each month, an oocyte is ejected from a mature follicle to the surface of one of the two ovaries. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube (fimbriae) sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. The remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum. Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is essentially scar tissue and is mostly comprised of collagen.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Ooctye Erupting from Ovary
Visualization of an oocyte erupting from the surface of the ovary. The ovary, which is suspended by the ovarian ligament, is seen in cross section. Revealed are the ovarian follicles which are oocytes in various stages of maturation. Each month, one of the mature follicles ejects it's oocyte through the surface of the ovary. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. Meanwhile, the remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum which eventually degenerates if fertilization does not occur. If fertilized, however, the egg secretes the a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A
PAPP-A Screening Tests : The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ectopic pregnancy
Human Embryo (7th week of pregnancy, 5th week p.o.)
This photo of an opened oviduct with an ectopic pregnancy features a spectacularly well preserved 10-millimeter embryo. It is uncommon to see any embryo at all in an ectopic, and for one to be this well preserved (and undisturbed by the prosector's knife) is quite unusual.
Even an embryo this tiny shows very distinct anatomic features, including tail, limb buds, heart (which actually protrudes from the chest), eye cups, cornea/lens, brain, and prominent segmentation into somites. The gestational sac is surrounded by myriad chorionic villi resembling elongated party balloons. This embryo is about five weeks old (or seven weeks in the biologically misleading but eminently practical dating system used in obstetrics).
The photo was taken on Kodak Elite 200 slide film, with a Minolta X-370 camera and 100mm f/4 Rokkor bellows lens at near-full extension. The formalin-fixed specimen was immersed in tap-water and pinned to a tray lined with black velvet. The exposure was 1/4 second at f/8.
Image by Ed Uthman, MD
Ectopic pregnancy
Schematic drawing of various types of ectopic pregnancy.
N=normal nidation
a=peritoneal (abdominal) pregnancy
b=cornual pregnancy
c=isthmic tubal pregnancy
d=ampullar tubal pregnancy
e=fimbric tubal pregnancy
f=ovarial pregnancy
g=cervical pregnancy
h=intramural pregnancy
Image by Hic et nunc
Ectopic pregnancy
Transvaginal ultrasonography of an ectopic pregnancy, showing the field of view in the following image.
Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from original by BruceBlaus
Pre-Embryonic Cleavages
Pre-embryonic cleavages make use of the abundant cytoplasm of the conceptus as the cells rapidly divide without changing the total volume.
Image by CNX Openstax
Pre-Embryonic Development
Ovulation, fertilization, pre-embryonic development, and implantation occur at specific locations within the female reproductive system in a time span of approximately 1 week.
Image by CNX Openstax
Development of the Embryonic Disc
Formation of the embryonic disc leaves spaces on either side that develop into the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac.
Image by CNX Openstax
Germ Layers
Formation of the three primary germ layers occurs during the first 2 weeks of development. The embryo at this stage is only a few millimeters in length.
Image by CNX Openstax
Fates of Germ Layers in Embryo
Following gastrulation of the embryo in the third week, embryonic cells of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm begin to migrate and differentiate into the cell lineages that will give rise to mature organs and organ systems in the infant.
Image by CNX Openstax
Cross-Section of the Placenta
In the placenta, maternal and fetal blood components are conducted through the surface of the chorionic villi, but maternal and fetal bloodstreams never mix directly.
Image by CNX Openstax
Newborn
A single fertilized egg develops over the span of nine months into an infant consisting of trillions of cells and capable of surviving outside the womb. (credit: “Seattleye”/flickr.com)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: “Seattleye”/flickr.com)
Placenta Previa
An embryo that implants too close to the opening of the cervix can lead to placenta previa, a condition in which the placenta partially or completely covers the cervix.
Image by CNX Openstax
Fallopian Tube and Ovary
Medical visualization of a cross-section of the ovary, as well as the associated fallopian tube; seen inside the cross-section are a developing follicle, corpus luteum, and corpus albicans. The ovaries are the site of egg production and maturation within the human female. Each month, an oocyte is ejected from a mature follicle to the surface of one of the two ovaries. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube (fimbriae) sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. The remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum. Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is essentially scar tissue and is mostly comprised of collagen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Choragon (HCG) 5000 IUs
Image by Ferring Pharmaceuticals Inc.
Prepregnancy - Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 1
12 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 2
16 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 3
24 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 4
40 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 5
Prepregnancy - Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth
12 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_2
16 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_3
24 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_4
40 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_5
Interactive by TheVisualMD
How To Inject Low-Dose hCG | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®
Video by CVS Health/YouTube
How To Inject Pregnyl® (hCG) Subcutaneously | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®
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I've had positive, faint positive, and negative pregnancy tests. Do HCG levels fluctuate?
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hCG in Early Pregnancy, Explained - How Much Is Normal? - Pregnancy Q&A
Video by What To Expect/YouTube
Embryo and Fetus Development
Embryo and Fetus Development, placenta and amniotic sac
Image by TheVisualMD
Embryos at 4 to 8 Weeks
Rapid differentiation of cells and an astounding rate of growth characterize the first weeks of embryonic development. At 4 weeks, the embryo is the size of a grain of rice. Its heart has already begun to beat, and the early divisions of what will be the heart's four chambers are apparent. At 6 weeks, the embryo may be half an inch (10-14 mm) long and is starting to acquire a human face, although it is impossible to differentiate male from female embryos at this stage. An 8-week-old embryo may measure over an inch (28-30 mm) in length, and all of the body's parts-cells, tissues, organs, systems-have been differentiated.
Image by TheVisualMD
Embryo at 6 Weeks
At 6 weeks, the embryo is only about half an inch (10-14 mm) long and weighs less than a paper clip. It's possible to see the tiny embryonic heart beating. The embryo is starting to acquire a human face. The folds of the eyelids and the jaws form, and the tip of the nose can be clearly seen. Ears are developing inside and out: internally, the semicircular canals are laid down, while externally mounds of tissue erupt where the whorls of the ears will grow. The eyes become pigmented and continue their extremely complex development, as delicate eye muscles begin to form and nerve cells appear in the retina. At this point male and female fetuses look identical both internally and externally. External genital development consists of an indifferent penis, which will either form into a penis and scrotum or clitoris and labia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Positive Pregnancy Test Result
The urine is placed on the tip of the pregnancy test where it will travel up to the test region. The HCG hormone first binds to, cultured and placed, anti-HCG monoclonal antibodies with attached enzymes that will trigger a color change. Then the bonded HCG and anti-HCG antibodies will encounter another set of monoclonal anti-HCG antibodies and bind. This will cause the first color change of the test that will indicate the user is pregnant. Finally, any remaining anti-HCG monoclonal antibodies will bind to monoclonal HCG antibodies and trigger the second color change. This second color change is the control test that indicates the pregnancy test is working correctly.
Image by Melo20179
HCG and Pregnancy
HCG and Pregnancy
Image by TheVisualMD
Pregnant Woman with Fetus after Conception 0 Months three quarter view
Pregnant Woman with Fetus at 3 Months three quarter view
Pregnant Woman with Fetus at 4 Months
Pregnant Woman with Fetus at 6 Months three quarter view
Pregnant Woman with Fetus at 9 Months three quarter view
0 Months three quarter view
3 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus
4 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus
5 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus
9 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus
Interactive by TheVisualMD
hCG testing for pregnancy
Madprime
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time
TheVisualMD
PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests
TheVisualMD
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
TheVisualMD
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
OpenStax College
4:34
How do pregnancy tests work? - Tien Nguyen
TED-Ed/YouTube
2:42
How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Healthguru/YouTube
1:49
How to Take a Clear Blue Pregnancy Test | Parents
Parents/YouTube
1:48
How Accurate are Pregnancy Tests? | Pregnancy Questions | Parents
Parents/YouTube
3:08
Focus on Health: Quad Screen
Virginia Women's Center/YouTube
Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy
osmosis
Fallopian Tube and Ovary - Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.
A blood typing test is used to determine what type of blood you have according to what antigens you have on the surface of your red blood cells, and whether or not you have a protein called Rh factor. These variables give a total of 8 types of blood types. Usually, this test is done before a blood transfusion, or during a woman's pregnancy.
Blood Typing Test
Also called: ABO Group and Rh Type, Blood type
A blood typing test is used to determine what type of blood you have according to what antigens you have on the surface of your red blood cells, and whether or not you have a protein called Rh factor. These variables give a total of 8 types of blood types. Usually, this test is done before a blood transfusion, or during a woman's pregnancy.
{"label":"Blood Typing Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"O\u207a","long":"O\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"O positive is the most common blood type (38% of the population). An individual with an O blood group can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB). Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"O\u207b","long":"O\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"O negative blood type is the universal red cell (blood) donor. An individual with group O negative can receive blood only from an O negative individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB) regardless of the positive or negative. Only 7% of the population have O negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"B\u207a","long":"B\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"About 9% of the population have B positive blood. An individual with a B blood group can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"B\u207b","long":"B\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"Less than 2% of the population have B negative blood. An individual with a group B blood type can only receive blood from individuals with groups B or O (with B being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB. Rh-negative people can receive only Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"AB\u207a","long":"AB\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":5},"text":"AB positive blood type is known as the universal recipient. An individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood. Donors with AB can provide plasma to all blood types. Less than 4% of the population have AB positive blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"AB\u207b","long":"AB\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":6},"text":"AB negative blood type is the least common (less than 1% of population). An individual with AB negative blood type can receive blood from all negative blood types (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. Donors with AB can provide plasma to all blood types.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"A\u207a","long":"A\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":7},"text":"1 in 3 people are A positive, which is why it is one of the most common blood types. An individual with an A blood group can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"A\u207b","long":"A\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":7,"max":8},"text":"Only 1 in 16 people have A negative blood. An individual with a group A blood type can only receive blood from individuals with groups A or O (with A being the preferred one) and can donate blood to individuals with either A or AB blood types. Rh-negative people can receive only Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"normal":2},{"normal":3},{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"normal":2},{"normal":3}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is O⁺.
O positive is the most common blood type (38% of the population). An individual with an O blood group can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB). Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.
Related conditions
This test has 2 steps; first it will determine the type of blood according to the ABO typing and secondly, it will determine whether the red blood cells have the antigen Rh attached to its surface or not.
There are four types of blood according to the ABO typing system:
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O (or zero blood group in some countries)
The Rh typing is the second step to the blood typing. After determining your blood group, a test is performed to see whether your red blood cells have the Rh antigen attached to their surface or not.
Rh+ (positive) means that the red blood cells have this antigen attached on its surface.
Rh- (negative) means that the red blood cells do not have this antigen attached on its surface.
This test is used when a blood transfusion is needed, or during pregnancy to determine whether there is a blood incompatibility of the mother with the fetus.
There are many complications that can put someone’s life at risk when a blood transfusion is performed between mismatching individuals. Therefore, this test is elementary to give the proper blood type to the proper recipient.
This test is also important when assessing the risk of a pregnant woman to develop incompatibility with her fetus.
A healthcare professional will use a needle to take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, then a small amount of blood is collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel discomfort when the needle goes in or out.
No preparation required.
You may have slight pain or bruise at the spot where the needle was inserted, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Depending on your blood type you can know what type of blood you can receive in a transfusion.
People
Compatible Red Blood Cells
Compatible Plasma
A
Receive from A and O
Receive from A and AB
B
Receive from B and O
Receive from B and AB
AB
Receive from A, B, AB, O (universal recipient)
Receive from AB
O
Receive from O only
Receive from O, A, B, AB
Rh compatibility only applies to red blood cells and platelets.
Rh+
You can receive from Rh+/-
Rh-
You can receive from Rh - only
Allergic reactions can go from mild to very severe. It is important to assess your blood typing before any blood transfusion.
When pregnant ask your doctor when’s the best time to perform this test to look for incompatibilities with your baby.
Blood typing: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
Quraishy N, Sapatnekar S. Advances in Blood Typing. Adv Clin Chem. 2016;77:221-269. doi: 10.1016/bs.acc.2016.06.006. Epub 2016 Jul 25. PMID: 27717418. [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
Blood Typing | Lab Tests Online [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
Blood Types Explained - A, B, AB and O | Red Cross Blood Services [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
Quest Diagnostics: ABO Group and Rh Type [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
LOINC 882-1 — ABO and Rh group [Type] in Blood [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.
Image by OpenStax College
What are Blood Types?
Video by SciShow/YouTube
Blood Types: ABO and Rh (with donuts and sprinkles!)
Video by ThePenguinProf/YouTube
Blood Types
Video by Bozeman Science/YouTube
Big Idea: Blood Transfusions
Video by SciShow/YouTube
BLOOD TYPES - ABO and Rh Blood Group Systems
Video by Neural Academy/YouTube
Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
How Blood Type Affects Pregnancy Medical Course
Video by Abihail Abihu/YouTube
Human Blood Types
Video by educreations/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
There Are Millions of Blood Types
Video by SciShow/YouTube
How Your Blood Type Protects and Hurts You
Video by SciShow/YouTube
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.
OpenStax College
3:05
What are Blood Types?
SciShow/YouTube
15:29
Blood Types: ABO and Rh (with donuts and sprinkles!)
ThePenguinProf/YouTube
10:46
Blood Types
Bozeman Science/YouTube
4:37
Big Idea: Blood Transfusions
SciShow/YouTube
4:46
BLOOD TYPES - ABO and Rh Blood Group Systems
Neural Academy/YouTube
4:42
Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge
TED-Ed/YouTube
2:49
How Blood Type Affects Pregnancy Medical Course
Abihail Abihu/YouTube
19:10
Human Blood Types
educreations/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Egelberg (talk)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
8:53
Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
5:44
There Are Millions of Blood Types
SciShow/YouTube
4:58
How Your Blood Type Protects and Hurts You
SciShow/YouTube
Rhesus Factor Test
Rhesus Factor Test
Also called: Rh factors, Rh type, Rh typing
Rhesus factor, also known as Rh factor, is a protein that can be found on the surface of red blood cells. The presence of this protein means that you are Rh+ while its absence indicates you are Rh-. This result serves to detect your blood subtype.
Rhesus Factor Test
Also called: Rh factors, Rh type, Rh typing
Rhesus factor, also known as Rh factor, is a protein that can be found on the surface of red blood cells. The presence of this protein means that you are Rh+ while its absence indicates you are Rh-. This result serves to detect your blood subtype.
{"label":"Rhesus Factor Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Rh Negative (Rh-)","long":"Rh Negative (Rh-)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"There is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health. However, if you are a pregnant woman, having an Rh- blood type can affect your pregnancy if your baby happens to be Rh+.","conditions":["Rh incompatibility during pregnancy"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Rh Positive (Rh+)","long":"Rh Positive (Rh+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Rh+ is the most common blood type worldwide. However, there is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health.","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Rh Negative (Rh-).
There is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health. However, if you are a pregnant woman, having an Rh- blood type can affect your pregnancy if your baby happens to be Rh+.
Related conditions
Rh incompatibility during pregnancy
Rhesus factor, also termed Rh factor, is a protein that is found on the surface of red blood cells. If your red blood cells have the protein, then you are Rh+ (positive). If your red blood cells lack the protein, you are Rh- (negative).
A Rhesus (Rh) factor test detects whether this protein is present in your red blood cells.
An Rh factor test is needed in certain circumstances, such as:
During a pregnant woman’s first prenatal visit, to determine the risk of Rh factor incompatibility between mother and baby.
Before receiving a blood transfusion or organ transplant, to adequately select compatible blood products.
When you donate blood, an organ, or bone marrow for transplantation.
A needle will be used to extract a small amount of blood from a vein in an adult's arm, or a sample of blood will be taken by pricking a baby's heel.
No fasting or other preparations are needed.
You may feel discomfort when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising and a little bleeding, as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the blood extraction.
Rh+ is the most common blood type worldwide. However, there is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health.
Nevertheless, if you are a pregnant woman, having an Rh- blood type can affect your pregnancy if your baby happens to be Rh+ (Rh incompatibility). This occurs randomly because a baby can inherit the Rh factor from either parent.
Therefore, during childbirth, you can be exposed to the Rh protein in your baby’s blood, after which your body will recognize this protein as a foreign substance and will develop antibodies to fight it.
This will not cause further health problems unless you get pregnant with another Rh-positive baby; in this case, your previously developed antibodies will start attacking the fetus, leading to serious complications.
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/rh-factor/about/pac-20394960?p=1 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
https://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/113490 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
https://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/113498 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/tests/blood-typing [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/34456/rh-typing [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (3)
ABO Blood Group
This chart summarizes the characteristics of the blood types in the ABO blood group. See the text for more on the concept of a universal donor or recipient.
Image by CNX Openstax
Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
How Rh factor affects a pregnancy
Video by Toronto Star/YouTube
ABO Blood Group
CNX Openstax
8:53
Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
2:21
How Rh factor affects a pregnancy
Toronto Star/YouTube
Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen
Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen
Also called: Indirect Coombs Test, Indirect Antiglobulin Test, IAT, RBC Antibody Screen, Erythrocyte Ab
This test looks for antibodies that target red blood cells in your bloodstream. An RBC antibody screen is used to determine blood compatibility between a pregnant woman and her baby, and for compatibility in blood donations.
Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen
Also called: Indirect Coombs Test, Indirect Antiglobulin Test, IAT, RBC Antibody Screen, Erythrocyte Ab
This test looks for antibodies that target red blood cells in your bloodstream. An RBC antibody screen is used to determine blood compatibility between a pregnant woman and her baby, and for compatibility in blood donations.
{"label":"Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative test result means you do not have antibodies to donor red blood cells, and the blood is not clumping.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"A positive test result could mean your blood and the donor's blood are not compatible. A positive test result during pregnancy could mean your baby has hemolytic disease.","conditions":["Donor blood is incompatible with recipient blood","Rh Incompatibility"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative test result means you do not have antibodies to donor red blood cells, and the blood is not clumping.
Related conditions
An RBC (red blood cell) antibody screen is a blood test that looks for antibodies that target red blood cells. Red blood cell antibodies may cause harm to you after a transfusion or, if you are pregnant, to your baby. An RBC antibody screen can find these antibodies before they cause health problems.
Antibodies are proteins made by your body to attack foreign substances such as viruses and bacteria. Red blood cell antibodies may show up in your blood if you are exposed to red blood cells other than your own. This usually happens after a blood transfusion or during pregnancy, if a mother's blood comes in contact with her unborn baby's blood. Sometimes the immune system acts like these red blood cells are "foreign" and will attack them.
RBC screen is used to:
Check your blood before a blood transfusion. The test can show whether your blood is compatible with the donor's blood. If your blood is not compatible, your immune system will attack the transfused blood as if it is a foreign substance. This will be harmful to your health.
Check your blood during pregnancy. The test can show whether a mother's blood is compatible with the blood of her unborn baby. A mother and her baby may have different types of antigens on their red blood cells. Antigens are substances that produce an immune response. Red blood cell antigens include the Kell antigen and the Rh antigen.
If you have the Rh antigen, you are considered Rh positive. If you don't have the Rh antigen, you are considered Rh negative.
If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood. This condition is called Rh incompatibility.
Both Kell antigens and Rh incompatibility may cause a mother to make antibodies against her baby's blood. The antibodies can destroy the baby's red blood cells, causing a severe form of anemia. But you can get a treatment that will prevent you from making antibodies that could harm your baby.
Check the blood of your unborn baby's father.
If you are Rh negative, your baby's father may be tested to find out his Rh type. If he is Rh positive, your baby will be at risk for Rh incompatibility. Your health care provider will probably perform more tests to find out whether or not there is incompatibility.
Your health care provider may order an RBC screen if you are scheduled to get a blood transfusion, or if you are pregnant. An RBC screen is usually done in early pregnancy, as part of routine prenatal testing.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an RBC screen.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you are getting a blood transfusion: The RBC screen will show whether your blood is compatible with the donor's blood. If it is not compatible, another donor will need to be found.
If you are pregnant: The RBC screen will show whether your blood has any antigens that could harm your baby, including whether or not you have Rh incompatibility.
If you have Rh incompatibility, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood.
These antibodies are not a risk in your first pregnancy, because the baby is usually born before any antibodies are made. But these antibodies could harm your unborn baby in future pregnancies.
Rh incompatibility can be treated with an injection that prevents your body from making antibodies against your baby's red blood cells.
If you are Rh positive, there is no risk of Rh incompatibility.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Rh incompatibility is not common. Most people are Rh positive, which does not cause blood incompatibility and poses no health risks.
Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
006015: Antibody Screen | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Indirect Antiglobulin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Indirect Antiglobulin Blood Test [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Coombs Test Made Simple
Video by MEDSimplified/YouTube
What are Blood Types?
Video by SciShow/YouTube
Coombs test
Coombs test (also known as Coombs' test, antiglobulin test or AGT) : Schematic showing the direct and indirect Coombs tests.
Image by A. Rad
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.
Image by OpenStax College
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
6:20
Coombs Test Made Simple
MEDSimplified/YouTube
3:05
What are Blood Types?
SciShow/YouTube
Coombs test
A. Rad
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.
OpenStax College
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Iron Test
Iron Test
Also called: Serum Iron, Fe Test
Iron is an essential mineral for your organism. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. Less frequently, an iron excess can also occur.
Iron Test
Also called: Serum Iron, Fe Test
Iron is an essential mineral for your organism. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. Less frequently, an iron excess can also occur.
{"label":"Iron Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/dL","code":"ug\/dL","name":"microgram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":60},"text":"Iron deficiency may indicate you are not consuming enough iron or your body isn\u2019t absorbing the iron properly. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. ","conditions":["Iron deficiency anemia","Heavy menstrual bleeding","Chronic bleeding caused by ulcers or parasites","Sickle-cell disease","Gastrointestinal disorders","Celiac disease","Crohn's disease","Gastric bypass surgery","Gastrointestinal cancer","Aspirin use","Long-term bleeding"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":170},"text":"Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":170,"max":400},"text":"Iron overload may indicate you\u2019ve consumed too much iron or vitamins B6\/B12 supplements, or that your body retains too much iron.","conditions":["Hemochromatosis,","Iron poisoning","Hemolytic anemia","Recent blood transfusion","Hepatitis",""]}],"value":115}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
μg/dL
60
170
Your result is Normal.
Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age.
Related conditions
Iron is a mineral that is necessary for your body to carry out certain functions. It forms part of hemoglobin, which is contained in the red blood cells; without hemoglobin, it will be impossible for oxygen to reach your tissues and organs.
A test for iron is used to measure how much of this mineral is in your blood.
A test for iron will usually be indicated when results from your routine complete blood count (CBC) test show that you have low hemoglobin levels and that your red blood cells are smaller and paler than normal, this is called microcytic and hypochromic anemia, which is highly suggestive of iron deficiency.
People at high risk of not getting enough iron are:
Women with heavy periods.
Pregnant women.
Young children.
People with gastrointestinal disorders (because either they do not absorb enough iron, or they excrete it through the feces).
People with cancer.
Less commonly, this test can also be used to help determine if a person has an iron overload.
A small amount of blood will be drawn of a vein in your arm by using a needle.
Since iron-rich foods can alter your result, you may need to fast for at least 12 hours before the test is done.
The risks are related only to the blood extraction procedure, including a little bleeding, temporary pain or discomfort, bruising, or local infection.
Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age, but generally iron can range from 60 to 170 micrograms per deciliter (mcg/dL).
Low iron levels can be the result of:
Not enough iron intake from your diet
Heavy menstrual bleeding
Gastrointestinal disorders that cause impaired iron absorption
Long-term bleeding, usually from the digestive tract
Heightened iron levels can be the result of:
Hemochromatosis (a condition in which there is excessive iron in the body)
Hemolytic anemia (a condition where your red blood cells are destroyed, therefore releasing the iron they carry freely into the bloodstream)
Having a recent blood transfusion
Hepatitis (liver inflammation)
Liver tissue death
Iron poisoning (more common in children who mistakenly take large quantities of iron tablets thinking they are candies)
You should visit your doctor if you experience:
Unexplained fatigue
Pallor
Heart palpitations
Chest pain
Abdominal pain
Dizziness
Shortness of breath
Exercise intolerance
Weakness
Headaches
Black stools
Other tests that are frequently used along with iron status indicators include iron saturation, transferrin, ferritin, and total iron binding capacity (TIBC).
https://medlineplus.gov/iron.html [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/ [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003488.htm [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/tests/iron-tests [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/tests/iron [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/29881/iron# [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://www.healthline.com/health/serum-iron#followup [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Iron Physiology
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Haemochromatosis - animation
Video by HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Haemochromatosis Explained
Video by HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube
5 facts about Hemochromatosis
Video by Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
9 SIGNS OF TOO MUCH IRON // DERMATOLOGIST @DrDrayzday
Video by Dr Dray/YouTube
Iron Overload Educational Videos, Resources Events.flv
Video by pkthalassaemia/YouTube
Iron Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Iron Deficiency Anemia, Ferritin and Fatigue - Testing and Diagnosis
Video by IBS Treatment Center/YouTube
Iron, Hemochromatosis, Hepatomegaly
Hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb too much iron. Because the body can't use or eliminate this extra iron, it's stored in organs, especially the liver, but also the heart and pancreas. Eventually, up to 20 times as much iron as normal can accumulate, which can lead to organ failure. Symptoms can include irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis, chronic fatigue, confusion, and hepatomegaly, the enlargement of the liver.
Image by TheVisualMD
Iron Ion
Iron is a trace mineral found in every cell of the body. It is essential for carrying oxygen from the lungs to tissues in the body and for transporting and storing oxygen for muscles. There are two forms of dietary iron: heme and nonheme. Heme is found in animal food sources, while nonheme is derived from plants. Most bodily iron is found in the proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin. Heme iron, found in red meats, fish and poultry, is more easily absorbed by the body than the non-heme iron found in plants. The absorption of non-heme iron increases when eaten alongside meat, poultry, or fish. Consuming iron-rich foods with foods high in Vitamin C can more than double the amount of iron absorbed by the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
How Is Iron-Deficiency Anemia Diagnosed?
Blood smear of a patient with Iron deficiency anemia at 40x enhancement
Image by Roberto J. Galindo
Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells
Anemia occurs when there are too few red blood cells in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, but iron deficiency is the most common. Different tests can determine the amount of iron in the blood, the capacity of the blood to transport iron, and the amount of iron in storage. Iron is transported throughout the body with the help of proteins. The total iron binding capacity test (TIBC) measures the blood's ability to bind and transport iron
Image by TheVisualMD
Heme Group
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells (RBCs) that enables RBCs to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carry carbon dioxide from these cells back to the lungs. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color; a single RBC can contain 250 million hemoglobin molecules. Hemoglobin is one of several tests used to detect anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vitamins, Minerals, & Development
Image by TheVisualMD
Nourishing Baby in the Womb
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemia & Chronic Kidney Disease
Explore the inner workings of the body to understand the relationship between chronic kidney disease(CKD) and anemia, a debilitating condition that affects people with CKD. Learn how the kidney is responsible for starting the elaborate process of creating red blood cells and how the delicate balance of these cells affects your vitality.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemia Blood Flow
Shows anemic blood flow through a capillary embedded in tissue (type of tissue/cells? Part of body?)
Video by TheVisualMD
14:07
Iron Physiology
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
2:15
Haemochromatosis - animation
HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
10:00
Haemochromatosis Explained
HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube
2:17
5 facts about Hemochromatosis
Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
13:05
9 SIGNS OF TOO MUCH IRON // DERMATOLOGIST @DrDrayzday
Dr Dray/YouTube
2:01
Iron Overload Educational Videos, Resources Events.flv
pkthalassaemia/YouTube
2:39
Iron Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
3:38
Iron Deficiency Anemia, Ferritin and Fatigue - Testing and Diagnosis
IBS Treatment Center/YouTube
Iron, Hemochromatosis, Hepatomegaly
TheVisualMD
Iron Ion
TheVisualMD
How Is Iron-Deficiency Anemia Diagnosed?
Roberto J. Galindo
Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Heme Group
TheVisualMD
Vitamins, Minerals, & Development
TheVisualMD
Nourishing Baby in the Womb
TheVisualMD
1:54
Anemia & Chronic Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
0:12
Anemia Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Test
Hemoglobin A1C Test
Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin
A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.
Hemoglobin A1C Test
Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin
A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.
{"label":"Hemoglobin A1C Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"%{Hb}","code":"%{Hb}","name":"percent hemoglobin"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":5.7},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Borderline","long":"Borderline","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.7,"max":6.5},"text":"Prediabetes is between 5.7 to 6.4 percent. Having prediabetes is a risk factor for getting type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. People with prediabetes may need retests every year.","conditions":["Increased risk for type 2 diabetes","Increased risk for cardiovascular disease","Sickle cell disease","Pregnancy","Hemodialysis","Recent blood loss"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6.5,"max":20},"text":"Type 2 diabetes is above 6.5 percent. If you have diabetes, you should have the A1C test at least twice a year. The A1C goal for many people with diabetes is below 7. It may be different for you. Ask what your goal should be. If your A1C result is too high, you may need to change your diabetes care plan.","conditions":["Diabetes mellitus","Increased risk for cardiovascular disease"]}],"value":4.4}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%{Hb}
5.7
6.5
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) test is a blood test that shows what your average blood sugar (glucose) level was over the past two to three months.
Glucose is a type of sugar in your blood that comes from the foods you eat. Your cells use glucose for energy. A hormone called insulin helps glucose get into your cells. If you have diabetes your body doesn't make enough insulin, or your cells don't use it well. As a result, glucose can't get into your cells, so your blood sugar levels increase.
Glucose in your blood sticks to hemoglobin, a protein in your red blood cells. As your blood glucose levels increase, more of your hemoglobin will be coated with glucose. An A1C test measures the percentage of your red blood cells that have glucose-coated hemoglobin.
An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months because:
Glucose sticks to hemoglobin for as long as the red blood cells are alive.
Red blood cells live about three months.
High A1C levels are a sign of high blood glucose from diabetes. Diabetes can cause serious health problems, including heart disease, kidney disease, and nerve damage. But with treatment and lifestyle changes, you can control your blood glucose levels.
An A1C test may be used to screen for or diagnose:
Type 2 diabetes. With type 2 diabetes your blood glucose gets too high because your body doesn't make enough insulin to move blood sugar from your bloodstream into your cells, or because your cells stop responding to insulin.
Prediabetes. Prediabetes means that your blood glucose levels are higher than normal, but not high enough to diagnosed as diabetes. Lifestyle changes, such as healthy eating and exercise, may help delay or prevent prediabetes from becoming type 2 diabetes.
If you have diabetes or prediabetes, an A1C test can help monitor your condition and check how well you've been able to control your blood sugar levels.
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends A1C testing for diabetes and prediabetes if:
You are over age 45.
If your results are normal, you should repeat the test every 3 years.
If your results show you have prediabetes, you will usually need to be tested every 1 to 2 years. Ask your provider how often to get tested and what you can do to reduce your risk of developing diabetes.
If your results show you have diabetes, you should get an A1C test at least twice a year to monitor your condition and treatment.
You are under 45 and are more likely to develop diabetes because you:
Have prediabetes.
Are overweight or have obesity.
Have a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes.
Have high blood pressure or high cholesterol levels.
Have heart disease or have had a stroke.
Are physically active less than 3 times a week.
Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy) or given birth to a baby over 9 pounds.
Are African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian, or an Alaska Native person. Some Pacific Islander and Asian American people also have a higher risk of developing diabetes.
Have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).
You may also need an A1C test if you have symptoms of diabetes, such as:
Feeling very thirsty
Urinating (peeing) a lot
Losing weight without trying
Feeling very hungry
Blurred vision
Numb or tingling hands or feet
Fatigue
Dry skin
Sores that heal slowly
Having more infections than usual
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an A1C test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A1C results tell you what percentage of your hemoglobin is coated with glucose. The percent ranges are just a guide to what is normal. What's normal for you depends on your health, age, and other factors. Ask your provider what A1C percentage is healthy for you.
To diagnose diabetes or prediabetes, the percentages commonly used are:
Normal: A1C below 5.7%
Prediabetes: A1C between 5.7% and 6.4%
Diabetes: A1C of 6.5% or higher
Providers often use more than one test to diagnose diabetes. So, if your test result was higher than normal, you may have another A1C test or a different type of diabetes test, usually either a fasting blood glucose test or an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).
If your A1C test was done to monitor your diabetes, talk with your provider about what your test results mean.
The A1C test is not used to diagnose gestational diabetes or type 1 diabetes.
Also, if you have a condition that affects your red blood cells, such as anemia or another type of blood disorder, an A1C test may not be accurate for diagnosing diabetes. Kidney failure and liver disease can also affect A1C results. In these cases, your provider may recommend different tests to diagnose diabetes and prediabetes.
Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Oct 05, 2022]
https://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2018-ADA-Standards-of-Care.pdf [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/tests/hemoglobin-a1c [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/tests-diagnosis/a1c-test [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (24)
Hemoglobin A1C molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes
Several tests are used to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes. In June 2009, the ADA, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and the International Diabetes Federation made a joint recommendation that type 2 diabetes testing include the glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This test measures average blood glucose level during the past 2-3 months by measuring the percentage of glucose attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein pigment in red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C molecule
The A1C test is a common blood test used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes and then to gauge how well you're managing your diabetes. The A1C test goes by many other names, including glycated hemoglobin, glycosylated hemoglobin, hemoglobin A1C and HbA1c. The A1C test result reflects your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months. Specifically, the A1C test measures what percentage of your hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen, is coated with sugar (glycated). The higher your A1C level, the poorer your blood sugar control. And if you have previously diagnosed diabetes, the higher the A1C level, the higher your risk of diabetes complications.
Image by TheVisualMD
α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex
A model of α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex. There are 2 α,β-hemoglobin dimers depicted: one space filling model (yellow/orange), and one ribbon model (purple/blue). Each is bound by a haptoglobin molecule (both haptoglobin molecules are shown in pink, with one as a space filling model and one as a ribbon model).
Image by Ayacop
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
A1c - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Type 2 Diabetes Testing
An estimated 79 million Americans, just over 25 percent of the population aged 20 years or older, have prediabetes. Prediabetes is a state where blood sugars may be a little bit elevated, but are not yet elevated to a dangerous range. It is typically asymptomatic, and if undiagnosed and untreated, prediabetes may lead to a potentially life-threatening condition called type 2 diabetes. Complications of type 2 diabetes include blindness, heart attack, and stroke. Prediabetes is readily detectable through simple blood testing with a goal of detecting abnormal glucose levels. Two common and complementary tests include fasting blood sugar and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) tests. With early detection and diagnosis, appropriate and immediate action can be made by the patient to reduce complications and to ensure a long and healthy life.
Video by TheVisualMD
Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes
Video by Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
Video by nabil ebraheim/YouTube
What Is An A1C?
Video by dLife/YouTube
A1C Levels
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment
Type 1 diabetes can be diagnosed with blood tests that measure how much sugar is in your blood. They include: hemoglobin A1C, fasting blood glucose, and oral glucose tolerance. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. About 5% of adults with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. Early diagnosis is crucial for early treatment. Type 1 diabetics need to take insulin, either through a pump or injections. Regular exercise as well as a diet low in refined carbohydrates will also help control blood sugar levels. By maintaining appropriate blood sugar levels, type 1 diabetics can lead normal lives free of serious complications.
Video by TheVisualMD
The 411 On Your A1c
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Is Your A1C AOK?
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?
Video by TEDMED/YouTube
Lactate Threshold Test
Video by Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube
How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
A Critical Balance
Key Players
The Fuel Supply Chain
Diabetes Symptoms
Overweight
Diabetes and Large Vessel Disease
Diabetes and Small Vessel Disease
Nerve Damage
Testing and Diagnosis
Keep It Down
Health in Action
Put Out the Fire
Calming Diabetes
Keeping Tabs on Glucose
1
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3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Diabetes in the US
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C molecule
TheVisualMD
α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex
Ayacop
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
1:10
Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)
Healthguru/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:28
A1c - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
5:52
Type 2 Diabetes Testing
TheVisualMD
4:31
Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes
Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
4:41
Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
3:03
What Is An A1C?
dLife/YouTube
6:09
A1C Levels
Khan Academy/YouTube
1:12
Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment
TheVisualMD
1:56
The 411 On Your A1c
Lee Health/YouTube
1:41
Is Your A1C AOK?
Lee Health/YouTube
3:21
What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?
TEDMED/YouTube
1:06
Lactate Threshold Test
Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube
2:28
How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Diabetes in the US
TheVisualMD
ToRCH Test
ToRCH Test
Also called: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies
This test is used to determine the infectious status of a person for toxoplasma, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes virus (ToRCH). Pregnant women are at high risk of developing fetal malformation when infected by any of these viruses. Screening for these diseases is essential during pregnancy.
ToRCH Test
Also called: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies
This test is used to determine the infectious status of a person for toxoplasma, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes virus (ToRCH). Pregnant women are at high risk of developing fetal malformation when infected by any of these viruses. Screening for these diseases is essential during pregnancy.
ToRCH is an acronym for the infections that this test screens for: Toxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes simplex virus.
Toxoplasmosis: Caused by a parasite found on cat stools and raw meat. It can get transmitted through infection of contaminated water, soil, and foods. In pregnant women, it passes through the placenta, causing severe neurological damage in the fetus that can result in deafness, blindness, and intellectual disability.
Rubella: Also known as German measles, it's a virus transmitted through contaminated droplets in the air. Infections can cause generalized rash, fever, and inflammation of the lymph nodes. In pregnant women, Rubella can cause severe damage to the fetal development and risk of miscarriage or premature birth.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV): This is a virus that usually goes undetected because it generally doesn't cause any symptoms. Some people show fever, malaise, and inflammation of the lymph nodes. It gets spread through sexual contact and body fluids. This virus can be fatal for immunocompromised individuals, such as people with AIDS or cancer; a fetus can develop congenital disabilities if the mother is infected during pregnancy.
Herpes simplex virus (HSV): HSV has to types; type 1 is associated with oro-labial infections and type 2 with genitourinary infections. HSV in pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, premature birth, and impairment of fetal development.
This panel test is used to screen for newborns and pregnant women for antibodies of the complex ToRCH diseases.
Your doctor may order this test in the following situations:
As a routine pregnancy test
When a newborn has a high risk of having been infected
If a newborn has seizures, heart defects, jaundice, or development delays
A healthcare professional takes a blood sample from a vein generally in your arm, using a needle. A small amount of blood is collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
No preparation is required.
You may feel a little sting when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising and a little bleeding, as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the extraction.
This panel will test for antibodies for past infection (IgG) and current infection (IgM) of the ToRCH diseases.
Results are generally presented as positive or negative. Specific reference values will vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Normal results are negative, except in vaccinated people where IgG will be positive such as in the case of rubella where a vaccine is available.
TRCHG - Clinical: ToRCH Profile IgG, Serum [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
TORCH Panel - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
TORCH [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
LabCorp: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies, Quantitative, IgM [accessed on Aug 28, 2018]
LabCorp: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies, Qualitative, IgG With Reflex to Supplemental HSV-2 Testing [accessed on Aug 28, 2018]
Toxoplasmosis Testing
Toxoplasmosis Testing
Also called: Toxoplasmosis Antibodies, Toxoplasma gondii Ab, T. gondii Ab
Toxoplasma gondii. In healthy people the infection usually passes unnoticed; however, in people with a weakened immune system and pregnant women, it can lead to serious complications.
Toxoplasmosis Testing
Also called: Toxoplasmosis Antibodies, Toxoplasma gondii Ab, T. gondii Ab
Toxoplasma gondii. In healthy people the infection usually passes unnoticed; however, in people with a weakened immune system and pregnant women, it can lead to serious complications.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
This indicates that is unlikely that you have toxoplasmosis but it does not completely rule out the infection; therefore, in some cases, the test should be repeated if the suspicion remains.
Related conditions
A toxoplasmosis test detects the presence of the parasite Toxoplasma gondii in a sample of your blood.
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a microscopic parasite that is widely spread worldwide and infects more than 30 million people in the U.S. alone.
T. gondii causes a disease known as toxoplasmosis. In most healthy people, the infection either passes unnoticed or causes mild flu-like symptoms because the immune system keeps the parasite from causing illness.
However, when a person who has a weakened immune system (immunocompromised) gets infected, the parasite can cause serious health problems; and if a pregnant woman becomes infected, she can transmit the parasite to her unborn child.
This parasite can be acquired by ingesting contaminated food or water, especially if it’s raw or undercooked meat. A person can also become infected by handling contaminated cat litter and later touching food or putting their hands in their mouth without washing them first.
Other ways of transmission are from mother-to-child during pregnancy, and rarely through blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
The definitive hosts for T. gondii are considered to be wild and domestic cats. All other hosts, including humans, are considered to be accidental.
In healthy people, the immune system fightsT. gondii and forces the parasite to form inactive (dormant) cysts in the eyes, brain, and muscles, which protects the body against further infection. These cysts can persist throughout the person's life unless the immune system becomes compromised and the parasite becomes active again.
Your doctor may want to order this test to diagnose a current or past toxoplasmosis infection in the following cases:
In pregnant women
In individuals with a compromised immune system
When a person has flu-like symptoms, severe eye problems, or a brain infection that could be due to toxoplasmosis.
A needle will be used to draw a blood sample from a vein in your arm.
Less commonly, a sample of amniotic fluid will be extracted from the belly of a pregnant woman through a procedure called amniocentesis; or a sample cerebrospinal fluid will be collected through a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) procedure. Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear liquid that flows around your brain and spinal cord serving as a protective cushion.
Usually, no preparations are needed. Follow the instructions provided by your healthcare practitioner.
The risks will vary depending on the site from which the sample is taken because every procedure is different and each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
During the blood test you may feel a little sting when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising and a little bleeding, as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the extraction.
Normal results are negative. This indicates that is unlikely that you have toxoplasmosis but it does not completely rule out the infection; therefore, in some cases, the test should be repeated if the suspicion remains.
A positive result indicates infection by T. gondii, either recent or past. In this case, IgM and IgG antibodies should be performed to determine the infection status.
A positive IgM test indicates recent and active infection; while a positive IgG test indicates past (inactive) infection.
False positives can occur under certain circumstances. Hence, positive IgM antibody results should be confirmed by another specialized test method.
You should visit your doctor if you are pregnant and have been exposed to raw meat or cat feces, or if experience signs or symptoms of toxoplasmosis, such as:
Swollen lymph nodes
Fever
Weakness, fatigue
Persistent headache
Body aches
Eye pain
Visual disturbances
Behavioral changes
Confusion
Seizures
Even though cats have been considered to transmit the disease, this is only partially true. The only way for a person to get infected by a cat is by handling the animal’s feces (like for instance accidentally touching fecal particles when cleaning the litter box) and then eating or getting their hands in their mouth without washing them first.
If you have AIDS, you may have only a small rise in IgG and the IgM results may show up as negative.
URMC / Encyclopedia / Toxoplasma Gondii Antibody [accessed on Aug 27, 2018]
Toxoplasmosis Testing [accessed on Aug 27, 2018]
CDC - Toxoplasmosis - Disease [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
Toxoplasma blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
https://www.labcorp.com/tests/related-documents/L5828 [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
Toxoplasmosis - Plain and Simple
Video by Else-Vet/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis and Mind Control - Plain and Simple
Video by Else-Vet/YouTube
Are cats making you crazy? Toxoplasmosis can change you
Video by News Direct/YouTube
Robert Sapolsky Interview: Toxoplasmosis
Video by Christian G/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasma gondii Infection
Video by How To Gastro/YouTube
How common is toxoplasmosis infection?
Video by International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis: Truth, Fiction, and Crazy Cat Ladies? - full video - conference recording
Video by Maddie's Fund Education/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis: How Parasites in Your Cat Can Infect Your Brain
Video by SciShow Psych/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis
Video by VetMedAcademy/YouTube
Toxoplasmosis research shows implications of how Zika may pass through blood brain barrier
Video by University of Pennsylvania/YouTube
Brain Parasite Makes Mice Fearless - by Scientific American
Video by Scientific American/YouTube
How the parasite Toxoplasma tricks rats into becoming cat food
Video by News Direct/YouTube
Mind-controlling Parasites!
Video by SciShow/YouTube
Bad Bug Book: Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook
The Bad Bug Book 2nd Edition, released in 2012, provides current information about the major known agents that cause foodborne illness.
Document by FDA
Toxoplasmosis life cycle
Toxoplasmosis life cycle:
1.Cat eats prey with toxoplasmosis becoming the primary host of Toxoplasma gondii.
2. Toxoplasma gondii disrupts the wall of the cat’s small intestine, forming oocysts, as well as tissue cysts in the brain and muscles.
3.When the cat excretes waste, the feces is contaminated with the oocysts.
4. The feces contaminates the surrounding plants.
5. Organisms eat the plants consuming the oocysts, and become infected by the parasite. When consumed by another organism, the parasite invades the new host, causing the cycle to begin again.
Image by Ilovericexoxo
Pregnant Women at Risk for Toxoplasma Infection
In this 2005 photograph, a pregnant woman was looking on while her husband was in the process of changing the kitty litter, in order to avoid contact with possible pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii, the etiologic agent responsible for the disease, toxoplasmosis. Of those who are infected, very few have symptoms because a healthy person's immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing illness. However, pregnant women, and individuals who have compromised immune systems should be cautious; for them, a Toxoplasma infection could cause serious health problems.
Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Maternal Age
The pregnant woman depicted in this 2005 image, was about to pet her cat, while her husband was in the process of changing the cat’s litter, in order for the woman to avoid contact with possible pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii, the etiologic agent responsible for the disease, toxoplasmosis. Of those who are infected, very few have symptoms because a healthy person's immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing illness. However, pregnant women and individuals who have compromised immune systems should be cautious; for them, a Toxoplasma infection could cause serious health problems.
Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Food Contamination
This photograph depicted a pregnant woman in the process of peeling an apple using a peeling implement after having washed a batch of apples in the kitchen sink. In order to avoid acquiring possible foodborne illness from eating a peeled food, one should wash such a food in warm soapy water prior to peeling, which will greatly reduce the chances of introducing a foodborne pathogen to the fruit's clean interior.
Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Toxoplasmosis from food
Toxoplasmosis from food
Image by CDC
Illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis
This is an illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis.
Image by CDC/Alexander J. da Silva, PhD/Melanie Moser ID 3421
Food Contamination
This 2005 photograph showed a pregnant woman using a kitchen knife to cut raw meat before cooking. Pregnant women, or immunosuppressed patients can be at greater risk in acquiring foodborne illnesses, and need to take additional precautions when handling raw food products.
Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis
Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis
Image by wilkernet
Indoor cat
Image by Anete Lūsiņa / Unsplash
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Schistosome Parasite
Scanning electron micrograph of a schistosome parasite, which enters the body through the skin of persons coming in contact with infested waters. The adult worm lives in the veins of its host. This parasite has been associated with some cancers. The parasite is magnified x256 in this photograph.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer (Photographers)
Brain tissue with neurotoxoplasmosis
This photomicrograph of a brain tissue sample reveals some of the cytoarchitectural details associated with a case of neurotoxoplasmosis. The cause of this illness is the parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, and some cystic-stage T. gondii organisms are visible in the field of view. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Asssit. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, M.D.
Maternal Age
This photograph showed a pregnant woman feeding her cat canned cat food, in order to prevent it from becoming infected with the parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. An infected cat can cause harm to individuals with a weakened immune system, and a pregnant woman’s unborn child. Though feeding her cat canned food is a good practice, the cat should also be kept off of any countertops on which food preparation could take place, such as in a kitchen setting.
Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Toxoplasma LifeCycle CDC
toxoplasma gondii life cycle CDC
Image by CDC/Wikimedia
Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria
Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria
Image by Muhammad Mahdi Karim
Foodborne illness symptoms
If you have been experiencing these symptoms for longer than 24 hours please seek medical attention immediately.
Image by USDA
Catch up on checkups and routine vaccines
As opportunities for in-person learning and play grow, it’s important for your child to catch up on checkups and recommended vaccines to protect their health now and in the future.
Document by CDC
12:42
Toxoplasmosis - Plain and Simple
Else-Vet/YouTube
11:03
Toxoplasmosis and Mind Control - Plain and Simple
Else-Vet/YouTube
0:35
Are cats making you crazy? Toxoplasmosis can change you
News Direct/YouTube
24:27
Robert Sapolsky Interview: Toxoplasmosis
Christian G/YouTube
7:18
Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasma gondii Infection
How To Gastro/YouTube
4:36
How common is toxoplasmosis infection?
International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube
57:18
Toxoplasmosis: Truth, Fiction, and Crazy Cat Ladies? - full video - conference recording
Maddie's Fund Education/YouTube
5:28
Toxoplasmosis: How Parasites in Your Cat Can Infect Your Brain
SciShow Psych/YouTube
9:02
Toxoplasmosis
VetMedAcademy/YouTube
2:21
Toxoplasmosis research shows implications of how Zika may pass through blood brain barrier
University of Pennsylvania/YouTube
1:26
Brain Parasite Makes Mice Fearless - by Scientific American
Scientific American/YouTube
0:37
How the parasite Toxoplasma tricks rats into becoming cat food
News Direct/YouTube
4:23
Mind-controlling Parasites!
SciShow/YouTube
Bad Bug Book: Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook
FDA
Toxoplasmosis life cycle
Ilovericexoxo
Pregnant Women at Risk for Toxoplasma Infection
CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Maternal Age
CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Food Contamination
CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Toxoplasmosis from food
CDC
Illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis
CDC/Alexander J. da Silva, PhD/Melanie Moser ID 3421
Food Contamination
CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis
wilkernet
Indoor cat
Anete Lūsiņa / Unsplash
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Schistosome Parasite
National Cancer Institute / Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer (Photographers)
Brain tissue with neurotoxoplasmosis
CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, M.D.
Maternal Age
CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany
Toxoplasma LifeCycle CDC
CDC/Wikimedia
Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria
Muhammad Mahdi Karim
Foodborne illness symptoms
USDA
Catch up on checkups and routine vaccines
CDC
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests
Also called: CMV Tests
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common type of virus. CMV tests look for signs of the virus in blood, sputum, or other body fluids. CMV doesn't cause health problems for most people. But it can be dangerous to newborns and people with immune system disorders.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests
Also called: CMV Tests
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common type of virus. CMV tests look for signs of the virus in blood, sputum, or other body fluids. CMV doesn't cause health problems for most people. But it can be dangerous to newborns and people with immune system disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Cytomegalovirus IgG: A negative result indicates that you have never been exposed to the virus.
Related conditions
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a virus in the herpes family. Other types of herpes viruses include chickenpox and mononucleosis (mono). CMV infections are very common. In the United States, over half of adults have been exposed to CMV at some point in their lives, often during childhood or early adulthood. After initial infection, the virus remains in the body for the rest of your life. Most of the time, the virus stays dormant (inactive). However, it can become active again (reactivated) in certain situations such as stress or an immune system problem.
In healthy people, CMV infections usually cause mild, flu-like illnesses or no symptoms at all. Most people with CMV don't even know they have it. But CMV can be dangerous to people with weakened immune systems due to conditions such as HIV or cancer. It can also cause significant health problems in infants. A pregnant woman with an active CMV infection can pass the virus to her unborn baby. CMV can cause deafness, vision problems, intellectual disabilities, and other serious disorders in babies who are infected before birth.
CMV tests check for signs of the virus in the blood, sputum, or other body fluids. CMV testing can help those at risk for complications get the treatment they need. While there is no cure for CMV, antiviral medicines and other treatments may reduce symptoms and improve outcomes.
CMV tests are used to help diagnose a current, reactivated, or past CMV infection in people at risk for health complications. Risk groups include:
People with weakened immune systems due to certain infections or diseases
People who have recently received an organ transplant
Pregnant women with symptoms of a CMV infection
Newborns with symptoms of infection
You may need testing if you have a weakened immune system or are pregnant and have the following symptoms:
Swollen lymph nodes
Sore throat
Fever
Fatigue
Weakness
Muscle aches
Headache
Your baby may need this test if he or she has the following symptoms:
Jaundice, a condition that causes the skin and eyes to turn yellow
Low birth weight
Small head
Hearing and/or vision problems
Seizures
There are several types of CMV tests, including:
Blood tests
This is the most common way to test adults for CMV.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial.
CSF test
A sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) will be collected through a procedure called a spinal tap, also known as a lumbar puncture.
During the test, a provider will inject a numbing medicine (anesthetic) into your back and insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small bones that make up your spine.
Your provider will then withdraw a small amount of fluid for testing.
Sputum test
Sputum is a thick mucus that settles in your lungs when you have an infection or chronic illness.
During the test, your health care provider will ask you to breathe deeply and then cough deeply into a special cup.
Your provider may tap you on the chest to help loosen sputum from your lungs.
Biopsy
During the test, your provider will remove a small sample of tissue for testing.
Biopsies can be done with a needle or a special type of surgical instrument.
Amniocentesis
This procedure is done on pregnant women to see if an unborn baby has been infected with CMV.
During the procedure, you'll lie on your back on an exam table.
Your provider will move an ultrasound device over your abdomen. Ultrasound uses sound waves to check the position of your uterus, placenta, and baby.
Your provider will insert a thin needle into your abdomen and withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid.
Newborns are usually given a saliva or urine test.
During an infant saliva test:
A provider will insert a sterile swab into your baby's cheek and swirl for several seconds.
The swab will be placed in a special solution for testing.
During an infant urine test:
You will be given a special plastic bag that will fit over your baby's genital area.
You will place a diaper over the bag.
After your baby has urinated, you will remove the bag from the diaper and empty the urine into a container given to you by your provider.
You don't need any special preparations for a blood or sputum test. There are also no preparations needed for an infant saliva or urine test.
You may need to empty your bladder before a lumbar puncture.
You may be asked to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before a biopsy.
For an amniocentesis, you may be asked to keep a full bladder or empty your bladder right before the procedure, depending on your stage of pregnancy.
Your provider or your child's provider will let you know if you need to make any other preparations.
There are no known risks to having a sputum test, infant saliva test, or infant urine test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you had a lumbar puncture, you may have pain or tenderness in your back when the needle is inserted. You may also get a headache after the procedure. The headache can last for several hours or up to a week or more.
If you had a biopsy, you may have a little bruising, bleeding, or soreness at the biopsy site. This usually goes away after a few days.
If you had an amniocentesis, you may have some mild discomfort and/or cramping during and/or after the procedure, but serious complications are rare. The procedure does have a slight risk (less than 1 percent) of causing a miscarriage.
The test result can show whether you have been infected with CMV. But it can't show if it's a current, past, or reactivated infection. If you have symptoms and/or risk factors such as an immune system disorder, your provider may do additional tests to help make a diagnosis and create a treatment plan. If you are pregnant and your amniocentesis shows your baby has CMV, your child's provider may test and treat your baby soon after birth to help prevent complications.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider or your child's provider.
CMV tests are included as part of a TORCH panel, a group of blood tests used to screen newborns and sometimes pregnant woman for the following infections:
TOxoplasmosis
Rubella
Cytomegalovirus
Herpes simplex virus
These infections can cause birth defects if a mother gets infected during pregnancy. Early diagnosis and treatment may help prevent a baby from getting a serious health problem.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Herpes Testing
Herpes Testing
Also called: Herpes Test, HSV Test, Herpes Culture, Herpes Simplex Viral Culture, HSV-1 Antibodies, HSV-2 Antibodies, HSV DNA
A herpes (HSV) test checks a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore for a herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Different types of HSV cause cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes (HSV-2).
Herpes Testing
Also called: Herpes Test, HSV Test, Herpes Culture, Herpes Simplex Viral Culture, HSV-1 Antibodies, HSV-2 Antibodies, HSV DNA
A herpes (HSV) test checks a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore for a herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Different types of HSV cause cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes (HSV-2).
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Your result is Negative.
Negative or normal test results mean that signs of the herpes virus were not found in your sample and you are unlikely to have an HSV infection. If you had a blood test for HSV antibodies, it's important to know that you can have a negative result when you really do have a herpes infection.
Related conditions
Herpes is a common viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Most people with HSV don't have any symptoms. But HSV can cause painful blisters or sores on the affected parts of the body. HSV mostly affects the mouth (oral herpes) and the vagina or penis (genital herpes), but it can also affect the eyes and other parts of the skin.
HSV tests look for signs of the herpes simplex virus usually in a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore. There are two main types of HSV, and testing can tell which type you have:
HSV-1 usually causes oral herpes, which can result in cold sores ("fever blisters") on or around your mouth. Most people get oral herpes by the time they're young adults. It's usually spread by non-sexual contact with saliva (spit) from a person who has an HSV-1 infection. That may happen if you share forks, cups, or towels. HSV-1 can also cause genital herpes. This may happen if you receive oral sex from a partner with a cold sore.
HSV-2 is the most common cause of genital herpes. Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). That means you get it through sexual contact with a person who has a herpes infection. You can catch genital herpes from someone even if they don't have symptoms. HSV-2 can also spread to the mouth, causing oral herpes. This may happen if you give oral sex to a person who has genital herpes from HSV-2.
HSV infections are likely to clear up and come back in the future, but outbreaks tend to be milder and less frequent over time. Repeat outbreaks happen more often with HSV-2 than with HSV-1. So, testing to find out which type you have helps you know what to expect.
There are a few types of HSV tests:
A swab test takes a sample of fluid from a sore, which may be used to do:
A viral culture. For this test, cells from your sample are grown in a lab and then checked for HSV.
A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. This test looks for genetic material from HSV in your sample.
A blood test looks for HSV antibodies in a blood sample. HSV antibodies are proteins that your immune system makes fight the virus. Your body makes different antibodies for HSV-1 and HSV-2. This test can be done when you don't have sores.
There is no cure for HSV, but medicines can help manage outbreaks. HSV usually doesn't cause any major health problems. But if you're pregnant and have genital herpes, you can pass the virus to your child. This can lead to a life-threatening HSV infection for your baby. In rare cases, HSV can infect your brain and spinal cord, causing serious illness.
An HSV test may be used to:
Find out whether sores on your mouth or genitals are caused by HSV and, if so, which type
Check for an HSV infection if you've had a high risk of exposure to the virus
Check for an HSV infection in a baby born to a person who has HSV
You may need an HSV test if:
You have symptoms of herpes. Symptoms of a first HSV infection may include:
Blisters or sores on the mouth, genitals, anus, buttocks, or other areas of skin. The sores develop a crust as they begin to heal.
Fever and flu-like symptoms.
Swollen glands.
Pain or tingling in the affected area.
Your partner has genital herpes or symptoms that might be genital herpes
In general, medical experts don't recommend HSV testing for people without symptoms of HSV. If you are being tested for other STDs, your health care provider may choose to include an HSV test based on your risk of exposure. Ask your provider if you should be tested.
In rare cases, HSV can infect the brain and spinal cord, leading to encephalitis or meningitis. You may need an HSV test if you have one of these serious conditions.
There are several different types of tests for HSV that use different samples:
For a swab test, a health care professional will use a swab to collect fluid and cells from a herpes sore that has not begun to heal yet.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
At-home tests are available for HSV. These tests usually use a sample of blood that you collect at home and send to a lab. Talk with your provider to find out if at-home testing is right for you.
If your provider thinks you have an HSV infection in your spinal cord or brain, you may have a test of your cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to look for signs of the virus. CSF is a fluid that flows in and around your brain and spinal cord. A thin needle is inserted into your spine to remove a small amount of CSF. This procedure is called a lumbar puncture or spinal tap.
You don't need any special preparations for a swab test or a blood test. For a lumbar puncture, you may be asked to empty your bladder (pee) and bowels (poop) before the test.
After a swab test, but you may have a little bit of bleeding or discomfort where your skin was swabbed. This usually doesn't last long.
A blood test has very little risk. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you have a lumbar puncture, you may feel some pain or tenderness in your back where the needle was inserted. You may also have some bleeding at the site or a headache.
The meaning of your test results depends on the type of HSV test you had. To understand your results, your provider will consider your health history and any symptoms you have.
In general:
Negative/Normal test results mean that signs of the herpes virus were not found in your sample and you are unlikely to have an HSV infection. If you had a blood test for HSV antibodies, it's important to know that you can have a negative result when you really do have a herpes infection. That's because your body takes up to three months to make HSV antibodies. If you had a blood test too soon after an infection began, your test result may not show any antibodies.
Positive/Abnormal test results mean that signs of HSV were found in your sample. If you had a blood test that showed you have HSV antibodies, the antibodies could be from an active infection now or a past infection.
If you have HSV, treatment can help reduce the number of outbreaks and control your symptoms. It's important to know that having an HSV infection may increase your risk of getting HIV and other STDs. So, talk with your provider about HIV testing along with other STDs.
It's also important to take steps to avoid spreading HSV to others. Using condoms can help. Since outbreaks come and go, ask your provider how to know when your risk for spreading the herpes virus may be high.
The best way to prevent genital herpes or another STD is not to have sex. If you are sexually active, you can reduce your risk of infection by:
Having sex with only one person who has sex only with you (mutual monogamy) after both of you are tested for STDs.
Using condoms correctly every time you have sex.
Herpes (HSV) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 09, 2023]
CDC – Genital Herpes Screening [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test
Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test
Also called: HBsAg, HBV surface antigen, Hepatitis-associated Antigen, Hepatitis B surface Ag
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) produces a disease known as Hepatitis B which is characterized by liver inflammation. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a protein on the surface of the hepatitis B virus and it can be used to help diagnose the status of HBV infection and to determine whether vaccination is necessary.
Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test
Also called: HBsAg, HBV surface antigen, Hepatitis-associated Antigen, Hepatitis B surface Ag
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) produces a disease known as Hepatitis B which is characterized by liver inflammation. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a protein on the surface of the hepatitis B virus and it can be used to help diagnose the status of HBV infection and to determine whether vaccination is necessary.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Hepatitis B is a disease caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV), which causes swelling and damage to the liver. Usually, acute HBV infection resolves on its own; however, in some cases it can become a chronic infection, producing long-term liver damage, hepatic cirrhosis (liver scarring), and liver cancer.
Hepatitis B virus is transmitted through contact with an infected person’s blood, semen, or other bodily fluid. This means that HBV can be spread by blood transfusions, piercing, or tattooing in unsanitary settings, receiving dialysis treatment, transmission from mother to fetus, and unprotected sexual intercourse.
When you get infected by HBV, your body’s immune system recognizes harmful substances called antigens in your blood, so, proteins called antibodies are released to fight those antigens.
A Hepatitis B surface Ag test detects the presence of antigens and antibodies to hepatitis B virus in a sample of your blood.
The Hepatitis B surface antigen test is used to:
Diagnose either acute, recent, or chronic hepatitis B infection.
Determine the status of chronic hepatitis B infection.
Your doctor may want to order this test in the following situations:
If you have ever used injected drugs, even if it was only one time.
If you are suffering from chronic liver disease, HIV or AIDS.
If you have acute liver disease or abnormal liver tests.
If you are on hemodialysis.
Anyone born to a mother who was diagnosed with HBV.
Health care providers or lab technicians who were exposed to blood through accidental needle sticks or injuries with sharp objects.
A small amount of blood will be drawn of a vein in your arm by using a needle.
No fasting is needed. However, you should refrain from taking biotin (vitamin B7) supplements for a few days before the test is done.
The risks are related only to the blood extraction procedure, including a little bleeding, temporary pain or discomfort, bruising, or local infection.
If the hepatitis B surface antigen result is:
Negative: this means that no antigens for HBV were found in your blood, which indicates that you are not immune against the virus.
Positive: this indicates infection by hepatitis B virus, either acute, chronic, or past.
Even though some infected people can stay asymptomatic, some of the more common signs and symptoms of HBV infection may include:
Nausea
Fatigue
Hyporexia (appetite loss)
Joint pain
Itching
Abdominal pain
Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
Dark-colored urine
Light-colored stools
When it comes to diagnosing and determining the infection status of hepatitis B virus infection, a single test cannot be used on its own; instead, several tests are performed and compared between each other in order to reach an accurate diagnosis.
The presence of hepatitis B surface antigen is usually related with active replication and infectivity of the hepatitis B virus, especially when accompanied by positive results of other hepatitis B tests, such as hepatitis Be antigen (HBe) and HBV DNA.
Hepatitis B | HBV | MedlinePlus [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Hepatitis B | NIDDK [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
HBAB - Clinical: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Qualitative/Quantitative, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
HBAG - Clinical: Hepatitis B Surface Antigen, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Hepatitis B Surface Antigen - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Hepatitis B Testing [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
006510: Hepatitis B Surface Antigen | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
006530: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Quantitative | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
006395: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Qualitative | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
037215: Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Evaluation Profile | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Hepatitis B Vaccines
This negative-stained transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image revealed the presence of numerous hepatitis B virus (HBV) virions, also known as Dane particles. HBV contains a genome of DNA, and is a member of the family of viruses known as Hepadnaviridae. Attacking the liver, this virus causes an infection that can be lifelong. Liver infection, known as hepatitis, can lead to liver scarring, known as cirrhosis, liver cancer, liver failure, and death. Hepatitis B vaccine is available for all age groups, to prevent hepatitis B virus infection.
Image by CDC/ Betty Partin
Interpretation of Hepatitis B Serologic Test Results
Document by CDC
The Liver Story (all about Hepatitis B)
Video by Thinkonisms/YouTube
Living with Hepatitis B
Video by Health Science Channel/YouTube
Screening for Hepatitis A, B, and C
Video by RWJBarnabas Health/YouTube
Hepatatis B Awareness
Video by campaign4hiv/YouTube
Hepatitis B Vaccines
CDC/ Betty Partin
Interpretation of Hepatitis B Serologic Test Results
CDC
12:36
The Liver Story (all about Hepatitis B)
Thinkonisms/YouTube
3:51
Living with Hepatitis B
Health Science Channel/YouTube
1:20
Screening for Hepatitis A, B, and C
RWJBarnabas Health/YouTube
8:13
Hepatatis B Awareness
campaign4hiv/YouTube
Syphilis Tests
Syphilis Tests
Also called: Treponema pallidum Ab
Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis, a bacterial infection spread by sexual contact. Syphilis is easily treatable if found in the early stages of infection.
Syphilis Tests
Also called: Treponema pallidum Ab
Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis, a bacterial infection spread by sexual contact. Syphilis is easily treatable if found in the early stages of infection.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative or nonreactive result means you don't have syphilis. If you have a history of syphilis and your RPR test is negative or nonreactive, it is likely that you no longer have syphilis.
Related conditions
Syphilis is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It is a bacterial infection spread through vaginal, oral, or anal sex with an infected person. Syphilis develops in stages that can last for weeks, months, or even years. The stages may be separated by long periods of apparent good health.
Syphilis usually starts with a small, painless sore, called a chancre, on the genitals, anus, or mouth. In the next stage, you may have flu-like symptoms and/or a rash. Later stages of syphilis can damage the brain, heart, spinal cord, and other organs. Syphilis tests can help diagnose syphilis in the early stages of infection, when the disease is easiest to treat.
Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis.
Screening tests for syphilis include:
Rapid plasma reagin (RPR), a syphilis blood test that looks for antibodies to the syphilis bacteria. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system to fight foreign substances, such as bacteria.
Venereal disease research laboratory (VDRL) test, which also checks for syphilis antibodies. A VDRL test can be done on blood or spinal fluid.
If a screening test comes back positive, you will need more testing to rule out or confirm a syphilis diagnosis. Most of these follow up tests will also look for syphilis antibodies. Sometimes, a healthcare provider will use a test that looks for actual syphilis bacteria, instead of the antibodies. Tests that look for the actual bacteria are used less often because they can only be done in specialized labs by specially trained health care professionals.
You may need a syphilis test if your sexual partner has been diagnosed with syphilis and/or you have symptoms of the disease. Symptoms usually appear about two to three weeks after infection and include:
Small, painless sore (chancre) on the genitals, anus, or mouth
Rough, red rash, usually on the palms of the hands or the bottom of the feet
Fever
Headache
Swollen glands
Fatigue
Weight loss
Hair loss
Even if you don't have symptoms, you may need a test if you are at a higher risk of infection. Risk factors include having:
Multiple sex partners
A partner with multiple sex partners
Unprotected sex (sex without using a condom)
An HIV/AIDS infection
Another sexually transmitted disease, such as gonorrhea
You may also need this test if you are pregnant. Syphilis can be passed from a mother to her unborn baby. A syphilis infection can cause serious, and sometimes deadly, complications to infants. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that all pregnant women get tested early in pregnancy. Women who have risk factors for syphilis should be tested again in the third trimester of pregnancy (28–32 weeks) and again at delivery.
A syphilis test is usually in the form of a blood test. During a syphilis blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
More advanced stages of syphilis can affect the brain and spinal cord. If your symptoms show your disease might be in a more advanced stage, your health care provider may order a syphilis test on your cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is a clear liquid found in your brain and spinal cord.
For this test, your CSF will be collected through a procedure called a lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap. During the procedure:
You will lie on your side or sit on an exam table.
A health care provider will clean your back and inject an anesthetic into your skin, so you won't feel pain during the procedure. Your provider may put a numbing cream on your back before this injection.
Once the area on your back is completely numb, your provider will insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small backbones that make up your spine.
Your provider will withdraw a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. This will take about five minutes.
You'll need to stay very still while the fluid is being withdrawn.
Your provider may ask you to lie on your back for an hour or two after the procedure. This may prevent you from getting a headache afterward.
You don't need any special preparations for a syphilis blood test. For a lumbar puncture, you may be asked to empty your bladder and bowels before the test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you had a lumbar puncture, you may have pain or tenderness in your back where the needle was inserted. You may also get a headache after the procedure.
If your screening results were negative or normal, it means no syphilis infection was found. Since antibodies can take a couple of weeks to develop in response to a bacterial infection, you may need another screening test if you think you were exposed to the infection. Ask your health care provider about when or if you need to be re-tested.
If your screening tests show a positive result, you will have more testing to rule out or confirm a syphilis diagnosis. If these tests confirm you have syphilis, you will probably be treated with penicillin, a type of antibiotic. Most early-stage syphilis infections are completely cured after antibiotic treatment. Later-stage syphilis is also treated with antibiotics. Antibiotic treatment for later-stage infections can stop the disease from getting worse, but it can't undo damage already done.
If you have questions about your results, or about syphilis, talk to your health care provider.
If you are diagnosed with syphilis, you need to tell your sexual partner, so he or she can get tested and treated if necessary.
Syphilis Tests / University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) [accessed on Feb 04, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Sensitive content
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Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis
Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis.Syphilis is a complex sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It has often been called "the great imitator" because so many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from those of other diseases.
Image by CDC / ID 3489
Treponema pallidum Bacteria (Syphilis)
This highly-magnified scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image depicts a number of spiral-shaped, Treponema pallidum bacteria, atop a culture of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells, also known as Sf1Ep-cells. T. pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis.
Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox
Syphilis
This illustration depicts a photomicrograph of a culture specimen processed using the Levaditi staining method, and reveals the presence of corkscrew shaped, Treponema pallidum bacteria, also known as spirochetes. T. pallidum is the cause of the sexually transmitted disease (STD) syphilis.
Image by CDC
Sensitive content
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Syphilis
A photograph of condylomata lata lesions involving the vulva and anal region. : A patient with condylomata lata, which can develop during secondary syphilis, and presents as gray, raised papules appearing on the vulva and near the anus, or in any other warm intertriginous region.
Image by CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2372
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Secondary syphilis
This patient presented with several infrascrotal condylomatous lesions, which is one of the manifestations of secondary syphilis.
Image by CDC / Susan Lindsley ID 6761
Treponema pallidum
This photomicrograph depicts a Treponema pallidum bacterium, a spirochete 5 - 15 micrometers in length, which is the causative agent of syphilis. Syphilis is passed from person to person through direct contact with a syphilis sore. Sores occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus, or in the rectum. Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth. Transmission of the organism occurs during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Pregnant women with the disease can pass it to the babies they are carrying. Syphilis cannot be spread through contact with toilet seats, doorknobs, swimming pools, hot tubs, bathtubs, shared clothing, or eating utensils.
Image by CDC/ Susan Lindsley ID 14969
Syphilis Bacteria
Treponema pallidum, the bacteria that cause syphilis.
Image by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
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Syphilis
Keratotic lesions : This photograph shows a close-up view of keratotic lesions on the palms of this patient's hands due to a secondary syphilitic infection.
Image by CDC / Robert Sumpter ID 6809
Syphilis
Primary Stage of Syphilis : This patient presented with a shoulder lesion during the primary stage of syphilis, which was diagnosed after performing a "darkfield" examination.
Image by CDC/ Dr. Dancewicz ID 6734
Treponema pallidum
Spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum bacteria. An electron photomicrograph of two spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum bacteria. Here we see two Treponema pallidum bacteria scanned by an electron microscope, magnified 36,000X. T. pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis. It contains one of the smallest prokaryotic genomes consisting of about 1000 kilobase pairs.
Image by CDC/ Joyce Ayers ID 2392
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Secondary syphilis
A photograph of a secondary syphilitic papulosquamous rash seen on the torso and upper body.This patient had an extensive papulosquamous rash that developed during secondary syphilis. The rash often appears as rough, red or reddish brown spots that can appear on palms of hands, soles of feet, the chest and back, or other parts of the body.
Image by CDC /Susan Lindsley ID 2364
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Syphilis
Primary Syphilitic Chancre : Photograph of primary syphilitic chancre of the glans penis. This patient has a primary syphilitic chancre of the glans penis. A chancre is a primary skin lesion of syphilis, which begins at the site of inoculation after an interval of 10-30 days, and appears as a papule or red ulcerated skin lesion.
Image by CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2359
Treponema pallidum
A photomicrograph of a virulent Treponema pallidum bacterium, ruptured at 6,000 psi. Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis. It contains one of the smallest prokaryotic genomes consisting of about 1000 kilobase pairs.
Image by CDC, VDRL Dept. ID 2324
Treponema pallidum
A photomicrograph of a whole mount of virulent Treponema pallidum. This microscopic bacterium (spirochete) is a worm-like spiral-shaped organism that wiggles vigorously when viewed under a microscope.
Image by CDC / VDRL Department ID 2323
Treponema pallidum
Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1976
Treponema pallidum
Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1975
Treponema pallidum
Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).
Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1972
Treponema pallidum
Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep). Treponema pallidum is a spiral-shaped, Gram-negative, highly mobile bacterium.
Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1971
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Secondary syphilis Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue
Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue : This image depicts the dorsal surface of the tongue in the case of an elderly African-American male, due to what was determined to be a secondary syphilitic infection. Note the furrowed appearance, and the papillae-free, i.e., desquamated, smooth lingual surface.
Image by CDC / Robert E. Sumpter ID 12627
Syphilis Health Byte
Video by LIVESTRONG.COM/YouTube
Syphilis ¦ Treatment and Symptoms
Video by MainMD/YouTube
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Illustration of syphilis bacteria
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium <em>Treponema pallidum</em>. The disease is communicated through direct contact with syphilitic chancre sores, the first of which develops at the site (genitals, vagina, anus, rectum, lips, mouth) where syphilis entered the body. The disease advances in stages that, left untreated, can eventually cause paralysis, blindness, dementia, and life-threatening damage to internal organs. Syphilis is usually transmitted through sexual contact but can also be spread from mother to developing baby, with serious risk to the fetus' survival, and to a newborn during childbirth.
Image by CDC
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Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis
CDC / ID 3489
Treponema pallidum Bacteria (Syphilis)
CDC/ Dr. David Cox
Syphilis
CDC
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Syphilis
CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2372
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Secondary syphilis
CDC / Susan Lindsley ID 6761
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Susan Lindsley ID 14969
Syphilis Bacteria
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
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Syphilis
CDC / Robert Sumpter ID 6809
Syphilis
CDC/ Dr. Dancewicz ID 6734
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Joyce Ayers ID 2392
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Secondary syphilis
CDC /Susan Lindsley ID 2364
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Syphilis
CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2359
Treponema pallidum
CDC, VDRL Dept. ID 2324
Treponema pallidum
CDC / VDRL Department ID 2323
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1976
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1975
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1972
Treponema pallidum
CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1971
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Secondary syphilis Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue
CDC / Robert E. Sumpter ID 12627
4:52
Syphilis Health Byte
LIVESTRONG.COM/YouTube
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Syphilis ¦ Treatment and Symptoms
MainMD/YouTube
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Illustration of syphilis bacteria
CDC
HIV Antibody Test
HIV Antibody Test
Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab
This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.
HIV Antibody Test
Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab
This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
It can take weeks for the immune system to produce the telltale antibodies that indicate HIV infection. If a person is tested too early, the result may be misleadingly negative.
Related conditions
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) debilitates your immune system by harming your white blood cells (leukocytes), making you prone to catch any virus, bacteria, or fungi, including those that usually don’t make people sick.
If left untreated, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is the final stage of the infection.
HIV is transmitted through:
Unprotected sexual intercourse
From an infected mother to her fetus
Lactation from an infected mother
Having direct contact with the blood of an infected person through an open wound
From an injury with a blood-covered object (such as a needle)
There are two types of HIV, which are type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2).The only difference between them is that HIV type 2 is found only in West Africa and an individual can become infected with HIV-2 only by having sexual intercourse or entering in contact with the blood of an infected person from that geographic region.
An HIV 1+O+2 AB test refers to the detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 antibodies in a sample of your blood.
Usually, screening is done with a combination HIV antigen/antibody test. If that test result comes back positive, an HIV test that differentiates between HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies is performed.
HIV screening is the only way to know if you are infected. Is recommended that any person between the ages of 13 to 64 years and every pregnant woman gets tested for HIV at least once.
There are other situations in which you should also be tested, even if you were already screened or if you don’t belong to the group of people who are between 13 to 64 years of age. These situations include:
If you were diagnosed with tuberculosis, hepatitis B or C, or another sexually transmitted disease.
If you had a sexual partner who has been recently diagnosed with HIV.
If you suspect or know that your partner had sex with another person.
If you are a healthcare worker and had direct contact with blood while doing your job.
If you think you may have been exposed to the virus.
Annual screening for HIV is recommended if you are at high-risk of contracting the virus. You have a higher risk if you:
Have had unprotected sex with multiple partners since your last HIV screening.
Are a man and had sex with another man
Have used illegal injected drugs, especially if you have shared needles
Have a sexual partner who is HIV positive.
Are a sex-worker
A needle will be used to extract a small quantity of blood from a vein in your arm.
No fasting or special preparations are needed.
You may feel a little sting when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the blood extraction.
Infection is usually a small risk in healthy people; however, if you indeed have the virus, infections are more likely to appear. So you should keep your wound clean and dry.
Normally this test is indicated when a previous screening HIV test has been performed, and the result has come back positive.
Therefore, if this test comes back negative for HIV-1and HIV-2, it means that a disparity has occurred, and then a third test (HIV RNA) must be performed to get to a firm diagnosis.
If the HIV 1+O+2 Ab test has come back positive, the possibilities include:
HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody negative: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 1 infection.
HIV-1 antibody negative + HIV-2 antibody positive: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 2 infection.
HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody positive: you have a co-infection with both types of HIV.
Human immunodeficiency virus antibodies, whether HIV-1 or HIV-2, are usually not detectable through a lab test between 6 weeks to 3 months after exposure to the virus; this is called the “window period” because even though you are infected there are not enough antibodies for the test to detect; therefore the results come back negative.
However, after 12 months human immunodeficiency virus antibodies are almost always detectable in a blood test.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (11)
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
HIV. See a full animation of this medical topic
Image by BruceBlaus
HIV Drug Classes
Schematic description of the mechanism of the four classes of currently available antiviral drugs against HIV: fusion inhibitors ( interfere with the binding, fusion or entry of an HIV virion), reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (interfere with the translation of viral RNA into DNA), integrase inhibitors (block the viral enzyme integrase, that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell), protease inhibitors (block proteolytic cleavage of protein precursors that are necessary for the production of infectious viral particles).
Image by Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)
HIV-infected H9 T cell
Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
HIV Virus
Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (red) budding and replicating from a segment of a chronically infected H9 cell (blue). Particles are in various stages of maturity; arc/semi-circles are immature particles that have started to form but are still part of the cell. Immature particles slowly change morphology into mature forms and exhibit the classic “conical or spherical-shaped core.” Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
HIV-1 Neurotropism
Model of HIV-1 Neurotropism
Image by J Roberto Trujillo
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.
Image by TheVisualMD
(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus
Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus Description : Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus from hugging to telephones; one of a series of fact sheets about AIDS and HIV.
Image by Wellcome Trust
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AIDS Life Cycle Illustration
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelop, releasing its RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a complimentary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the life cycle of the virus. See artwork: GR-32.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)
Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS
Video by Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube
When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
HIV Rotation
The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or, in the case of drug addicts, a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another user. HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.
Image by TheVisualMD
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
BruceBlaus
HIV Drug Classes
Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)
HIV-infected H9 T cell
NIAID
HIV Virus
NIAID
HIV-1 Neurotropism
J Roberto Trujillo
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
TheVisualMD
(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus
Wellcome Trust
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AIDS Life Cycle Illustration
National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)
6:52
Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS
Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube
3:52
When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)
Healthguru/YouTube
HIV Rotation
TheVisualMD
Chorionic Villus Sampling
Chorionic Villus Sampling
Also called: CVS, Chorionic Villus Biopsy, Placental Biopsy
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a test for pregnant women that checks cells from the placenta. It is used in the first trimester of pregnancy to diagnose certain chromosome and genetic disorders in an unborn baby.
Chorionic Villus Sampling
Also called: CVS, Chorionic Villus Biopsy, Placental Biopsy
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a test for pregnant women that checks cells from the placenta. It is used in the first trimester of pregnancy to diagnose certain chromosome and genetic disorders in an unborn baby.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that no signs of chromosomal or genetic defects were detected in your developing baby.
Related conditions
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is test for pregnant women that checks chorionic villi, tiny finger-like growths found in the placenta. The placenta is the organ that nourishes an unborn baby in the uterus. The test looks for abnormalities in the baby's chromosomes. Chromosomes are parts of cells that contain your genes. Genes are parts of DNA passed down from your mother and father. Normally, people have a total of 46 chromosomes.
Chorionic villi contain the same chromosomes as an unborn baby. So, a CVS test can show if a baby has an extra chromosome or a missing or damaged chromosome. These chromosome differences can cause serious health problems.
CVS is a prenatal diagnostic test, which means it can almost always tell for sure whether an unborn baby has a chromosome disorder. This is different than a prenatal screening test, which only shows whether a baby has an increased risk of a serious health problem.
CVS testing is used to diagnose chromosome problems or other genetic diseases in an unborn baby. These include:
Down syndrome, a disorder that causes intellectual disabilities, certain physical features, and various health problems.
Cystic fibrosis, a disease that causes mucus buildup in the lungs and other organs, making it hard to breathe.
Sickle cell disease, a disorder of the red blood cells. It can cause pain, infections, organ damage, and strokes.
Tay-Sachs disease, a disorder that causes fatty proteins to build up in the brain. It affects sight, hearing, and mental development. Most children with Tay-Sachs die by the age of 5.
CVS testing is very accurate and can be done early in pregnancy, between the 10th and 13th week. But it can only diagnose certain genetic diseases. A CVS test does not diagnose or screen for birth defects such as neural tube defects, conditions that cause abnormal development of a developing baby's brain and/or spine. Different tests, including an alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) blood test, are used to screen for or diagnose these and other birth defects.
You may need CVS testing if you are at higher risk for having a baby with a chromosome disorder. Risk factors include:
Age. Women age 35 and older have a higher risk of having a baby with Down syndrome or another genetic disorder.
Family history of a genetic disorder
Having another child with a genetic disorder
You may also need CVS testing if you had abnormal results on a prenatal screening test.
There are two types of CVS tests:
Transabdominal The sample is taken through the abdomen.
Transcervical. The sample is taken through the cervix. The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus that opens into the vagina.
Your provider will use an ultrasound to check your baby's position and guide the procedure (transabdominal or transcervical). Ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create pictures.
During a transabdominal CVS, your provider will:
Clean your abdomen with an antiseptic.
Apply a numbing medicine to your abdomen.
Insert a long, thin needle through your abdomen and uterus and into the placenta. You may feel a cramping or stinging sensation as the needle enters the uterus.
Use the needle to withdraw a sample of tissue from the placenta.
Remove the needle.
During a transcervical CVS, your provider will:
Clean your vagina and cervix with an antiseptic
Use an instrument called a speculum to gently spread apart the sides of your vagina.
Insert a thin tube through your vagina and cervix and up to the placenta. You may feel a slight twinge or cramping as this is done.
Use the tube to gently suck in a sample of tissue from the placenta.
Remove the tube.
On the morning of the test, you may be asked to drink extra fluids and not urinate. This will fill your bladder, which may help move the uterus into a better position for the procedure.
CVS is generally considered to be a safe procedure, but it does have some risks. These include:
Miscarriage, which happens in about one in every hundred procedures
Infection
Bleeding
Rh sensitization. This is a condition in which your body makes antibodies (proteins made by the immune system) that attack your baby's red blood cells. If diagnosed during pregnancy, it is easily treatable.
Limb defects in the baby (this is very rare)
CVS test results are usually available within two weeks.
If your results were not normal, it may mean your baby has a chromosome or genetic disorder, such as Down syndrome or cystic fibrosis. Occasionally, CVS test results are unclear, and your provider may recommend amniocentesis. Amniocentesis is another prenatal diagnostic test. It is performed between the 15th and 20th week of pregnancy.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Some chromosome and genetic disorders require your baby to have extensive medical treatments. Other disorders may not be treatable. If your CVS test results were not normal, you should talk with your health care provider about your options and the decisions you may need to make. It may also help to speak to a genetic counselor both before and after you get your results. A genetic counselor is a specially trained professional in genetics and can help you understand what your results mean.
http://americanpregnancy.org/prenatal-testing/chorionic-villus-sampling/ [accessed on Jan 26, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003406.htm [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/down-syndrome-tests/ [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/diagnosis.html [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/chorionic-villus-sampling-cvs [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (14)
Chorionic Villus Sampling
Video by manny1976/YouTube
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
Prenatal screening, fetal testing, and other tests during pregnancy
Video by MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Prenatal Diagnostic Testing
If a pregnant woman has an abnormal genetic screening test result, a doctor may suggest a prenatal diagnostic test be done to determine with more certainly whether or not a fetus has a particular disorder. There are two main diagnostic testing procedures, chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis. Both of these tests involve collecting a sample from inside the womb, which is then examined to detect diseases such as Down Syndrome, Edwards Syndrome, neural tube defects, cystic fibrosis, fragile-x, and spinal muscular atrophy. Prenatal diagnostic tests provide valuable information on the health of the fetus and can help alleviate the stress of expectant parents.
Video by TheVisualMD
Diagnostic Testing in Pregnancy
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Prenatal Testing - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
Amniocentesis: Pre-Baby Care (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) Mnemonic
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
First Trimester of Pregnancy -- CVS Prenatal Test | Parents
Video by Parents/YouTube
Genetic Testing During Pregnancy
Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube
Video by UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube
Embryo 26 Day Old (Week 5 for Gestational Age) Suspended in Chorionic Cavity
Computer Generated Image from Micro-MRI, actual size of embryo = 4.0 mm - This image presents a right-sided view of the embryo during its fourth week of embryonic development. The age is calculated from the day of fertilization. At the beginning of the 4th week, the heart begins to beat and the embryonic circulation sets in. At the end of 4 weeks over 30 somites are present . Somites are paired blocks of cells which in the later stages of development give rise to connective tissue, bone, muscle and the spine. The embryo is suspended in the protective chorionic cavity by the body stalk (the amniotic cavity and yolk sac have been removed to demonstrate the C-shaped curvature of the embryo). The red spot in the head region indicates the developing eye.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chorionic villi
Chorionic villus
Image by BruceBlaus
Chorionic villi
Schematic view of the placenta and chorion.
Image by Swils6
4:42
Chorionic Villus Sampling
manny1976/YouTube
4:16
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
18:42
Prenatal screening, fetal testing, and other tests during pregnancy
MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube
4:34
Prenatal Diagnostic Testing
TheVisualMD
2:10
Diagnostic Testing in Pregnancy
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
1:45
Prenatal Testing - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
2:01
Amniocentesis: Pre-Baby Care (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Healthguru/YouTube
2:13
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) Mnemonic
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
2:44
First Trimester of Pregnancy -- CVS Prenatal Test | Parents
Parents/YouTube
4:38
Genetic Testing During Pregnancy
University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube
Embryo 26 Day Old (Week 5 for Gestational Age) Suspended in Chorionic Cavity
TheVisualMD
Chorionic villi
BruceBlaus
Chorionic villi
Swils6
Pap Smear
Pap Smear
Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test
A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.
Pap Smear
Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test
A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative or normal test result is reported as "Negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy". However, a negative report may also note benign findings such as infections or inflammation.
Related conditions
A Pap smear is a test to help prevent cervical cancer or find it early. The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus that opens into the vagina. During a Pap smear, a health care provider collects cells from the cervix and sends them to a lab.
At the lab, the cells are checked under a microscope for cancer or for signs that they may become cancer. Cells that may become cancer are called precancers. Finding and treating precancers can help prevent cervical cancer. The Pap smear is also a reliable way to find cancer early when it's easier to treat.
Other names for a Pap smear: Pap test, cervical cytology, Papanicolaou test, Pap smear test, vaginal smear technique
A Pap smear looks for abnormal changes in cervical cells before they become cancer. Sometimes the cells collected during a Pap smear are also checked for HPV, a virus that can cause cell changes that may lead to cancer.
Pap smears and HPV tests are cervical cancer screening tests that look for cancer before you have any symptoms. Research shows that cervical cancer screening can greatly reduce the number of new cervical cancer cases and deaths from the disease. Ask your provider which test is right for you or if you should have both a Pap smear and an HPV test.
In general, if you're between age 21 and 65, you should have regular Pap smears:
If you're between ages 21 and 29 and your last Pap test result was normal, your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
If you're between ages 30 and 65 and your last Pap smear result was normal:
Your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
If you also had a normal HPV test result, your provider may say that you can wait five years until your next test.
If you're over age 65, your provider may tell you that you don't need Pap smears anymore if you:
Have had normal Pap smears for several years.
Have had surgery to remove your uterus and cervix because you had a condition that was not cancer, such as fibroids.
If you have a higher risk for developing cervical cancer, your provider may recommend screening more often or after age 65. You may have a higher risk if you:
Had an abnormal Pap smear in the past
Have HIV
Have a weakened immune system
Were exposed to a drug called DES (Diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between the years 1940–1971, DES was prescribed during pregnancy to prevent miscarriages. It was later linked to an increased risk of certain cancers in the female children exposed to it during the pregnancy.
If you're under age 21, cervical cancer screening is not recommended. Your risk of cervical cancer is very low. Also, any changes in cervical cells are likely to go away on their own.
If you are unsure whether you need a Pap smear, talk with your provider.
During a Pap smear you will lie on an exam table. Your provider will use a plastic or metal instrument called a speculum to widen the vagina, so the cervix can be seen. Your provider will then use a small, soft brush or swab to collect cells from the cervix. The cell sample is sent to a lab for testing.
A Pap smear is often done as part of a pelvic exam. During a pelvic exam, your provider examines your uterus, ovaries, and genital area. But a pelvic exam doesn't always include a Pap smear. So, when you have a pelvic exam, ask your provider whether you'll have a Pap smear, too.
You should not have a Pap smear while you are having your period. A good time to have the test is about five days after the last day of your period. For two to three days before your test, you should not:
Use tampons
Use birth control foam, jelly, or cream
Use other creams or medicines in the vagina
Douche (rinse the vagina with water or other fluid)
Have vaginal sex
You may feel some mild discomfort during a Pap smear. Afterwards, you may have some very light bleeding. But there are no known risks to having a Pap smear.
A Pap smear test has three possible results:
Normal Pap smear or "negative" result. No abnormal changes were found in the cells of your cervix. Your provider may tell you that you can wait three years for your next test. If you also had a normal HPV test result, you may be able to wait five years for your next test, depending on your age and medical history.
Unclear or unsatisfactory results. The lab sample may not have had enough cells, or the cells may have been clumped together or hidden by mucus. Your provider will usually ask you to come in for another test in 2 to 4 months.
Abnormal Pap smear or "positive" result. Abnormal changes were found in your cervical cells. Most of the time, abnormal results do not mean you have cervical cancer. Minor changes in the cells usually go back to normal on their own. But your provider may recommend a follow-up test to check. More serious cell changes may turn into cancer if they are not removed. Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cancer from developing.
Talk with your health care provider to learn what your Pap smear results mean.
Thousands of women in the U.S. die from cervical cancer every year. A Pap smear, along with an HPV test, is one of the most effective ways to prevent cervical cancer.
Pap Smear: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
Definition of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
192005: Gynecologic Pap Test, Liquid-based Preparation | LabCorp [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
https://www.acog.org/Patients/FAQs/Abnormal-Cervical-Cancer-Screening-Test-Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
Understanding Abnormal Cervical Cancer Screening Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
A cervical screening test - What can you expect?
Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)
Video by Med Twice/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Pap Smear showing Chlamydia
Human pap smear showing Chlamydia in the vacuoles at 500x and stained with H&E.
Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer
Sensitive content
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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)
A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer as well as a number of different types of infections. The test involves collecting cells from the cervix. A speculum is inserted into the vagina, and samples of cervical cells are collected and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives women a greater chance of being cured. A Pap smear can also detect changes in cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women over 30, the Pap smear may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted infection that may cause cervical cancer in some women.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
The human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact. It may cause genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually. However, only a small subset of these strains are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. HPV vaccines are available for both men and women to prevent infection by some of the more dangerous virus strains associated with the development of cervical cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
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HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests
HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests: Pap tests (ie, cervical cytology) are the most common way to screen for cervical cancer and routine Pap testing is credited with widely reducing the incidence of cervical cancer since the tests implementation. Pap tests are, however, limited by their relatively low sensitivity and specificity.Studies suggest that testing for high-risk HPV DNA is a more sensitive method of determining a woman`s risk of developing cervical cancer. Though current high-risk HPV DNA testing methods provide adequate sensitivity, specificity is lacking, which can lead to false-positive results and unnecessary invasive procedures such as colposcopy and biopsy. Its important for every woman to talk to her doctor about what tests are right for her.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Risk Factors for Cancer: Virus : Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid the virus responsible for genital HPV infection one of the most common sexually transmitted infections. Often asymptomatic genital HPV infection is spread through genital skin-to-skin contact causes genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal rectal and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV and more than 40 of these are transmitted sexually; however only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. Consistent condom use has been shown to reduce the risk of HPV infection by as much as 70% but condoms do not protect all anatomy vulnerable to the virus. Vaccines that can prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains are widely available.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pap Smear
A female Caucasian scientist examining pap smears under the microscope.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)
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Pap Smear Laser
One of the many uses for the laser in medical research is as a light source to detect premalignant and malignant cells in a Pap smear. Gynecologic cells passing in a stream through the laser beam where each cell is analyzed. Abnormal-appearing cells can be sorted from the rest of the cells and later examined by a pathologist for evidence of cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer
Endometrial Cancer
Endometrial cancer is the most commonly diagnosed gynecological cancer. Women with clear cell endometrial cancer, a rare type of endometrial cancer, generally have poorer clinical outcomes
Image by Darryl Leja, NHGRI
Advanced Cancer Cell Growth in Cervix
Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of advanced cancerous cell growth of cervix. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 3 of 3.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Healthy Cervix
The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus where it joins with the top of the vagina. The opening of the the cervix into the vagina is called the external os, and can vary in appearance from a small, circular opening in women who have not given birth, to a wider, more slit-like opening in women who have had children. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Women should be screened for cellular changes of the cervix with a pap smear as part of a regular pelvic exam. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted. Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. In 2006, the FDA approved an HPV vaccine (Gardisil) that protects against viral types that cause most cases of cervical cancer as well as genital warts. Public health experts recommend routine vaccination for girls ages 11-12 to ensure vaccine effectiveness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Studying Cells
These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left. The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus (HPV). Notice that the infected cells are larger; also, two of these cells each have two nuclei instead of one, the normal number. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman, MD; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.
Image by TheVisualMD
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Anterior view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Cell Growth in Cervix
Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of healthy cervical cells. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 3.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section
Medical visualization of a lateral cross-section of a healthy cervix, as well as the uterus and vagina. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 2.
Image by TheVisualMD
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted infections.
Image by TheVisualMD
2:13
A cervical screening test - What can you expect?
Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
6:01
Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)
Med Twice/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Pap Smear showing Chlamydia
Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer
Sensitive content
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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)
TheVisualMD
Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests
TheVisualMD
3:40
Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
TheVisualMD
Pap Smear
National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)
Prenatal ultrasound is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to generate images of the fetus. Ultrasounds can be performed at any time; however, they are usually done and are more useful during the first trimester of pregnancy.
Prenatal ultrasound is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to generate images of the fetus. Ultrasounds can be performed at any time; however, they are usually done and are more useful during the first trimester of pregnancy.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
* Your baby is growing at a normal rate.
* You have the right amount of amniotic fluid.
* No birth defects were found, though not all birth defects will show up on a sonogram.
Related conditions
Prenatal ultrasound is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to generate images of the fetus. This test is used for a thorough check of fetal anatomy, growth, and heart rate.
Ultrasounds are usually done in the first trimester, but can be done at any time during pregnancy.
All pregnant women should have at least one ultrasound.
Your first trimester ultrasound is done to confirm the fetal heartbeat; make sure the fetus is implanted in your uterus; check the age, growth, and size of the fetus; identify a multiple pregnancy; and look for major birth defects. Your baby's sex cannot yet be identified at this time.
During the second and third trimesters of your pregnancy, an advanced ultrasound is performed. This ultrasound is very similar to the ultrasound performed in the first trimester, but more sophisticated equipment is used for a thorough check of fetal anatomy, growth, and heart rate.
Advanced ultrasound is also called “anatomy scan” because it looks very thoroughly at different parts of the fetus’s body to see if there are any problems. Internal organs, including the heart, stomach, brain, and spine, are examined. Specific measurements (for example, the crown-to-rump length) are made to make sure the baby is growing normally. The fetal heart rate is noted along with the level of the amniotic fluid and the location of the placenta.
Sex organs are visible now, so be sure and tell the sonographer if you don’t want to know your baby’s gender!
First trimester ultrasounds may be done through the belly or more commonly through the vagina, while second and third trimester ultrasounds are done through the belly.
If done through the belly (abdominal ultrasound), a gel is applied to the area and a handheld transducer is run across your lower abdomen. If done vaginally (transvaginal ultrasound), a wand-shaped transducer is covered with a condom and inserted into your vagina.
Ultrasound exams are noninvasive and are very low risk when used by skilled practitioners.
First Trimester / Dating Ultrasound | Advanced Women's Imaging [accessed on Oct 02, 2018]
http://www.advancedwomensimaging.com.au/second-trimester-morphology-ultrasound [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/prenatal-ultrasound.html [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
https://www.webmd.com/baby/ultrasound#1 [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
High Risk Pregnancy: Ultrasound Services
Video by Swedish/YouTube
Prenatal Ultrasound
Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
Getting A Pregnancy Ultrasound | Kaiser Permanente
Video by Kaiser Permanente Thrive/YouTube
3 Questions to ask at your ultrasound | Boston Children's Hospital
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Obstetric ultrasonography
Ultrasound image of fetus at 14 weeks (profile)
Image by X.Compagnion (cropped by Hidro)
Ultrasound Scan ND 1231102308 1028500
A well defined hypoechoic lesion is seen in choroid plexsus. Choroid plexsus cyst. It may regress automatically. Medical ultrasound image. Provided as-is. Please feel free to categorise, add description, crop.
Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Head-3D
Ultrasound to detect possible kidney cysts
Drawing of female health worker giving an ultrasound examination to a female patient. An ultrasound imaging device passes harmless sound waves through the body to detect possible kidney cysts.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Drawing of a fetus with an enlarged kidney visible, as seen in an ultrasound. The enlarged kidney is labeled
A prenatal ultrasound can show enlarged kidneys, ureters, or bladders in babies.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests
The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.
Image by TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
Medical ultrasound examination of a pregnant woman.
Image by Scott
Megacystis
Megacystis in fetus : Ultrasound revealing megacystis in a fetus with Down syndrome.
Image by X.Compagnion
Fetal Ultrasound
Ultrasound image (sonogram) of a fetus in the womb.
Image by BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
Fetal Ultrasound Excess?
Video by Wall Street Journal/YouTube
Understanding your fetal ultrasound
Video by UTSWMed/YouTube
Fetal Diagnosis of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia (CDH) (2 of 11)
Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
2:58
High Risk Pregnancy: Ultrasound Services
Swedish/YouTube
4:00
Prenatal Ultrasound
Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
1:10
Getting A Pregnancy Ultrasound | Kaiser Permanente
Kaiser Permanente Thrive/YouTube
1:26
3 Questions to ask at your ultrasound | Boston Children's Hospital
Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Obstetric ultrasonography
X.Compagnion (cropped by Hidro)
Ultrasound Scan ND 1231102308 1028500
Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Head-3D
Ultrasound to detect possible kidney cysts
NIDDK Image Library
Drawing of a fetus with an enlarged kidney visible, as seen in an ultrasound. The enlarged kidney is labeled
NIDDK Image Library
PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests
TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
Scott
Megacystis
X.Compagnion
Fetal Ultrasound
BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
2:46
Fetal Ultrasound Excess?
Wall Street Journal/YouTube
4:54
Understanding your fetal ultrasound
UTSWMed/YouTube
7:36
Fetal Diagnosis of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia (CDH) (2 of 11)
The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening
Also called: Cell-Free fetal DNA testing for fetal chromosomal abnormalities, Cell-free fetal DNA, cffDNA, Non-invasive prenatal test, NIPT, cfDNA, Cell Free DNA Screening
A prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. It checks to see if an unborn baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another chromosome disorder.
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening
Also called: Cell-Free fetal DNA testing for fetal chromosomal abnormalities, Cell-free fetal DNA, cffDNA, Non-invasive prenatal test, NIPT, cfDNA, Cell Free DNA Screening
A prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. It checks to see if an unborn baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another chromosome disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative cell-free fetal DNA test result means that it is very unlikely that the baby has trisomy 13, 18, or 21.
Related conditions
Prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. During pregnancy, some of an unborn baby's DNA circulates in the mother's bloodstream. A cfDNA screening checks this DNA to find out if the baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another disorder caused by a trisomy.
A trisomy is a disorder of the chromosomes. Chromosomes are the parts of your cells that contain your genes. Genes are parts of DNA passed down from your mother and father. They carry information that determines your unique traits, such as height and eye color.
People normally have 46 chromosomes, divided into 23 pairs, in each cell.
If one of these pairs has an extra copy of a chromosome, it's called a trisomy. A trisomy causes changes in the way the body and brain develop.
In Down syndrome, there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. This is also known as trisomy 21. Down syndrome is the most common chromosome disorder in the United States.
Other trisomy disorders include Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18), where there is an extra copy of chromosome 18, and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13), where there is an extra copy of chromosome 13. These disorders are rare but more serious than Down syndrome. Most babies with trisomy 18 or trisomy 13 die within the first year of life.
A cfDNA screening has very little risk to you and your baby, but it can't tell you for sure whether your baby has a chromosome disorder. Your health care provider will need to order other tests to confirm or rule out a diagnosis.
A cfDNA screening is most often used to show if your unborn baby has an increased risk for one of the following chromosome disorders:
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18)
Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)
The screening may also be used to:
Determine a baby's gender (sex). This may be done if an ultrasound shows that a baby's genitals are not clearly male or female. This may be caused by a disorder of the sex chromosomes.
Check Rh blood type. Rh is a protein found on red blood cells. If you have the protein, you are considered Rh positive. If you don't, you are Rh negative. If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body's immune system may attack your baby's blood cells. If you find out you are Rh negative early in pregnancy, you can take medicines to protect your baby from dangerous complications.
A cfDNA screening can be done as early as the 10th week of pregnancy.
Many health care providers recommend this screening to pregnant women who are at higher risk of having a baby with a chromosome disorder. You may be at higher risk if:
You are age 35 or older. A mother's age is the primary risk factor for having a baby with Down syndrome or other trisomy disorders. The risk increases as a woman gets older.
You've had another baby with a chromosome disorder.
Your fetal ultrasound didn't look normal.
Other prenatal test results were not normal.
Some health care providers recommend screening to all pregnant women. This is because the screening has almost no risk and has a high rate of accuracy compared with other prenatal screening tests.
You and your health care provider should discuss if a cfDNA screening is right for you.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You may want to speak to a genetic counselor before you get tested. A genetic counselor is a specially trained professional in genetics and genetic testing. He or she can explain the possible results and what they might mean to you and your baby.
There is no risk to your unborn baby and very little risk to you. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results were negative, it's unlikely that your baby has Down syndrome or another trisomy disorder. If your results were positive, it means there is an increased risk that your baby has one of these disorders. But it can't tell you for sure if your baby is affected. For a more confirmed diagnosis you'll need other tests, such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). These tests are usually very safe procedures, but they do have a slight risk of causing a miscarriage.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider and/or a genetic counselor.
cfDNA screenings are not as accurate in women who are pregnant with more than one baby (twins, triplets, or more).
Cell-Free Fetal DNA. Lab Tests Online. [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
What is noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) and what disorders can it screen for? Genetics Home Reference (GHR), U.S. National Library of Medicine [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
Prenatal cell-free DNA screening - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
FAQ: Cell-Free DNA Screening | Patient Education | UCSF Medical Center [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (23)
Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA)
Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA) migrating into the maternal blood stream via the apoptotic trophoblast cells shedding off the placental tissue.
Image by Swils6/Wikimedia
Pinpointing Genes
This illustration explains chromosome staining, inherited markers, and DNA cloning.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Jane Hurd (Illustrator)
DNA Molecule
DNA Molecule
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
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Liquid biopsy
Tumor cells shed protein and DNA into bloodstream for laboratory analysis and early cancer detection.
Image by Jill George/NIH
Amniocentesis
BruceBlaus
Image by Wikimedia Commons
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time
hCG testing for pregnancy is available to women of child-bearing age. The \"quad\" screen, of which hCG is a component, is especially recommended for women with higher-risk pregnancies as indicated by factors such as maternal age, family history, and disease history. Levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 12-14 days after conception by a urine test. In general the hCG levels will double every 72 hours. The level will reach its peak in the first 8-11 weeks of pregnancy and then will decline and level off for the remainder of the pregnancy.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) is a prenatal diagnostic test that gathers information about a fetus' health from a sample of chorionic villi cells from the placenta. If a woman is at high risk for a genetic disease, a doctor may recommend CVS to determine whether a baby has certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, among other diseases.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit
An ultrasound is a simple test during pregnancy that will give your healthcare provider a detailed look at your baby's progress. Learn helpful tips for what to expect and how to stay healthy while pregnant.
Image by TheVisualMD
The Tipsy Test Genebook from BGI
BGI "Genebook", an experimental platform for genetic testing being offered as a perk to the staff. The Tipsy test screens alcohol metabolism genes and gives a score on how well you should be able to metabolise alcohol
Image by Scotted400
Factors affecting penetrance
Factors affecting penetrance
Image by Genomics Education Program
Hipaa Violations by Type
This chart breaks Hipaa Privacy Violations down by the percentage of total violations for each violation type. Based on data available from The U.S Department of Health and Human Services for the period 9/22/2009 to 07/04/2012. Includes the following types: sensitive data disclosed without permision, data compromised by hackers, improper disposal of data, data lost and not accounted for, data physically stolen, and other/unknown. I created this chart in Microsoft Excel 2010 using the information provided on this page of the HHS.gov website.
I altered the descriptions used by HHS to make them more descriptive. For example, I changed 'Theft' to 'Data Stolen Physically' as it specifically refers to data that was stolen by physically carying an item out of the place of business.
Image by Compliance and Safety LLC
Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer
Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer.
Image by WassermanLab
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
1♂︎—Sperm is collected from a male.
1♀︎—Eggs are collected via in vitro fertilization from a female.
2—The sperm and eggs are fertilized.
3a—The embryos are allowed to develop; those that thrive are given identifiers.
3b—A genetic test is run on each embryo for a given trait and the results are matched with the embryos.
4—The embryos without the desired trait are identified and discarded.
5—The remaining embryos are allowed to grow to the point that they can be implanted.
6a—The embryos with the desired trait are implanted.
6b—The embryos result in a healthy pregnancy.
6c—Fraternal twins with the desired trait, not expressed in their mother, are born.
Image by Psiĥedelisto, Vincent Le Moign, and Nevit Dilmen (User:Nevit)
Genetic discrimination
genetic discrimination
Image by TheVisualMD
Pinpointing Genes in Cancer
This illustration explains about 1) chromosome staining, 2)inherited markers and 3) DNA cloning.
Image by Jane Hurd (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Genetic Changes and Cancer
Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Types of Genetic Mutations
Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)
Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
Screening in Pregnancy
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Stanford Hospital's Dr. Jane Chueh on Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis
Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube
Cell-free DNA Analysis and Cancer Treatment
Video by NEJMvideo/YouTube
Prenatal Screening Options: cfDNA (cell free DNA)
Video by UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube
Cell-Free DNA Prenatal Screen
Video by Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA)
Swils6/Wikimedia
Pinpointing Genes
National Cancer Institute / Jane Hurd (Illustrator)
DNA Molecule
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Liquid biopsy
Jill George/NIH
Amniocentesis
Wikimedia Commons
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
TheVisualMD
Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit
TheVisualMD
The Tipsy Test Genebook from BGI
Scotted400
Factors affecting penetrance
Genomics Education Program
Hipaa Violations by Type
Compliance and Safety LLC
Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer
WassermanLab
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
Psiĥedelisto, Vincent Le Moign, and Nevit Dilmen (User:Nevit)
Genetic discrimination
TheVisualMD
Pinpointing Genes in Cancer
Jane Hurd (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Genetic Changes and Cancer
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Types of Genetic Mutations
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
3:54
Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)
Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
5:34
Screening in Pregnancy
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
1:11:38
Stanford Hospital's Dr. Jane Chueh on Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis
Stanford Health Care/YouTube
3:36
Cell-free DNA Analysis and Cancer Treatment
NEJMvideo/YouTube
4:56
Prenatal Screening Options: cfDNA (cell free DNA)
UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube
4:58
Cell-Free DNA Prenatal Screen
Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt1
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt2
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Video by Seeker+/YouTube
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
TheVisualMD
Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:11
Complete Blood Count
Tom Wade MD/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
Med Immersion/YouTube
22:14
Complete Blood Count pt2
Med Immersion/YouTube
0:06
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:07
Anemic Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
8:29
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
10:42
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
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Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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4500
11000
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel or fingertip with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a few drops of blood and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
A bacterial or viral infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(10³)/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Normal.
A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Clotting is the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. There are two types of platelet tests: a platelet count test and platelet function tests.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. A higher than normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or too much clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
Nosebleeds
Unexplained bruising
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to the bone marrow
Cirrhosis
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Normal.
Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
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Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
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2
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Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose in your urine. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If too much glucose gets into the blood, the extra glucose will be eliminated through your urine. A urine glucose test can be used to help determine if blood glucose levels are too high, which may be a sign of diabetes.
A glucose in urine test may be part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. A glucose in urine test may also be used to screen for diabetes. However, a urine glucose test is not as accurate as a blood glucose test. It may be ordered if blood glucose testing is difficult or not possible. Some people can't get blood drawn because their veins are too small or too scarred from repeated punctures. Other people avoid blood tests due to extreme anxiety or fear of needles.
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
Increased thirst
More frequent urination
Blurred vision
Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
You don't need any special preparations for this test.
There is no known risk to having a glucose in urine test.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
Diabetes
Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
TheVisualMD
Prenatal Genetic Screening
Prenatal Genetic Screening
Also called: Prenatal DNA Testing, Carrier Screening for Genetic Disorders
Genetic tests look at the genetic information, called DNA, carried inside a person’s cells. When genetic screening is done for a baby’s parents, it can determine if either or both of the parents carry genes for a disease or disorder that can be passed on to their child.
Prenatal Genetic Screening
Also called: Prenatal DNA Testing, Carrier Screening for Genetic Disorders
Genetic tests look at the genetic information, called DNA, carried inside a person’s cells. When genetic screening is done for a baby’s parents, it can determine if either or both of the parents carry genes for a disease or disorder that can be passed on to their child.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
No genetic disorders found.
Related conditions
Genetic tests look at the genetic information, called DNA, carried inside a person’s cells. When genetic screening is done for a baby’s parents, it can determine if either or both of the parents carry genes for a disease or disorder that can be passed on to their child.
Genetic screening can also be done for a fetus, before birth, or for a baby, after birth.
You should consider genetic screening if:
You or your partner has a family history of a specific genetic disorder, such as cystic fibrosis.
You belong to an ethnic group in which a genetic disease is more common—for instance, sickle cell disease in African Americans.
You will be 35 or older on your due date, as your chances of having a child with genetic abnormalities increase as you get older.
You have experienced multiple miscarriages, because the presence of genetic abnormalities in the fetus may be causing the miscarriages.
In adults and newborns, genetic screening usually requires only a blood sample. Sometimes a swab sample from the inside of your cheek is required. Rarely, a skin or muscle biopsy needs to be done.
For fetuses, genetic screening can be done at 9-12 weeks by sampling fetal cells from the placenta, called chorionic villus sampling (CVS), or at 15-22 weeks, using cells from the amniotic fluid. Maternal blood tests (PAPP-A and quad screen) and ultrasound exams are also used to detect abnormalities.
Collection of amniotic fluid and CVS and carry the risk of miscarriage (0.5-1% following amniocentesis and 1% following CVS), infection, and bleeding.
There are nonphysical risks to genetic testing as well. Results of genetic tests may be reported to insurance companies. A genetic test may be inconclusive, which can lead to anxiety and indecision. Genetic tests may also miss abnormalities.
Finally, learning that your child may develop a serious disease or be physically or mentally handicapped can be a huge psychological burden and pose a grave dilemma. Most parents, though, prefer to make their decisions—whatever they may be—from an informed point of view.
https://arupconsult.com/content/carrier-screening-genetic-disorders [accessed on Sep 03, 2020]
https://medlineplus.gov/genetictesting.html [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://www.acog.org/Patients/FAQs/Prenatal-Genetic-Screening-Tests?IsMobileSet=false [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/genetics.html [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=uses-of-genetic-testing-90-P02160 [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/genetic-testing/about/pac-20384827 [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Prenatal Screening and Genetic Testing: Expert Q&A
Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube
Understanding options for expanding prenatal genetic screening with non-invasive prenatal testing
Video by Illumina/YouTube
Stanford Hospital's Dr. Jane Chueh on Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis
Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube
An introduction to genetics & prenatal genetic testing
Video by Illumina/YouTube
Prenatal testing for chromosomal abnormalities
Video by Northwell Health/YouTube
Understanding Prenatal Screening and Testing Options at OSU Maternal Fetal Medicine
Video by Ohio State Wexner Medical Center/YouTube
Prenatal Testing
Video by Stanford Children's Health | Lucile Packard Children's Hospital Stanford/YouTube
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Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, an inherited disorder, is a condition characterized by neurological and behavioral abnormalities and the overproduction of uric acid in the body. This can lead to gouty arthritis as well as kidney and bladder stones. It occurs almost exclusively in males. Explore more about this rare syndrome.