Helicobacter pylori infection? Because it's often found late, it can be hard to treat stomach cancer. Learn more about symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.
Abdomen Revealing Digestive Organ
Image by TheVisualMD
Stomach Cancer
3D Medical Animation Still Shot Defining Regions of Stomach
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
3D Medical Animation Still Shot Defining Regions of Stomach
3D Medical Animation Still Showing esophagus, cardia, fundus, the body and pylrous
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Stomach Cancer
The stomach is an organ between the esophagus and the small intestine. It mixes food with stomach acid and helps digest protein. Stomach cancer mostly affects older people - two-thirds of people who have it are over age 65. Your risk of getting it is also higher if you:
Have had a Helicobacter pylori infection
Have had stomach inflammation
Are a man
Eat lots of salted, smoked, or pickled foods
Smoke cigarettes
Have a family history of stomach cancer
It is hard to diagnose stomach cancer in its early stages. Indigestion and stomach discomfort can be symptoms of early cancer, but other problems can cause the same symptoms. In advanced cases, there may be blood in your stool, vomiting, unexplained weight loss, jaundice, or trouble swallowing. Doctors diagnose stomach cancer with a physical exam, blood and imaging tests, an endoscopy, and a biopsy.
Because it is often found late, it can be hard to treat stomach cancer. Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation or a combination.
Source: NIH: National Cancer Institute
Additional Materials (10)
Abdomen Revealing Digestive Organ
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of an oblique view of the digestive organs. The digestive system is comprised of an alimentary canal and accessory organs; together they break down complex food stuffs into the simple structures the body can use, absorb the nutrients into the blood stream, and eliminate the leftover waste.
Image by TheVisualMD
Life without a stomach: Jim's story
Video by Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
Is Bad Breath a Sign of Stomach Cancer?
Video by The Doctors/YouTube
Eric McDearmon: Stomach Cancer & Total Gastrectomy
Video by Henry Ford Allegiance Health/YouTube
Surviving Stomach Cancer - Versie's Story - Nebraska Medicine
Video by Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
How to eat after surgery for cancer of the oesophagus or stomach
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Dana-Farber Leads FDA Approval of Stomach Cancer Drug | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
CT Scan for Stomach Cancer CTCA
Video by CANCER AWARENESS/YouTube
Japan's stomach cancer problem 【胃がんの問題】日英字幕
Video by Rachel and Jun/YouTube
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Stomach Cancer
A stomach ulcer that was diagnosed as cancer on biopsy and surgically removed.. This cancer presented in a 40-year-old woman complaining of abdominal pain. Endoscopically it was a "very suspicious" ulcer. Biopsy showed diffusely infiltrating signet ring cell adenocarcinoma. These are gross photos of the subtotal gastrectomy specimen. The photo above is asen face view of the ulcer. The pyloric margin is to the left. The ulcer is on the lesser curvature.
Image by Ed Uthman, MD.
Abdomen Revealing Digestive Organ
TheVisualMD
2:38
Life without a stomach: Jim's story
Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
5:43
Is Bad Breath a Sign of Stomach Cancer?
The Doctors/YouTube
4:45
Eric McDearmon: Stomach Cancer & Total Gastrectomy
Henry Ford Allegiance Health/YouTube
2:47
Surviving Stomach Cancer - Versie's Story - Nebraska Medicine
Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
3:32
How to eat after surgery for cancer of the oesophagus or stomach
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
2:36
Dana-Farber Leads FDA Approval of Stomach Cancer Drug | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
1:17
CT Scan for Stomach Cancer CTCA
CANCER AWARENESS/YouTube
9:57
Japan's stomach cancer problem 【胃がんの問題】日英字幕
Rachel and Jun/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Stomach Cancer
Ed Uthman, MD.
What Is Gastric Cancer?
Early stomach cancer 2a
Image by Med Chaos/Wikimedia
Early stomach cancer 2a
Endoscopic image of a early stomach cancer, 0-IIa, tub1.
Image by Med Chaos/Wikimedia
What Is Gastric Cancer?
KEY POINTS
Gastric cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
Age, diet, and stomach disease can affect the risk of developing gastric cancer.
Symptoms of gastric cancer include indigestion and stomach discomfort or pain.
Tests that examine the stomach and esophagus are used to diagnose gastric cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Gastric cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the upper abdomen. It is part of the digestive system, which processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) in foods that are eaten and helps pass waste material out of the body. Food moves from the throat to the stomach through a hollow, muscular tube called the esophagus. After leaving the stomach, partly-digested food passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
The esophagus and stomach are part of the upper gastrointestinal (digestive) system.
The wall of the stomach is made up of 5 layers of tissue. From the innermost layer to the outermost layer, the layers of the stomach wall are: mucosa, submucosa, muscle, subserosa (connective tissue), and serosa. Gastric cancer begins in the mucosa and spreads through the outer layers as it grows.
Stromal tumors of the stomach begin in supporting connective tissue and are treated differently from gastric cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer (whether it is in the stomach only or has spread to lymph nodes or other places in the body).
The patient’s general health.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (7)
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Stomach-Cancer
stomach cancer
Image by Beet012/Wikimedia
Pie chart of stomach cancer types by relative incidence
Pie chart of stomach cancer types by relative incidence. Reference for data: (1991). "Helicobacter pyloriInfection and the Risk of Gastric Carcinoma". New England Journal of Medicine 325 (16): 1127–1131. DOI:10.1056/NEJM199110173251603. ISSN 0028-4793.
Image by
Mikael Häggström, M.D. - Author info - Reusing images- Conflicts of interest: None
Mikael Häggström/Wikimedia
Stomach Cancer - Dr. Manish A. Shah
Video by NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
Gastric Cancer | Minan's Story
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Surgical Oncology for Stomach Cancer: Ask Dr. Waddah Al-Refaie
Video by MedStar Georgetown University Hospital/YouTube
The Link Between Helicobacter Pylori and Gastric Cancer
Video by Targeted Oncology/YouTube
Stomach (Gastric) Cancer | Stephanie’s Story
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
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Stomach-Cancer
Beet012/Wikimedia
Pie chart of stomach cancer types by relative incidence
Mikael Häggström, M.D. - Author info - Reusing images- Conflicts of interest: None
Mikael Häggström/Wikimedia
2:14
Stomach Cancer - Dr. Manish A. Shah
NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
4:52
Gastric Cancer | Minan's Story
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
13:24
Surgical Oncology for Stomach Cancer: Ask Dr. Waddah Al-Refaie
MedStar Georgetown University Hospital/YouTube
1:46
The Link Between Helicobacter Pylori and Gastric Cancer
Targeted Oncology/YouTube
4:12
Stomach (Gastric) Cancer | Stephanie’s Story
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Risk Factors
H. Pylori Antibody
Image by TheVisualMD
H. Pylori Antibody
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped bacterium that is found in the mucous layer or the epithelial lining of the stomach. These bacteria decrease the stomach's ability to produce mucus, making its lining vulnerable to acid damage and ulcers. H. pylori causes more than 90% of ulcers of the duodenum and up to 80% of stomach ulcers. H. pylori is also associated with the development of stomach cancer. Antibiotic treatments can wipe out the infection in most patients.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Increases the Risk of Developing Gastric Cancer?
Age, diet, and stomach disease can affect the risk of developing gastric cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk. Risk factors for gastric cancer include the following:
Having any of the following medical conditions:
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection of the stomach.
Chronic gastritis (inflammation of the stomach).
Pernicious anemia.
Intestinal metaplasia (a condition in which the normal stomach lining is replaced with the cells that line the intestines).
Eating a diet high in salted, smoked foods and low in fruits and vegetables.
Eating foods that have not been prepared or stored properly.
Being older or male.
Smoking cigarettes.
Having a mother, father, sister, or brother who has had stomach cancer.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (4)
Genetic Risk, Screening, and Diagnosis for Gastric Cancer
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Stomach Cancer - Dr. Manish A. Shah
Video by NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
Can Stomach Ulcers Lead to Stomach Cancer?
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
STOMACH CANCER RATES RISING IN YOUNGER AMERICANS
Video by TheJAMAReport/YouTube
7:08
Genetic Risk, Screening, and Diagnosis for Gastric Cancer
OncLiveTV/YouTube
2:14
Stomach Cancer - Dr. Manish A. Shah
NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
1:44
Can Stomach Ulcers Lead to Stomach Cancer?
Lee Health/YouTube
2:25
STOMACH CANCER RATES RISING IN YOUNGER AMERICANS
TheJAMAReport/YouTube
Symptoms
Depiction of a stomach cancer patient
Image by https://www.myupchar.com
Depiction of a stomach cancer patient
This is a depiction of a woman suffering from stomach cancer. Typically, a person may not experience any symptoms to begin with. However, as the condition progresses, one may exhibit symptoms, such as loss of appetite. A cross-section of the stomach with a tumour has been shown.
Image by https://www.myupchar.com
What Are the Symptoms of Gastric Cancer?
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by gastric cancer or by other conditions.
In the early stages of gastric cancer, the following symptoms may occur:
Indigestion and stomach discomfort.
A bloated feeling after eating.
Mild nausea.
Loss of appetite.
Heartburn.
In more advanced stages of gastric cancer, the following signs and symptoms may occur:
Blood in the stool.
Vomiting.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Stomach pain.
Jaundice (yellowing of eyes and skin).
Ascites (build-up of fluid in the abdomen).
Trouble swallowing.
Check with your doctor if you have any of these problems.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (4)
Referred pain
Diagram of discomfort caused by coronary artery disease. Pressure, fullness, squeezing or pain in the center of the chest. Can also feel discomfort in the neck, jaw, shoulder, back or arm.
Image by Ian Furst
Stomach Cancer, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment.
Video by Medical Centric/YouTube
Stomach Cancer - Triggers, Symptoms, Treatments & Prevention
Video by FindMeCure/YouTube
Rare Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Referred pain
Ian Furst
4:52
Stomach Cancer, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment.
Medical Centric/YouTube
4:25
Stomach Cancer - Triggers, Symptoms, Treatments & Prevention
FindMeCure/YouTube
3:31
Rare Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Screening
Stomach
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Stomach
Diagram showing the parts of the stomach.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Screening of Gastric Cancer
What is screening?
Screening is looking for cancer before a person has any symptoms. This can help find cancer at an early stage. When abnormal tissue or cancer is found early, it may be easier to treat. By the time symptoms appear, cancer may have begun to spread.
Scientists are trying to better understand which people are more likely to get certain types of cancer. They also study the things we do and the things around us to see if they cause cancer. This information helps doctors recommend who should be screened for cancer, which screening tests should be used, and how often the tests should be done.
It is important to remember that your doctor does not necessarily think you have cancer if he or she suggests a screening test. Screening tests are given when you have no cancer symptoms.
If a screening test result is abnormal, you may need to have more tests done to find out if you have cancer. These are called diagnostic tests.
General Information About Stomach (Gastric) Cancer
KEY POINTS
Stomach cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
Stomach cancer is not common in the United States.
Older age and certain chronic conditions increase the risk of stomach cancer.
Stomach cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the upper abdomen. It is part of the digestive system, which processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) in foods that are eaten and helps pass waste material out of the body. Food moves from the throat to the stomach through a hollow, muscular tube called the esophagus. After leaving the stomach, partly-digested food passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
The esophagus and stomach are part of the upper gastrointestinal (digestive) system.
The wall of the stomach is made up of 3 layers of tissue: the mucosal (innermost) layer, the muscularis (middle) layer, and the serosal (outermost) layer. Stomach cancer begins in the cells lining the mucosal layer and spreads through the outer layers as it grows.
See the following PDQ summaries for more information about stomach cancer:
Stomach (Gastric) Cancer Prevention
Gastric Cancer Treatment
Stomach cancer is not common in the United States.
Stomach cancer is less common in the United States than in many parts of Asia, Europe, and Central and South America. Stomach cancer is a major cause of death in these parts of the world.
In the United States, the number of new cases of stomach cancer has greatly decreased since 1930. The reasons for this are not clear, but may have to do with better food storage and changes in the diet, such as lower salt intake.
Older age and certain chronic conditions increase the risk of stomach cancer.
Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. Talk to your doctor if you think you may be at risk for stomach cancer. Risk factors for stomach cancer include the following:
Having any of the following medical conditions:
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection of the stomach.
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection.
Chronic gastric atrophy (thinning of the stomach lining caused by long-term inflammation of the stomach).
Pernicious anemia (a type of anemia caused by a vitamin B12 deficiency).
Intestinal metaplasia (a condition in which the cells that line the stomach are replaced by the cells that normally line the intestines).
Polyps in the stomach.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC).
Having a mother, father, sister, or brother who has had stomach cancer.
Having had a partial gastrectomy.
Eating a diet high in salted, smoked foods or low in fruits and vegetables.
Eating foods that have not been prepared or stored the way they should be.
Smoking cigarettes.
The risk of stomach cancer is increased in people who come from countries where stomach cancer is common.
Stomach (Gastric) Cancer Screening
KEY POINTS
Tests are used to screen for different types of cancer when a person does not have symptoms.
There is no standard or routine screening test for stomach cancer.
Screening tests for stomach cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
Tests are used to screen for different types of cancer when a person does not have symptoms.
Scientists study screening tests to find those with the fewest harms and most benefits. Cancer screening trials also are meant to show whether early detection (finding cancer before it causes symptoms) helps a person live longer or decreases a person's chance of dying from the disease. For some types of cancer, the chance of recovery is better if the disease is found and treated at an early stage.
There is no standard or routine screening test for stomach cancer.
Several types of screening tests have been studied to find stomach cancer at an early stage. These screening tests include the following:
Barium-meal gastric photofluorography: A series of x-rays of the esophagus and stomach. The patient drinks a liquid that contains barium (a silver-white metallic compound) which coats the esophagus and stomach as it is swallowed. Photographs are taken of the x-ray images. The photographs are processed to make the organs easier to see and then made into a film. This makes it possible to see the motion of the organs while exposing the patient to less radiation.Barium swallow for stomach cancer. The patient swallows barium liquid and it flows through the esophagus and into the stomach. X-rays are taken to look for abnormal areas.
Upper endoscopy: A procedure to look inside the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (first part of the small intestine) to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is passed through the mouth and down the throat into the esophagus. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue, which is checked under a microscope for signs of disease.Upper endoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the mouth to look for abnormal areas in the esophagus, stomach, and first part of the small intestine.
Serum pepsinogen levels: A test that measures the levels of pepsinogen in the blood. Low levels of pepsinogen are a sign of chronic gastric atrophy which may lead to stomach cancer.
Studies showed that screening a large number of people for stomach cancer using these tests did not decrease the risk of dying from stomach cancer.
More studies are needed to find out if it would be worthwhile to screen people in the United States who do have a high risk for stomach cancer. Scientists believe that people with certain risk factors may benefit from stomach cancer screening. These include:
Older people with chronic gastric atrophy or pernicious anemia.
Patients who have had any of the following:
Partial gastrectomy.
Polyps in the stomach.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC).
People who come from countries where stomach cancer is more common.
Screening tests for stomach cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Risks of Stomach (Gastric) Cancer Screening
KEY POINTS
Screening tests have risks.
The risks of stomach cancer screening include the following:
Finding stomach cancer may not improve health or help you live longer.
False-negative test results can occur.
False-positive test results can occur.
Side effects may be caused by the screening test itself.
Screening tests have risks.
Decisions about screening tests can be difficult. Not all screening tests are helpful and most have risks. Before having any screening test, you may want to discuss the test with your doctor. It is important to know the risks of the test and whether it has been proven to reduce the risk of dying from cancer.
The risks of stomach cancer screening include the following:
Finding stomach cancer may not improve health or help you live longer.
Screening may not improve your health or help you live longer if you have advanced stomach cancer.
Some cancers never cause symptoms or become life-threatening, but if found by a screening test, the cancer may be treated. It is not known if treatment of these cancers would help you live longer than if no treatment were given, and treatments for cancer may have serious side effects.
False-negative test results can occur.
Screening test results may appear to be normal even though stomach cancer is present. A person who receives a false-negative result (one that shows there is no cancer when there really is) may delay seeking medical care even if there are symptoms.
False-positive test results can occur.
Screening test results may appear to be abnormal even though no cancer is present. A false-positive test result (one that shows there is cancer when there really isn't) can cause anxiety and is usually followed by more tests and procedures which also have risks.
Side effects may be caused by the screening test itself.
Upper endoscopy may cause the following rare, but serious, side effects:
A small hole (puncture) in the esophagus or stomach.
Heart problems.
Breathing problems.
Lung infection from inhaling food, fluid, or stomach acid into the lung.
Severe bleeding that needs to be treated at a hospital.
Reactions to medicine used during the procedure.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (3)
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Stomach Cancer Cells in the Lymph Nodes
Diagram showing stomach cancer cells in the lymph nodes.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
CT Scan for Stomach Cancer CTCA
Video by CANCER AWARENESS/YouTube
H. pylori infection Testing
Video by WTHI-TV/YouTube
Sensitive content
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Stomach Cancer Cells in the Lymph Nodes
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
1:17
CT Scan for Stomach Cancer CTCA
CANCER AWARENESS/YouTube
3:45
H. pylori infection Testing
WTHI-TV/YouTube
Diagnosis
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Endoscopic images of the stomach cancer in early stage.
Image by Med Chaos/Wikimedia
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Endoscopic images of the stomach cancer in early stage.
Endoscopic images of the stomach cancer in early stage. Its histology was poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma with signet ring cells. Left above: normal, right above: FICE, left low: acetate stained, right low: AIM stained
Image by Med Chaos/Wikimedia
What Tests Are Used to Detect and Diagnose Gastric Cancer?
Tests that examine the stomach and esophagus are used to diagnose gastric cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
The portion of the sample made up of red blood cells.
Upper endoscopy: A procedure to look inside the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (first part of the small intestine) to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is passed through the mouth and down the throat into the esophagus.Upper endoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the mouth to look for abnormal areas in the esophagus, stomach, and first part of the small intestine.
Barium swallow: A series of x-rays of the esophagus and stomach. The patient drinks a liquid that contains barium (a silver-white metallic compound). The liquid coats the esophagus and stomach, and x-rays are taken. This procedure is also called an upper GI series.Barium swallow for stomach cancer. The patient swallows barium liquid and it flows through the esophagus and into the stomach. X-rays are taken to look for abnormal areas.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. A biopsy of the stomach is usually done during the endoscopy.
The sample of tissue may be checked to measure how many HER2 genes there are and how much HER2 protein is being made. If there are more HER2 genes or higher levels of HER2 protein than normal, the cancer is called HER2 positive. HER2-positive gastric cancer may be treated with a monoclonal antibody that targets the HER2 protein.
The sample of tissue may also be checked for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer (whether it is in the stomach only or has spread to lymph nodes or other places in the body).
The patient’s general health.
When gastric cancer is found very early, there is a better chance of recovery. Gastric cancer is often in an advanced stage when it is diagnosed. At later stages, gastric cancer can be treated but rarely can be cured. Taking part in one of the clinical trials being done to improve treatment should be considered.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (5)
Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis & Treatment | Los Angeles Endoscopy
Video by Los Angeles Colonoscopy/YouTube
Diagnosis and Detection of Stomach Cancer
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Upper GI Endoscopy at Cook Children's
Video by Cook Children's Health Care System/YouTube
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Video by Larry Mellick/YouTube
Upper endoscopy: Guide for children
Video by Children's Wisconsin/YouTube
4:57
Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis & Treatment | Los Angeles Endoscopy
Los Angeles Colonoscopy/YouTube
3:58
Diagnosis and Detection of Stomach Cancer
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
2:31
Upper GI Endoscopy at Cook Children's
Cook Children's Health Care System/YouTube
5:02
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Larry Mellick/YouTube
2:55
Upper endoscopy: Guide for children
Children's Wisconsin/YouTube
Barium Swallow Test
Barium Swallow Test
Also called: Esophagogram, Esophagram, Swallowing study
A barium swallow is an imaging test that checks for problems in the throat, esophagus, stomach, and part of the small intestine. The test involves drinking a chalky liquid that contains barium. Barium makes parts of the body show up more clearly on an x-ray.
Barium Swallow Test
Also called: Esophagogram, Esophagram, Swallowing study
A barium swallow is an imaging test that checks for problems in the throat, esophagus, stomach, and part of the small intestine. The test involves drinking a chalky liquid that contains barium. Barium makes parts of the body show up more clearly on an x-ray.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result shows that the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine are normal in size, shape, and movement.
Related conditions
A barium swallow, also called an esophagogram, is an imaging test that checks for problems in your upper GI tract. Your upper GI tract includes your mouth, back of the throat, esophagus, stomach, and first part of your small intestine. The test uses a special type of x-ray called fluoroscopy. Fluoroscopy shows internal organs moving in real time. The test also involves drinking a chalky-tasting liquid that contains barium. Barium is a substance that makes parts of your body show up more clearly on an x-ray.
A barium swallow is used to help diagnose conditions that affect the throat, esophagus, stomach, and first part the small intestine. These include:
Ulcers
Hiatal hernia, a condition in which part of your stomach pushes into the diaphragm. The diaphragm is the muscle between your stomach and chest.
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease), a condition in which contents of the stomach leak backward into the esophagus
Structural problems in the GI tract, such as polyps (abnormal growths) and diverticula (pouches in the intestinal wall)
Tumors
You may need this test if you have symptoms of an upper GI disorder. These include:
Trouble swallowing
Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Bloating
A barium swallow is most often done by a radiologist or radiology technician. A radiologist is a doctor who specializes in using imaging tests to diagnose and treat diseases and injuries.
A barium swallow usually includes the following steps:
You may need to remove your clothing. If so, you will be given a hospital gown.
You will be given a lead shield or apron to wear over your pelvic area. This protects the area from unnecessary radiation.
You will stand, sit, or lie down on an x-ray table. You may be asked to change positions during the test.
You will swallow a drink that contains barium. The drink is thick and chalky. It's usually flavored with chocolate or strawberry to make it easier to swallow.
While you swallow, the radiologist will watch images of the barium traveling down your throat to your upper GI tract.
You may be asked to hold your breath at certain times.
The images will be recorded so they can be reviewed at a later time.
You will probably be asked to fast (not eat or drink) after midnight on the night before the test.
You should not have this test if you are pregnant or think you may be pregnant. Radiation can be harmful to an unborn baby.
For others, there is little risk to having this test. The dose of radiation is very low and not considered harmful for most people. But talk to your provider about all the x-rays you've had in the past. The risks from radiation exposure may be linked to the number of x-ray treatments you've had over time.
A normal result means that no abnormalities in size, shape, and movement were found in your throat, esophagus, stomach, or first part of the small intestine.
If your results were not normal, it may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Hiatal hernia
Ulcers
Tumors
Polyps
Diverticula, a condition in which small sacs form in the inner wall of the intestine
Esophageal stricture, a narrowing of the esophagus that can make it hard to swallow
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Your results may also show signs of esophageal cancer. If your provider thinks you may have this type of cancer, he or she may do a procedure called an esophagoscopy. During an esophagoscopy, a thin, flexible tube is inserted through the mouth or nose and down into the esophagus. The tube has a video camera so a provider can view the area. The tube may also have a tool attached that can be used to remove tissue samples for testing (biopsy).
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/upper-gi-series [accessed on Sep 19, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003816.htm [accessed on Sep 19, 2019]
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?pg=uppergi [accessed on Sep 19, 2019]
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/upper-gastrointestinal-series [accessed on Sep 19, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Upper gastrointestinal series
Barium follow though showing the small bowel.
Image by Glitzy queen00 at en.wikipedia
Esophageal varices
Dilated and snake like varicose veins in esophagus of a patient with PHT. Upper gastrointestinal series.
Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Esophageal varices
Dilated and snake like varicose veins in esophagus of a patient with PHT. Upper gastrointestinal series.
Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Diffuse esophageal spasm
Upper gastrointestinal series. Corkscrew appearance of the esophagus due to Diffuse esophageal spasm. (DES) is a condition in which uncoordinated contractions of the esophagus occur.
Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Zenker's diverticulum
Anatomy of Zenker's diverticulum
Image by Bernd Bragelmann Braegel. Mit freundlicher Genehmigung von Dr. Martin Steinhoff.
Zenker's diverticulum
Lateral X-ray of a Zenker's diverticula
Image by James Heilman, MD
Zenker's diverticulum
Xray showing a Zenker's diverticula (AP)
Image by James Heilman, MD
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Video by Larry Mellick/YouTube
Preparing for an Upper GI Endoscopy - from the American Gastroenterological Association
Video by AmerGastroAssn/YouTube
Upper GI Bleed Causes- Overview
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Barium Swallow- Esophageal Pathologies!
Video by How To Gastro/YouTube
Barium Upper GI Test | What To Expect!
Video by Amy/YouTube
Normal barium swallow fluoroscopic image, showing the ingested barium sulfate being induced down the oesophagus by peristalsis.
Normal barium swallow fluoroscopic image, showing the ingested barium sulfate being induced down the oesophagus by peristalsis.
Image by Bernd Brägelmann Braegel.
UpperGIEsophagealCAMark
Esophageal cancer as shown by a filling defect during an upper GI series
Image by James Heilman, MD
Upper gastrointestinal series
X-ray of the stomach with both positive (bariumsulphate) and negative (CO2)contrastmedia.
Image by Lucien Monfils
UGIs erosion
Multiple erosions in the antrum, shown in the upper GI series
Image by Med_Chaos
Upper gastrointestinal series
Glitzy queen00 at en.wikipedia
Esophageal varices
Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Esophageal varices
Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Diffuse esophageal spasm
Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Zenker's diverticulum
Bernd Bragelmann Braegel. Mit freundlicher Genehmigung von Dr. Martin Steinhoff.
Zenker's diverticulum
James Heilman, MD
Zenker's diverticulum
James Heilman, MD
5:02
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Larry Mellick/YouTube
7:25
Preparing for an Upper GI Endoscopy - from the American Gastroenterological Association
AmerGastroAssn/YouTube
9:42
Upper GI Bleed Causes- Overview
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
12:12
Barium Swallow- Esophageal Pathologies!
How To Gastro/YouTube
11:00
Barium Upper GI Test | What To Expect!
Amy/YouTube
Normal barium swallow fluoroscopic image, showing the ingested barium sulfate being induced down the oesophagus by peristalsis.
Bernd Brägelmann Braegel.
UpperGIEsophagealCAMark
James Heilman, MD
Upper gastrointestinal series
Lucien Monfils
UGIs erosion
Med_Chaos
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt1
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt2
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Video by Seeker+/YouTube
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
TheVisualMD
Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:11
Complete Blood Count
Tom Wade MD/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
Med Immersion/YouTube
22:14
Complete Blood Count pt2
Med Immersion/YouTube
0:06
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:07
Anemic Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
8:29
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
10:42
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
3.9
5.5
Your result is Low.
If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are low, you have anemia (a condition where the blood is unable to transport enough oxygen to the tissues and organs).
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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A low white blood cell count, called leukopenia, can result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as immune deficiencies, severe infections, and bone marrow disorders, among others.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel or fingertip with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a few drops of blood and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
A bacterial or viral infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
50
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450
Your result is Very low.
A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. If your platelet count is very low, your risk for bleeding is higher. Even every day activities can cause bleeding. Thrombocytopenia can be life-threatening, especially if you have serious bleeding or bleeding in your brain.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Clotting is the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. There are two types of platelet tests: a platelet count test and platelet function tests.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. A higher than normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or too much clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
Nosebleeds
Unexplained bruising
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to the bone marrow
Cirrhosis
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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13.8
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Your result is Low.
Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
40.7
50.3
Your result is Low.
A hematocrit level below the normal range, meaning the person has too few red blood cells, is called anemia.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
76
96
Your result is Low.
A low MCV indicates that the red blood cells are smaller than normal, or microcytic.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
1
2
3
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
Blood Components
TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
TheVisualMD
Upper GI Endoscopy
Upper GI Endoscopy
Also called: Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Upper Endoscopy, Gastroscopy, Esophagogastroduodenoscopy, EGD
An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is a procedure that allows a doctor to look at the inside lining of your esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The test can reveal ulcers, inflammation, tumors, infection, or bleeding. The procedure may also be used in the therapy or surgery of the upper digestive tract.
Upper GI Endoscopy
Also called: Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Upper Endoscopy, Gastroscopy, Esophagogastroduodenoscopy, EGD
An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is a procedure that allows a doctor to look at the inside lining of your esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The test can reveal ulcers, inflammation, tumors, infection, or bleeding. The procedure may also be used in the therapy or surgery of the upper digestive tract.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
The esophagus, stomach, and duodenum should be smooth and of normal color. There should be no bleeding, growths, ulcers, or inflammation.
Related conditions
Upper GI endoscopy is a procedure in which a doctor uses an endoscope — a long, flexible tube with a camera-to see the lining of your upper GI tract. A gastroenterologist, surgeon, or other trained health care provider performs the procedure, most often while you receive light sedation. Your doctor may also call the procedure an EGD or esophagogastroduodenoscopy.
Upper GI endoscopy can help find the cause of unexplained symptoms, such as
persistent heartburn
bleeding
nausea and vomiting
pain
problems swallowing
unexplained weight loss
Upper GI endoscopy can also find the cause of abnormal lab tests, such as
anemia
nutritional deficiencies
Upper GI endoscopy can identify many different diseases
anemia
gastroesophageal reflux disease
ulcers
cancer
inflammation, or swelling
precancerous abnormalities
celiac disease
During upper GI endoscopy, a doctor obtains biopsies by passing an instrument through the endoscope to obtain a small piece of tissue. Biopsies are needed to diagnose conditions such as
cancer
celiac disease
gastritis
Doctors also use upper GI endoscopy to
treat conditions such as bleeding ulcers
dilate strictures with a small balloon passed through the endoscope
remove objects, including food, that may be stuck in the upper GI tract
Talk with your doctor
You should talk with your doctor about medical conditions you have and all prescribed and over-the-counter medicines, vitamins, and supplements you take, including
aspirin or medicines that contain aspirin
arthritis medicines
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen and naproxen
blood thinners
blood pressure medicines
diabetes medicines
Arrange for a ride home
For safety reasons, you can't drive for 24 hours after the procedure, as the sedatives used during the procedure need time to wear off. You will need to make plans for getting a ride home after the procedure.
Do not eat or drink before the procedure
The doctor needs to examine the lining of your upper GI tract during the procedure. If food or drink is in your upper GI tract when you have the procedure, the doctor will not be able to see this lining clearly. To make sure your upper GI tract is clear, the doctor will most often advise you not to eat, drink, smoke, or chew gum during the 8 hours before the procedure.
A doctor performs an upper GI endoscopy in a hospital or an outpatient center. An intravenous (IV) needle will be placed in your arm to provide a sedative. Sedatives help you stay relaxed and comfortable during the procedure. In some cases, the procedure can be performed without sedation. You will be given a liquid anesthetic to gargle or spray anesthetic on the back of your throat. The anesthetic numbs your throat and calms the gag reflex. The health care staff will monitor your vital signs and keep you as comfortable as possible.
You'll be asked to lie on your side on an exam table. The doctor will carefully feed the endoscope down your esophagus and into your stomach and duodenum.A small camera mounted on the endoscope will send a video image to a monitor, allowing close examination of the lining of your upper GI tract. The endoscope pumps air into your stomach and duodenum, making them easier to see.
During the upper GI endoscopy, the doctor may
perform a biopsy of tissue in your upper GI tract. You won’t feel the biopsy.
stop any bleeding.
perform other specialized procedures, such as dilating strictures.
The procedure most often takes between 15 and 30 minutes. The endoscope does not interfere with your breathing, and many people fall asleep during the procedure.
After an upper GI endoscopy, you can expect the following:
to stay at the hospital or outpatient center for 1 to 2 hours after the procedure so the sedative can wear off
bloating or nausea for a short time after the procedure
a sore throat for 1 to 2 days to go back to your normal diet once your swallowing has returned to normal
to rest at home for the remainder of the day
Following the procedure, you-or a friend or family member who is with you if you're still groggy-will receive instructions on how to care for yourself following the procedure. You should follow all instructions.
Some results from an upper GI endoscopy are available right away after the procedure. After the sedative has worn off, the doctor will share these results with you or, if you choose, with your friend or family member. A pathologist will examine the biopsy tissue to help confirm a diagnosis. Biopsy results take a few days or longer to come back.
The risks of an upper GI endoscopy include
bleeding from the site where the doctor took the biopsy or removed a polyp
perforation in the lining of your upper GI tract
an abnormal reaction to the sedative, including respiratory or cardiac problems
Bleeding and perforation are more common in endoscopies used for treatment rather than testing. Bleeding caused by the procedure often stops without treatment. Research has shown that serious complications occur in one out of every 1,000 upper GI endoscopies.A doctor may need to perform surgery to treat some complications. A doctor can treat an abnormal reaction to a sedative with medicines or IV fluids during or after the procedure.
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/upper-gi-endoscopy [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003888.htm [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/Pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw267678 [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
https://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/upper-endoscopy [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (18)
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Esophageal varices
Endoscopy image of bleeding esophageal varices being banded. Clearly seen are the longitudinal wale signs on the banded varix. Note the colour change in the banded varix to an off-white shade, indicating that it is devoid of blood within.
Image by Samir
What is bleeding in the digestive tract? Gastrointestinal bleeding
The Blakemore esophageal balloon used for stopping esophageal bleeds if other measures have failed
Image by Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons: Orem)
Esophageal disease
Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine
Image by National Cancer Institute
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Esophageal cancer
Endoscopy and radial endoscopic ultrasound images of a submucosal tumor in the central portion of the esophagus
Image by Samir at English Wikipedia
Esophageal Cancer
Endoscopic image of an esophageal adenocarcinoma
Image by Samir
Diagram showing oesophageal cancer that has spread (M staging)
Diagram showing oesophageal cancer that has spread (M staging).
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Esophageal cancer
Self-expandable metallic stents are sometimes used for palliative care
Image by Samir
Esophageal cancer
Esophageal stent for esophageal cancer
Image by James Heilman, MD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Mallory-Weiss syndrome
Endoscopic image of Mallory-Weiss tear
Image by Samir
Gastroscopy or duodenoscopy
Gastroscopy or duodenoscopy is performed for a number of indications, one of the most common being in unexplained anemia where it is used to diagnose gastric or duodenal ulcers among other things.
Image by CNX OpenStax
Preparing for a Capsule Endoscopy - from the American Gastroenterological Association
Video by AmerGastroAssn/YouTube
Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis & Treatment | Los Angeles Endoscopy
Video by Los Angeles Colonoscopy/YouTube
Air and Food Pathways
Normal pathways for air and food in the body with the following parts labeled: epiglottis, larynx, esophagus, trachea, lung, and stomach.
Image by Alan Hoofring (Illustrator) National Cancer Institute
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Video by Larry Mellick/YouTube
Upper GI Endoscopy at Cook Children's
Video by Cook Children's Health Care System/YouTube
Upper endoscopy: Guide for children
Video by Children's Wisconsin/YouTube
Having an endoscopy | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
PreOp® Patient Education GI Endoscopy - Upper GI 1
Video by PreOp.com Patient Engagement - Patient Education/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Esophageal varices
Samir
What is bleeding in the digestive tract? Gastrointestinal bleeding
Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons: Orem)
Esophageal disease
National Cancer Institute
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Esophageal cancer
Samir at English Wikipedia
Esophageal Cancer
Samir
Diagram showing oesophageal cancer that has spread (M staging)
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Esophageal cancer
Samir
Esophageal cancer
James Heilman, MD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Mallory-Weiss syndrome
Samir
Gastroscopy or duodenoscopy
CNX OpenStax
8:50
Preparing for a Capsule Endoscopy - from the American Gastroenterological Association
AmerGastroAssn/YouTube
4:57
Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis & Treatment | Los Angeles Endoscopy
Los Angeles Colonoscopy/YouTube
Air and Food Pathways
Alan Hoofring (Illustrator) National Cancer Institute
5:02
Upper GI Endoscopy Procedure in the ED
Larry Mellick/YouTube
2:31
Upper GI Endoscopy at Cook Children's
Cook Children's Health Care System/YouTube
2:55
Upper endoscopy: Guide for children
Children's Wisconsin/YouTube
1:20
Having an endoscopy | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
1:50
PreOp® Patient Education GI Endoscopy - Upper GI 1
After gastric cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the stomach or to other parts of the body.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
Cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body.
The following stages are used for gastric cancer:
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
Gastric cancer can recur (come back) after it has been treated.
After gastric cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the stomach or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the stomach or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.
The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:
Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): A procedure in which an endoscope is inserted into the body, usually through the mouth or rectum. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. A probe at the end of the endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the chest, abdomen, or pelvis, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do. A PET scan and CT scan may be done at the same time. This is called a PET-CT.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) with gadolinium: A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. A substance called gadolinium is injected into a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
Laparoscopy: A surgical procedure to look at the organs inside the abdomen to check for signs of disease. Small incisions (cuts) are made in the wall of the abdomen and a laparoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into one of the incisions. Other instruments may be inserted through the same or other incisions to perform procedures such as removing organs or taking tissue samples to be checked under a microscope for signs of cancer. A solution may be washed over the surface of the organs in the abdomen and then removed to collect cells. These cells are also looked at under a microscope to check for signs of cancer.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
Cancer can spread through tissue, the lymph system, and the blood:
Tissue. The cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas.
Lymph system. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system. The cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body.
Blood. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood. The cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body.
Cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body.
When cancer spreads to another part of the body, it is called metastasis. Cancer cells break away from where they began (the primary tumor) and travel through the lymph system or blood.
Lymph system. The cancer gets into the lymph system, travels through the lymph vessels, and forms a tumor (metastatic tumor) in another part of the body.
Blood. The cancer gets into the blood, travels through the blood vessels, and forms a tumor (metastatic tumor) in another part of the body.
The metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if gastric cancer spreads to the liver, the cancer cells in the liver are actually gastric cancer cells. The disease is metastatic gastric cancer, not liver cancer.
The following stages are used for gastric cancer:
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
In stage 0, abnormal cells are found in the mucosa (innermost layer) of the stomach wall. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ.
Layers of the stomach wall. The wall of the stomach is made up of the mucosa (innermost layer), submucosa, muscle layer, subserosa, and serosa (outermost layer). The stomach is an organ in the upper abdomen.
Stage I
Stage I is divided into stages IA and IB.
Stage IA: Cancer has formed in the mucosa (innermost layer) of the stomach wall and may have spread to the submucosa (layer of tissue next to the mucosa).
Stage IB: Cancer:
has formed in the mucosa (innermost layer) of the stomach wall and may have spread to the submucosa (layer of tissue next to the mucosa). Cancer has spread to 1 or 2 nearby lymph nodes; or
has formed in the mucosa of the stomach wall and has spread to the muscle layer.
Stage II
Stage II gastric cancer is divided into stages IIA and IIB.
Stage IIA: Cancer:
may have spread to the submucosa (layer of tissue next to the mucosa) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 3 to 6 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the muscle layer of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 1 or 2 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the subserosa (layer of connective tissue next to the muscle layer) of the stomach wall.
Stage IIB: Cancer:
may have spread to the submucosa (layer of tissue next to the mucosa) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 7 to 15 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the muscle layer of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 3 to 6 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the subserosa (layer of connective tissue next to the muscle layer) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 1 or 2 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the serosa (outermost layer) of the stomach wall.
Stage III
Stage III gastric cancer is divided into stages IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC.
Stage IIIA: Cancer has spread:
to the muscle layer of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 7 to 15 nearby lymph nodes; or
to the subserosa (layer of connective tissue next to the muscle layer) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 3 to 6 nearby lymph nodes; or
to the serosa (outermost layer) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 1 to 6 nearby lymph nodes; or
to nearby organs, such as the spleen, colon, liver, diaphragm, pancreas, abdomen wall, adrenal gland, kidney, or small intestine, or to the back of the abdomen.
Stage IIIB: Cancer:
may have spread to the submucosa (layer of tissue next to the mucosa) or to the muscle layer of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 16 or more nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread to the subserosa (layer of connective tissue next to the muscle layer) or to the serosa (outermost layer) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 7 to 15 nearby lymph nodes; or
has spread from the stomach to nearby organs, such as the spleen, colon, liver, diaphragm, pancreas, abdomen wall, adrenal gland, kidney, or small intestine, or to the back of the abdomen. Cancer has spread to 1 to 6 nearby lymph nodes.
Stage IIIC: Cancer has spread:
to the subserosa (layer of connective tissue next to the muscle layer) or to the serosa (outermost layer) of the stomach wall. Cancer has spread to 16 or more nearby lymph nodes; or
from the stomach into nearby organs, such as the spleen, colon, liver, diaphragm, pancreas, abdomen wall, adrenal gland, kidney, or small intestine, or to the back of the abdomen. Cancer has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes.
Stage IV
In stage IV, cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs, liver, distant lymph nodes, and the tissue that lines the abdomen wall.
Gastric cancer can recur (come back) after it has been treated.
The cancer may come back in the stomach or in other parts of the body, such as the liver or lymph nodes.
Source: NIH: National Cancer Institute
Additional Materials (3)
Cancer staging
Staging Cancer : Staging is the process of finding out the amount of cancer in the body and if it has spread. Most tumorous cancers are staged using the TNM system. In the TNM system, T = extent of the primary tumor, N = extent of spread to lymph nodes, M = presence of metastasis. After the TNM description has been decided, the cancer can be designated as Stage 0-IV. Stage 0 =carcinoma in situ. In Stage I, Stage II, and Stage III, higher numbers indicate more extensive disease, ie, greater tumor size, and/or spread of the cancer to nearby lymph nodes, and/or organs adjacent to the primary tumor. In Stage IV, the cancer has spread to another organ.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cancer Staging
Foods demonstrating the average size of breast tumors when discovered by touch vs found through imaging. Different Foods Showing Sizes of Tumors Found by Touch vs Imaging : Left to right: 1) Breast calcifications are too small to be felt but can be seen as white spots on a mammogram. 2) Average size of lump detected with routine mammogram: .43 inches/1.1 cm (blueberry). 3) Average size of lump detected with first mammogram: .59 inches/1.5 cm (hazelnut). 4) Average size of lump found by regular breast self-exam: .83 inches/2.1 cm (grape). 5) Average size of lump found accidentally: 1.42 inches/3.6 cm (strawberry).
Image by TheVisualMD
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Video by Learn Oncology/YouTube
Cancer staging
TheVisualMD
Cancer Staging
TheVisualMD
5:40
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Learn Oncology/YouTube
Treatment
Gastric Bypass Surgery
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Gastric Bypass Surgery
Image Caption : Diagram showing before and after stomach bypass surgery.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Treatment of Gastric Cancer
KEY POINTS
There are different types of treatment for patients with gastric cancer.
The following types of treatment are used:
Surgery
Endoscopic mucosal resection
Chemotherapy
Radiation therapy
Chemoradiation
Targeted therapy
Immunotherapy
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
Treatment for gastric cancer may cause side effects.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
There are different types of treatment for patients with gastric cancer.
Different types of treatments are available for patients with gastric cancer. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
The following types of treatment are used:
Surgery
Surgery is a common treatment of all stages of gastric cancer. The following types of surgery may be used:
Subtotal gastrectomy: Removal of the part of the stomach that contains cancer, nearby lymph nodes, and parts of other tissues and organs near the tumor. The spleen may be removed. The spleen is an organ that makes lymphocytes, stores red blood cells and lymphocytes, filters the blood, and destroys old blood cells. The spleen is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
Total gastrectomy: Removal of the entire stomach, nearby lymph nodes, and parts of the esophagus, small intestine, and other tissues near the tumor. The spleen may be removed. The esophagus is connected to the small intestine so the patient can continue to eat and swallow.
If the tumor is blocking the stomach but the cancer cannot be completely removed by standard surgery, the following procedures may be used:
Endoluminal stent placement: A procedure to insert a stent (a thin, expandable tube) in order to keep a passage (such as arteries or the esophagus) open. For tumors blocking the passage into or out of the stomach, surgery may be done to place a stent from the esophagus to the stomach or from the stomach to the small intestine to allow the patient to eat normally.
Endoluminal laser therapy: A procedure in which an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) with a laser attached is inserted into the body. A laser is an intense beam of light that can be used as a knife.
Gastrojejunostomy: Surgery to remove the part of the stomach with cancer that is blocking the opening into the small intestine. The stomach is connected to the jejunum (a part of the small intestine) to allow food and medicine to pass from the stomach into the small intestine.
Endoscopic mucosal resection
Endoscopic mucosal resection is a procedure that uses an endoscope to remove early-stage cancer and precancerous growths from the lining of the digestive tract without surgery. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also include tools to remove growths from the lining of the digestive tract.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
A type of regional chemotherapy being studied to treat gastric cancer is intraperitoneal (IP) chemotherapy. In IP chemotherapy, the anticancer drugs are carried directly into the peritoneal cavity (the space that contains the abdominal organs) through a thin tube.
Hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) is a treatment used during surgery that is being studied for gastric cancer. After the surgeon has removed as much tumor tissue as possible, warmed chemotherapy is sent directly into the peritoneal cavity.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the area of the body with cancer.
Chemoradiation
Chemoradiation therapy combines chemotherapy and radiation therapy to increase the effects of both. Chemoradiation given after surgery, to lower the risk that the cancer will come back, is called adjuvant therapy. Chemoradiation given before surgery, to shrink the tumor (neoadjuvant therapy), is being studied.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do. Monoclonal antibodies and multikinase inhibitors are types of targeted therapy used in the treatment of gastric cancer.
Monoclonal antibodies: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.
There are different types of monoclonal antibody drugs:
Trastuzumab blocks the effect of the growth factor protein HER2, which sends growth signals to gastric cancer cells.
Ramucirumab blocks the effect of certain proteins, including vascular endothelial growth factor. This may help keep cancer cells from growing and may kill them. It may also prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow.
Trastuzumab and ramucirumab are used in the treatment of stage IV gastric cancer and gastric cancer that cannot be removed by surgery or has recurred.
Trastuzumab deruxtecan is an antibody-drug conjugate that links trastuzumab to a type of chemotherapy. When this linked therapy binds to HER2 positive gastric cancer cells, the chemotherapy enters the cells and kills them. Trastuzumab deruxtecan may be used to treat certain patients with HER2 positive gastric cancer that has already been treated with trastuzumab and has metastasized (spread to other parts of the body) or cannot be removed by surgery.
Multikinase inhibitors: These are small-molecule drugs that go through the cell membrane and work inside cancer cells to block multiple protein signals that cancer cells need to grow and divide. Some multikinase inhibitors also have angiogenesis inhibitor effects. Angiogenesis inhibitors stop the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow.
There are different types of multikinase inhibitor drugs:
Regorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor and angiogenesis inhibitor that blocks the effects of the multiple proteins inside tumor cells. Regorafenib is being studied in the treatment of stage IV gastric cancer and gastric cancer that cannot be removed by surgery or has recurred.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This cancer treatment is a type of biologic therapy.
Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy is a type of immunotherapy.
Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: PD-1 is a protein on the surface of T cells that helps keep the body’s immune responses in check. PD-L1 is a protein found on some types of cancer cells. When PD-1 attaches to PD-L1, it stops the T cell from killing the cancer cell. PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors keep PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins from attaching to each other. This allows the T cells to kill cancer cells. Pembrolizumab and nivolumab are types of PD-1 inhibitors.
Immune checkpoint inhibitor. Checkpoint proteins, such as PD-L1 on tumor cells and PD-1 on T cells, help keep immune responses in check. The binding of PD-L1 to PD-1 keeps T cells from killing tumor cells in the body (left panel). Blocking the binding of PD-L1 to PD-1 with an immune checkpoint inhibitor (anti-PD-L1 or anti-PD-1) allows the T cells to kill tumor cells (right panel).
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
Treatment for gastric cancer may cause side effects.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Other tests may also be done:
Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay and CA 19-9 assay: A procedure in which a sample tissue is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances made by organs, tissues, or tumor cells in the body. Certain substances are linked to specific types of cancer when found in increased levels in the body. These are called tumor markers. Higher than normal levels of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and CA 19-9 may mean gastric cancer has come back after treatment.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (11)
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Cancer Immunotherapy
Shown here is a pseudo-colored scanning electron micrograph of an oral squamous cancer cell (white) being attacked by two cytotoxic T cells (red), part of a natural immune response. Nanomedicine researchers are creating personalized cancer vaccines by loading neoantigens identified from the patient's tumor into nanoparticles. When presented with immune stimulants, this activates the patient's own immune system, leading to expansion of tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells.
Image by Rita Elena Serda - National Cancer Institute \ Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center at Baylor College of Medicine
Esophagogastrectomy
Diagram showing the part of the oesophagus and stomach removed with an oesophago-gastrectomy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing the part of the stomach removed for a Bilroth
Diagram showing the part of the stomach removed for a Bilroth 1.
Image by Cancer Research UK/Wikimedia
Roux-en-Y
Diagram showing how the oesophagus, duodenum and small bowel are reconnected after Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing the anatomy of the stomach after an oesophagogastrectomy CRUK 455
Diagram showing the anatomy of the stomach after an oesophagogastrectomy
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader/Wikimedia
Roux-en-Y - Diagram showing the anatomy before Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer.
Diagram showing the anatomy before Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Monoclonal antibodies in medicine
Video by Roche/YouTube
Monoclonal antibodies that stop cancer cells taking up proteins | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Targeted Therapies for Esophageal and Gastric (Stomach) Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Clinical Trial Conversation: Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Surviving Stomach Cancer
Video by CBS/YouTube
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Cancer Immunotherapy
Rita Elena Serda - National Cancer Institute \ Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center at Baylor College of Medicine
Esophagogastrectomy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing the part of the stomach removed for a Bilroth
Cancer Research UK/Wikimedia
Roux-en-Y
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing the anatomy of the stomach after an oesophagogastrectomy CRUK 455
Cancer Research UK uploader/Wikimedia
Roux-en-Y - Diagram showing the anatomy before Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer.
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
4:46
Monoclonal antibodies in medicine
Roche/YouTube
0:33
Monoclonal antibodies that stop cancer cells taking up proteins | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
1:48
Targeted Therapies for Esophageal and Gastric (Stomach) Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
2:31
Clinical Trial Conversation: Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
3:15
Surviving Stomach Cancer
CBS/YouTube
Treatment by Stage
Roux-en-Y - Diagram showing the anatomy before Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer. / Roux-en-Y
Roux-en-Y for Treatment of Stomach Cancer
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Roux-en-Y - Diagram showing the anatomy before Roux-en-y surgery for stomach cancer. / Roux-en-Y
Roux-en-Y for Treatment of Stomach Cancer
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Treatment Options by Stage
Treatment of Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
Treatment of stage 0 may include the following:
Surgery (total or subtotal gastrectomy).
Endoscopic mucosal resection.
Treatment of Stage I Gastric Cancer
Treatment of stage I gastric cancer may include the following:
Surgery (total or subtotal gastrectomy).
Endoscopic mucosal resection for certain patients with stage IA gastric cancer.
Surgery (total or subtotal gastrectomy) followed by chemoradiation therapy.
Surgery and chemotherapy.
A clinical trial of chemoradiation therapy given before surgery.
Treatment of Stages II and III Gastric Cancer
Treatment of stage II gastric cancer and stage III gastric cancer may include the following:
Surgery (total or subtotal gastrectomy).
Surgery and chemotherapy.
Surgery (total or subtotal gastrectomy) followed by chemoradiation therapy or chemotherapy.
A clinical trial of chemoradiation therapy given before surgery.
A clinical trial of chemotherapy and immunotherapy given before and after surgery.
Treatment of Stage IV Gastric Cancer, Gastric Cancer That Cannot Be Removed By Surgery, and Recurrent Gastric Cancer
Treatment of stage IV gastric cancer, gastric cancer that cannot be removed by surgery, or recurrent gastric cancer may include the following:
For patients with HER2 negative tumors:
Chemotherapy as palliative therapy which may be combined with immunotherapy (nivolumab).
For patients with HER2 positive tumors:
First-line palliative therapy includes immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy:
Nivolumab with chemotherapy.
Trastuzumab with chemotherapy.
Second-line palliative therapy includes:
Chemotherapy.
Ramucirumab with or without chemotherapy.
Pembrolizumab.
Trastuzumab deruxtecan.
Third-line palliative therapy includes chemotherapy (trifluridine and tipiracil).
Endoluminal laser therapy or endoluminal stent placement to relieve a blockage in the stomach, or gastrojejunostomy to bypass the blockage.
Radiation therapy as palliative therapy to stop bleeding, relieve pain, or shrink a tumor that is blocking the stomach.
Surgery as palliative therapy to stop bleeding or shrink a tumor that is blocking the stomach.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy with regorafenib and nivolumab.
A clinical trial of surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC).
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (3)
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Secondary Stomach Cancer in the Lungs
Diagram showing secondary stomach cancer in the lungs.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Targeted drug prolongs survival in advanced stomach cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Targeted Therapies for Esophageal and Gastric (Stomach) Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Secondary Stomach Cancer in the Lungs
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
1:24
Targeted drug prolongs survival in advanced stomach cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
1:48
Targeted Therapies for Esophageal and Gastric (Stomach) Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Prevention
Endoscopic image of Chronic gastritis induced by helicobacter pylori infection
Image by Med_Chaos
Endoscopic image of Chronic gastritis induced by helicobacter pylori infection
Endoscopic image of Chronic gastritis induced by helicobacter pylori infection
Image by Med_Chaos
Prevention of Gastric Cancer
What is prevention?
Cancer prevention is action taken to lower the chance of getting cancer. By preventing cancer, the number of new cases of cancer in a group or population is lowered. Hopefully, this will lower the number of deaths caused by cancer.
To prevent new cancers from starting, scientists look at risk factors and protective factors. Anything that increases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer risk factor; anything that decreases your chance of developing cancer is called a cancer protective factor.
Some risk factors for cancer can be avoided, but many cannot. For example, both smoking and inheriting certain genes are risk factors for some types of cancer, but only smoking can be avoided. Regular exercise and a healthy diet may be protective factors for some types of cancer. Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may lower your risk but it does not mean that you will not get cancer.
Different ways to prevent cancer are being studied, including:
Changing lifestyle or eating habits.
Avoiding things known to cause cancer.
Taking medicines to treat a precancerous condition or to keep cancer from starting.
General Information About Stomach Cancer
KEY POINTS
Stomach (gastric) cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the stomach.
In the United States, the number of new cases of stomach cancer has stayed about the same in recent years.
Stomach (gastric) cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the upper abdomen. It is part of the digestive system, which processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) in foods that are eaten and helps pass waste material out of the body. Food moves from the throat to the stomach through a hollow, muscular tube called the esophagus. After leaving the stomach, partly-digested food passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
The esophagus and stomach are part of the upper gastrointestinal (digestive) system.
In the United States, the number of new cases of stomach cancer has stayed about the same in recent years.
In recent years, the number of new cases of stomach cancer in the United States has stayed about the same. Men are twice as likely as women to be diagnosed with stomach cancer.
Stomach cancer is the fifth most common cancer in the world.
The number of deaths from stomach cancer has decreased over many years, especially in the United States. Black men are more than twice as likely as White men to die from stomach cancer.
Stomach Cancer Prevention
KEY POINTS
Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent stomach cancer.
The following are risk factors for stomach cancer:
Certain medical conditions
Certain genetic conditions
Diet
Environmental causes
The following are protective factors that may decrease the risk of stomach cancer:
Stopping smoking
Treating Helicobacter pylori infection
It is not known if the following factors lower the risk of stomach cancer or have no effect on the risk of stomach cancer:
Diet
Dietary supplements
Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.
New ways to prevent stomach cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent stomach cancer.
Avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers. Risk factors include smoking, being overweight, and not getting enough exercise. Increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers. Talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer.
The following are risk factors for stomach cancer:
Certain medical conditions
Having any of the following medical conditions may increase the risk of stomach cancer:
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection of the stomach.
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection.
Intestinal metaplasia (a condition in which the cells that line the stomach are replaced by cells that normally line the intestines).
Chronic atrophic gastritis (thinning of the stomach lining caused by long-term inflammation of the stomach).
Pernicious anemia (a type of anemia caused by vitamin B12 deficiency).
Stomach (gastric) polyps.
Certain genetic conditions
Genetic conditions may increase the risk of stomach cancer in people with any of the following:
A mother, father, sister, or brother who has had stomach cancer.
Type A blood.
Li-Fraumeni syndrome.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome).
Diet
The risk of stomach cancer may be increased in people who:
Eat a diet low in fruits and vegetables.
Eat a diet high in salted or smoked foods.
Eat foods that have not been prepared or stored the way they should be.
Environmental causes
Environmental factors that may increase the risk of stomach cancer include:
Being exposed to radiation.
Working in the rubber or coal industry.
The risk of stomach cancer is increased in people who come from countries where stomach cancer is common.
The following are protective factors that may decrease the risk of stomach cancer:
Stopping smoking
Studies show that smoking is linked with an increased risk of stomach cancer. Stopping smoking or never smoking decreases the risk of stomach cancer. Smokers who stop smoking lower their risk of having stomach cancer over time.
Treating Helicobacter pylori infection
Studies show that chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) bacteria is linked to an increased risk of stomach cancer. When H. pylori bacteria infects the stomach, the stomach may become inflamed and cause changes in the cells that line the stomach. Over time, these cells become abnormal and may become cancer.
Some studies show that treating H. pylori infection with antibiotics lowers the risk of stomach cancer. One study found that treating H. pylori infection with antibiotics, vitamins, and garlic supplements may also lower the number of deaths from stomach cancer. More studies are needed to find out whether treating H. pylori infection with antibiotics lowers the number of deaths from stomach cancer or keeps changes in the stomach lining, that can lead to cancer, from getting worse.
One study found that patients who used proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) after treatment for H. pylori were more likely to get stomach cancer than those who did not use PPIs. More studies are needed to find out whether PPIs lead to cancer in patients treated for H. pylori.
It is not known if the following factors lower the risk of stomach cancer or have no effect on the risk of stomach cancer:
Diet
Not eating enough fresh fruits and vegetables is linked to an increased risk of stomach cancer. Some studies show that eating fruits and vegetables that are high in vitamin C and beta carotene may lower the risk of stomach cancer. Studies also show that whole-grain cereals, carotenoids, green tea, and substances found in garlic may lower the risk of stomach cancer.
Studies show that eating a diet with a lot of salt may increase the risk of stomach cancer. Many people in the United States now eat less salt to lower their risk of high blood pressure. This may be why rates of stomach cancer have decreased in the U.S.
Dietary supplements
It is not known if taking certain vitamins, minerals, and other dietary supplements helps lower the risk of stomach cancer. In China, a study of beta carotene, vitamin E, and selenium supplements in the diet showed a lower number of deaths from stomach cancer. The study may have included people who did not have these nutrients in their usual diets. It is not known if increased dietary supplements would have the same effect in people who already eat a healthy diet.
Other studies have not shown that taking dietary supplements such as beta carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, or selenium lowers the risk of stomach cancer.
Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.
Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of certain types of cancer. Some cancer prevention trials are done with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer. Other prevention trials are done with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer. Other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer.
The purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer. These may include eating fruits and vegetables, exercising, quitting smoking, or taking certain medicines, vitamins, minerals, or food supplements.
New ways to prevent stomach cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (4)
Helicobacter pylori Infection
Ulcer-causing Bacterium (H.Pylori) Crossing Mucus Layer of Stomach : A team of researchers from Boston University, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts Institute of Technology have shown that the bacterium that causes human stomach ulcers uses a clever biochemical strategy to alter the physical properties of its environment, allowing it to move and survive and further colonize its host.Contact with stomach acid keeps the mucin lining the epithelial cell layer in a spongy gel-like state. This consistency is impermeable to the bacterium Heliobacter pylori. However, the bacterium releases urease which neutralizes the stomach acid. This causes the mucin to liquefy, and the bacterium can swim right through it.
Image by Illustration Credit: Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
Image by AJC1
Stomach Cancer - Triggers, Symptoms, Treatments & Prevention
Video by FindMeCure/YouTube
Stomach Cancer, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment.
Video by Medical Centric/YouTube
Helicobacter pylori Infection
Illustration Credit: Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
AJC1
4:25
Stomach Cancer - Triggers, Symptoms, Treatments & Prevention
FindMeCure/YouTube
4:52
Stomach Cancer, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment.
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Stomach Cancer
Helicobacter pylori infection? Because it's often found late, it can be hard to treat stomach cancer. Learn more about symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.