Diabetes insipidus is a rare disorder where your kidneys produce a large amount of urine that is "insipid," or colorless and odorless. It also makes you very thirsty even if you have something to drink. Learn about causes and treatment.
Hydration of the Kidney
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Insipidus
Staying Afloat
Image by TheVisualMD
Staying Afloat
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Insipidus
Diabetes insipidus (DI) causes frequent urination. You become extremely thirsty, so you drink. Then you urinate. This cycle can keep you from sleeping or even make you wet the bed. Your body produces lots of urine that is almost all water.
DI is different from diabetes mellitus (DM), which involves insulin problems and high blood sugar. The symptoms can be similar. However, DI is related to how your kidneys handle fluids. It's much less common than DM. Urine and blood tests can show which one you have.
Usually, DI is caused by a problem with your pituitary gland or your kidneys. Treatment depends on the cause of the problem. Medicines can often help.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (12)
Hydration of the Kidney
Dialysis filters your blood to rid your body of harmful waste.
Overview of Diabetes Insipidus (DI) - Dr. James Whitlock, MD
Histiocytosis Association/YouTube
1:10
Diabetes insipidus - patient Education video
Dr Aishwarya Kelkar Medical Lectures/YouTube
8:10
Diabetes Insipidus: Medical tests | Biology | Chegg Tutors
Chegg/YouTube
7:18
What is Diabetes Insipidus, and how to care for this uncommon disorder (Nursing Care Plan)
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:23
How common is diabetes insipidus?
Barrow Neurological Institute/YouTube
16:16
SIADH vs DI (Diabetes Insipidus) for nursing RN PN NCLEX
Simple Nursing/YouTube
8:21
Understanding Diabetes Insipidus
Zero To Finals/YouTube
16:36
Introduction to Diabetes Insipidus
Society for Endocrinology/YouTube
What Is Diabetes Insipidus?
Vasopressin
Image by Fvasconcellos
Vasopressin
Spacefilling model of arginine vasopressin.
Image by Fvasconcellos
What Is Diabetes Insipidus?
Diabetes insipidus is a rare disorder that causes the body to make too much urine. While most people make 1 to 3 quarts of urine a day, people with diabetes insipidus can make up to 20 quarts of urine a day. People with this disorder need to urinate frequently, called polyuria. They may also feel thirsty all the time and drink lots of liquids, a condition called polydipsia.
Are diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus the same?
Diabetes insipidus is not the same as diabetes mellitus. Although both conditions can increase thirst, intake of liquids, and urination, they are not related.
In diabetes mellitus, the level of glucose in your blood, also called blood sugar, is too high. Your kidneys try to remove the extra glucose by passing it in your urine.
In diabetes insipidus, your blood glucose levels are normal, but your kidneys can’t properly concentrate urine.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (6)
Regulation of Body Processes
The main symptoms of diabetes are shown. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)
Regulation of Body Processes
ADH and aldosterone increase blood pressure and volume. Angiotensin II stimulates release of these hormones. Angiotensin II, in turn, is formed when renin cleaves angiotensinogen. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)
Regulation of Body Processes
Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive system involves hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries.
This angiogram depicts the kidneys, renal vasculature and the major abdominal arteries.
Image by TheVisualMD
How Common Is Diabetes Insipidus?
Diabetes insipidus is rare, affecting about 1 in 25,000 people worldwide.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (1)
How common is diabetes insipidus?
Video by Barrow Neurological Institute/YouTube
1:23
How common is diabetes insipidus?
Barrow Neurological Institute/YouTube
How Do The Kidneys Work?
Kidney Vasculature
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Vasculature
The kidneys are bean-shaped, fist-sized organs located on either side of the spine, near the middle of the back. The main function of the kidneys is to remove waste products and excess water from the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Your Kidneys & How They Work
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of your spine.
Healthy kidneys filter about a half cup of blood every minute, removing wastes and extra water to make urine. The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscle called ureters, one on each side of your bladder. Your bladder stores urine. Your kidneys, ureters, and bladder are part of your urinary tract.
You have two kidneys that filter your blood, removing wastes and extra water to make urine.
Why are the kidneys important?
Your kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from your body. Your kidneys also remove acid that is produced by the cells of your body and maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals—such as sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium—in your blood.
Without this balance, nerves, muscles, and other tissues in your body may not work normally.
Your kidneys also make hormones that help
control your blood pressure
make red blood cells
keep your bones strong and healthy
How do my kidneys work?
Each of your kidneys is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron includes a filter, called the glomerulus, and a tubule. The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters your blood, and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes.
Each nephron has a glomerulus to filter your blood and a tubule that returns needed substances to your blood and pulls out additional wastes. Wastes and extra water become urine.
The glomerulus filters your blood
As blood flows into each nephron, it enters a cluster of tiny blood vessels—the glomerulus. The thin walls of the glomerulus allow smaller molecules, wastes, and fluid—mostly water—to pass into the tubule. Larger molecules, such as proteins and blood cells, stay in the blood vessel.
The tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes
A blood vessel runs alongside the tubule. As the filtered fluid moves along the tubule, the blood vessel reabsorbs almost all of the water, along with minerals and nutrients your body needs. The tubule helps remove excess acid from the blood. The remaining fluid and wastes in the tubule become urine.
How does blood flow through my kidneys?
Blood flows into your kidney through the renal artery. This large blood vessel branches into smaller and smaller blood vessels until the blood reaches the nephrons. In the nephron, your blood is filtered by the tiny blood vessels of the glomeruli and then flows out of your kidney through the renal vein.
Your blood circulates through your kidneys many times a day. In a single day, your kidneys filter about 150 quarts of blood. Most of the water and other substances that filter through your glomeruli are returned to your blood by the tubules. Only 1 to 2 quarts become urine.
Blood flows into your kidneys through the renal artery and exits through the renal vein. Your ureter carries urine from the kidney to your bladder.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (8)
What do the kidneys do? Approach 1
Video by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
Human Body for Kids/Kidney Song/Human Body Systems
Video by Kids Learning Tube/YouTube
The Role of the Kidneys and How They Work
Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube
Anatomy and physiology of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, and nephron
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
What If My Kidneys Fail?
Video by Health Solution 247/YouTube
Biology - How the Kidneys Work - (Kidneys Part 1/3) #74
Video by Cognito/YouTube
Renal Blood Supply - Blood Supply to the Kidneys - Renal Artery - Interlobar Artery
Video by 5MinuteSchool/YouTube
Urinary system: organs and functions (preview) - Human Anatomy | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
0:53
What do the kidneys do? Approach 1
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
2:33
Human Body for Kids/Kidney Song/Human Body Systems
Kids Learning Tube/YouTube
6:10
The Role of the Kidneys and How They Work
UC San Diego Health/YouTube
12:21
Anatomy and physiology of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, and nephron
Osmosis/YouTube
1:25
What If My Kidneys Fail?
Health Solution 247/YouTube
7:06
Biology - How the Kidneys Work - (Kidneys Part 1/3) #74
Cognito/YouTube
5:18
Renal Blood Supply - Blood Supply to the Kidneys - Renal Artery - Interlobar Artery
5MinuteSchool/YouTube
3:21
Urinary system: organs and functions (preview) - Human Anatomy | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
Risk Factors
Kidney Disease caused by diabetes and hypertension
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Disease caused by diabetes and hypertension
Kidney Disease caused by diabetes and hypertension
Image by TheVisualMD
Who Is More Likely to Have Diabetes Insipidus?
People of all ages can develop diabetes insipidus. You are more likely to develop the condition if you
have a family history of diabetes insipidus
had brain surgery or a major head injury
take medicines that can cause kidney problems, including some bipolar disorder medicines and diuretics
have metabolic disorders (high blood calcium or low blood potassium levels)
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (1)
Understanding Diabetes Insipidus
Video by Zero To Finals/YouTube
8:21
Understanding Diabetes Insipidus
Zero To Finals/YouTube
Causes
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released into blood flow
Image by TheVisualMD
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released into blood flow
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is produced in the brain by the hypothalamus, then stored and released by the pituitary gland. By signaling the kidney to retain or release water, ADH helps manage water balance in the blood. The hormone therefore has significant impact on blood pressure and on the blood's ratio of water to sodium. Measuring ADH levels in circulation can help diagnose and determine the cause of related conditions including hyponatremia, diabetes insipidus, and SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH).
Image by TheVisualMD
What Causes Diabetes Insipidus?
Diabetes insipidus is usually caused by problems with a hormone called vasopressin that helps your kidneys balance the amount of fluid in your body. Problems with a part of your brain that controls thirst can also cause diabetes insipidus. Specific causes vary among the four types of diabetes insipidus: central, nephrogenic, dipsogenic, and gestational.
Central diabetes insipidus
In central diabetes insipidus, your body doesn’t make enough vasopressin, also called “antidiuretic hormone.” Vasopressin is produced in your hypothalamus, a small area of your brain near the pituitary gland. When the amount of fluids in your body falls too low, the pituitary gland releases vasopressin into your bloodstream. The hormone signals your kidneys to conserve fluids by pulling fluids from your urine and returning fluid to your bloodstream. But if your body can’t make enough vasopressin, the fluid may get flushed out in your urine instead.
Causes of central diabetes insipidus include
damage to your hypothalamus or your pituitary gland from surgery, infection, inflammation, a tumor, or a head injury
an autoimmune disorder
an inherited gene mutation
Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
In nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, your body makes enough vasopressin but your kidneys don’t respond to the hormone as they should. As a result, too much fluid gets flushed out in your urine. Causes include
some medicines, especially those used to treat bipolar disorder
low levels of potassium in your blood
high levels of calcium in your blood
a blocked urinary tract
an inherited gene mutation
chronic kidney disease, though rarely
Dipsogenic diabetes insipidus
In this type of diabetes insipidus, a problem with your hypothalamus causes you to feel thirsty and drink more liquids. As a result, you may need to urinate often. Causes include
damage to your hypothalamus from surgery, infection, inflammation, a tumor, or a head injury
some medicines or mental health problems
Gestational diabetes insipidus
Gestational diabetes insipidus is a rare, temporary condition that can develop during pregnancy. This type of diabetes insipidus occurs when the mother’s placenta makes too much of an enzyme that breaks down her vasopressin. Women who are pregnant with more than one baby are more likely to develop the condition because they have more placental tissue. Because the liver plays a role in curbing the enzyme that breaks down vasopressin, diseases and conditions that affect liver function also increase risk. Examples include preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (2)
Vasopressin
Spacefilling model of arginine vasopressin.
Image by Fvasconcellos
Antidiuretic hormone
antidiuretic hormone
Image by OpenStax College
Vasopressin
Fvasconcellos
Antidiuretic hormone
OpenStax College
Symptoms
Thirst Center of the Brain
Image by TheVisualMD
Thirst Center of the Brain
The thirst center of the brain is located in the hypothalamus (red). At the tip of the hypothalamus is a tiny protrusion called the pituitary gland (green). When your blood volume is low, the pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) into your blood. ADH plays a major role in creating the sensation of thirst.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Symptoms of Diabetes Insipidus?
The main symptoms of diabetes insipidus are
needing to urinate often, both day and night
passing large amounts of light-colored urine each time you urinate
feeling very thirsty and drinking liquids very often
People with diabetes insipidus often feel thirsty all the time and drink lots of liquids.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Complications
Dehydration
Image by TheVisualMD
Dehydration
How long the body can survive without water depends on a host of factors, including the surrounding environment, level of exertion, and any existing disease that may be cause additional water loss. Guinness World Records puts the record for survival without water at 18 days, but few people would last more than about four days even in ideal conditions (sometimes referred to as the "100-hour rule"). Even a person who is fit and well-hydrated can quickly find their lives at risk if water is being lost rapidly. Such is the case with endurance athletes who have left the starting line in top health and then died from dehydration within a few hours. In the desert, dehydration is exacerbated by arid air and hot sun; without water, few people survive to see the second day.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Complications of Diabetes Insipidus?
The main complication of diabetes insipidus is dehydration, which happens when your body loses too much fluid and electrolytes to work properly. If you have diabetes insipidus, you can usually make up for the large amount of fluids you pass in your urine by drinking more liquids. But if you don’t, you could quickly become dehydrated.
Symptoms of dehydration may include
thirst
dry mouth
feeling dizzy or light-headed when standing
feeling tired
difficulty performing simple mental tasks
nausea
fainting
Seek care right away
Severe dehydration can lead to seizures, permanent brain damage, and even death. Seek care right away if you feel
confused
dizzy
sluggish
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Diagnosis
Hydrated
Dehydrated
Severely Dehydrated
1
2
3
Urine Color and Dehydration
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Hydrated
Dehydrated
Severely Dehydrated
1
2
3
Urine Color and Dehydration
These images feature urine specimen cups containing well-hydrated, dehydrated, and severely dehydrated urine. Hydrated urine is clear or pale yellow in color. Dehydrated urine is a darker yellow than hydrated urine, and severely dehydrated urine can be dark yellow or amber in color. Dehydration occurs when your body loses more fluids than it takes in. Mild and even moderate cases can usually be addressed simply by replenishing fluids, but severe dehydration, which disrupts electrolyte balance, blood volume, and kidney function, can quickly become life threatening.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
How Do Health Care Professionals Diagnose Diabetes Insipidus?
Your health care professional will do a physical exam and ask questions about your health history, including your family’s health. Other tests and procedures may include
Urinalysis. A urinalysis can show if your urine is too diluted, or watery. It can also show if the level of glucose in your blood is too high, which is caused by diabetes mellitus, not diabetes insipidus.
Blood tests. A blood test can measure sodium levels and the amount of certain substances in your blood, which can help diagnose diabetes insipidus and, in some cases, determine the type.
Water deprivation test. This test can help health care professionals diagnose diabetes insipidus and identify its cause. The test involves not drinking any liquids for several hours. A health care professional will measure how much urine you pass, check your weight, and monitor changes in your blood and urine. In some cases, the health care professional may give you a man-made version of vasopressin or other medicines during the test.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI uses magnets and radio waves to make pictures of your brain tissues. Your health care professional may order this test to look for damage to your hypothalamus or pituitary gland that could cause diabetes insipidus.
Stimulation tests. During these tests, you are given an intravenous solution that stimulates your body to produce vasopressin. A health care professional then measures your blood level of copeptin, a substance that increases when vasopressin does. Results can indicate if you have diabetes insipidus or a different condition called primary polydipsia, which can cause you to drink lots of liquids.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (2)
Diabetes Insipidus: Medical tests | Biology | Chegg Tutors
Video by Chegg/YouTube
Diabetes insipidus - patient Education video
Video by Dr Aishwarya Kelkar Medical Lectures/YouTube
8:10
Diabetes Insipidus: Medical tests | Biology | Chegg Tutors
Chegg/YouTube
1:10
Diabetes insipidus - patient Education video
Dr Aishwarya Kelkar Medical Lectures/YouTube
Urinalysis Test
Urinalysis Test
Also called: Urine Test
A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.
Urinalysis Test
Also called: Urine Test
A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.
A urinalysis test consists in the evaluation of the macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye, can be seen through a microscope) characteristics of a urine sample to detect and measure various substances and compounds that the body filter through the kidneys.
Usually, these characteristics are done as a single panel and are not done separately as it had been before. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
The structure of the test includes:
Macroscopic aspects:
Color
Appearance
Odor
Chemical examination:
pH
Density
Proteins
Glucose
Urobilinogen
Bilirubin
Leucocytes
Nitrites
Blood
Ketones
Microscopic aspects include:
Blood cells (white and red cells)
Epithelial cells
Bacteria
Crystals or casts
The most common uses of the urine test are:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
Drug screening
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Macroscopic findings
Appearance (Clarity): normal urine is typically clear. If the urine seems to be cloudy or with floating particles, it may be indicative of urinary tract infection.
Color: most often shades of yellow. Unusual colors might be because of certain foods, medications or a specific condition.
Odor: normally it is relatively mild and not too noticeable.
Chemical examination
pH: this measures the acidity. Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
Density (specific gravity): this measures how diluted or concentrated is your urine. Normal urine density is usually from 1.003 to 1.035.
Proteins: urine can have small amounts of proteins; however, finding high protein levels may indicate kidney disease or diabetes mellitus.
Glucose: no glucose should be found in the urine of a healthy individual.
Urobilinogen: normal results range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/dL.
Bilirubin: no bilirubin should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. Positive findings may suggest liver disease.
Nitrite: no nitrites should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. When positive is highly indicative of urinary tract infection.
Ketones: normally is not found. However, it can be positive if you have been fasting for long periods of time, or if you have diabetes mellitus.
Microscopic aspects
Red blood cells (RBC’s): is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).
White blood cells (WBC’s): under normal conditions, this parameter should be negative. A positive result is suggestive of urinary tract infection.
Epithelial cells: from 1 to 5 squamous/hpf is considered to be normal. Higher results may indicate contamination of the urine sample by improper collection methods.
Bacteria: it is normal to find up to 1+ bacteria; more than this is abnormal and should be analyzed to discern whether is caused by an infection or by improper sample storage.
Crystals or casts: no crystals or casts should be found in the urine of healthy individuals. When present, it may be indicative of kidney disease or kidney stones.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Mayo Clinic: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review; Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1153-1162. [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
University of Utah: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Additional Materials (22)
Urine Hydration chart
Image by Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia
Test Tube Containing Urine
Visualization of a test tube containing urine. Urine comprises mainly of water - 96% and the remaining 4% is urea and sodium.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
Image by Bobjgalindo
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Urine samples
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine collection container
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Cancer screening
Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Male Urinary System
Image of a male showing his urinary system. The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, produces, stores, and eliminates urine. It also helps to maintain the fluid balance in humans. The male urinary system consists of two kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, prostate, and urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Nephron of Kidney
The nephron is composed of looping and folding tubules that at first glance look like an impossibly tangled knot of highways, side roads and interchanges. But in fact, the nephron directs the traffic flow effortlessly. When stretched out, a nephron would be almost a couple of feet in length and there are about a million nephrons in each kidney. A nephron is composed of two basic parts: the glomerulus and the tubule. The glomerulus, part of the vascular system, is a tuft of capillaries that filters the wastes and fluid from the blood. The tubules then catch, concentrate and excrete the waste into the urine. The walls of the tubules are made of specialized cells, which serve as \"check points\" for the waste flowing by them. Hormonal sensors in these cells determine which substances should be excreted as waste and which substances will be reabsorbed into the blood to nourish the body's cells. The specific materials the cells are assigned to reabsorb or secrete include water and essential nutrients, salts and minerals, depending on where in the tubules the cells are located. From the glomerulus until the collecting duct, intricate and minute calculations are at constant play within the nephron. The production of urine does not just result in a waste product but also protects the fine balance of substances required to keep the body healthy.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Filtration
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. The kidneys also play a key role in maintaining the body's fluid balance within a very narrow range. Even a 1% increase in blood sodium, for example, will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink in order to return the fluid balance to normal.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ammonia, Urine
Ammonia is a waste product generated by intestinal bacteria during the digestion of protein. From the intestine, ammonia is transported to the liver, where it is converted into urea, which is then excreted in the urine by the kidneys. The conversion and elimination of ammonia can be impaired by liver disease or kidney damage, which can result in a dangerous build up of ammonia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pyuria
Urine may contain pus (a condition known as pyuria) as seen from a person with sepsis due to a urinary tract infection.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Urine Hydration chart
Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia
Test Tube Containing Urine
TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
TheVisualMD
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
Bobjgalindo
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Doruk Salancı
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample
Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Urine samples
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Urine collection container
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Cancer screening
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Male Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Nephron of Kidney
TheVisualMD
Fluid Filtration
TheVisualMD
Ammonia, Urine
TheVisualMD
Pyuria
James Heilman, MD
Urine
Markhamilton
6:10
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection
Strong Medicine/YouTube
16:36
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick
Strong Medicine/YouTube
1:03
How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
1:06
How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose in your urine. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If too much glucose gets into the blood, the extra glucose will be eliminated through your urine. A urine glucose test can be used to help determine if blood glucose levels are too high, which may be a sign of diabetes.
A glucose in urine test may be part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. A glucose in urine test may also be used to screen for diabetes. However, a urine glucose test is not as accurate as a blood glucose test. It may be ordered if blood glucose testing is difficult or not possible. Some people can't get blood drawn because their veins are too small or too scarred from repeated punctures. Other people avoid blood tests due to extreme anxiety or fear of needles.
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
Increased thirst
More frequent urination
Blurred vision
Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
You don't need any special preparations for this test.
There is no known risk to having a glucose in urine test.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
Diabetes
Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
TheVisualMD
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.
Related conditions
A bilirubin in urine test measures the levels of bilirubin in your urine. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance made during the body's normal process of breaking down red blood cells. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid in your liver that helps you digest food. If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into the blood and urine. Bilirubin in urine may be a sign of liver disease.
A bilirubin in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to check for liver problems.
Your health care provider may have ordered a bilirubin in urine test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms include:
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Dark-colored urine
Abdominal pain
Nausea and vomiting
Fatigue
Because bilirubin in urine can indicate liver damage before other symptoms appear, your health care provider may order a bilirubin in urine test if you are at a higher risk for liver damage. Risk factors for liver disease include:
Family history of liver disease
Heavy drinking
Exposure or possible exposure to hepatitis virus
Obesity
Diabetes
Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container to your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations to test for bilirubin in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a bilirubin in urine test.
If bilirubin is found in your urine, it may indicate:
A liver disease such as hepatitis
A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
A problem with liver function
A bilirubin in urine test is only one measure of liver function. If your results are abnormal, your health care provider may order additional blood and urine tests, including a liver panel. A liver panel is a series of blood tests that measure various enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver. It is often used to detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003595.htm [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Ketones in Urine Test
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
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Your result is Normal.
A negative test result is normal.
Related conditions
The test measures ketone levels in your urine. Normally, your body burns glucose (sugar) for energy. If your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead. This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine. High ketone levels in urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
The test is often used to help monitor people at a higher risk of developing ketones. These include people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you have diabetes, ketones in urine can mean that you are not getting enough insulin. If you don't have diabetes, you may still be at risk for developing ketones if you:
Experience chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea
Have a digestive disorder
Participate in strenuous exercise
Are on a very low-carbohydrate diet
Have an eating disorder
Are pregnant
Your health care provider may order a ketones in urine test if you have diabetes or other risk factors for developing ketones. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of ketoacidosis. These include:
Nausea or vomiting
Abdominal pain
Confusion
Trouble breathing
Feeling extremely sleepy
People with type 1 diabetes are at a higher risk for ketoacidosis.
A ketones in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will be given instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If you do the test at home, follow the instructions that are in your test kit. Your kit will include a package of strips for testing. You will either be instructed to provide a clean catch sample in a container as described above or to put the test strip directly in the stream of your urine. Talk to your health care provider about specific instructions.
You may have to fast (not eat or drink) for a certain period of time before taking a ketones in urine test. Ask your health care provider if you need to fast or do any other type of preparation before your test.
There is no known risk to having a ketones in urine test.
Your test results may be a specific number or listed as a "small," "moderate," or "large" amount of ketones. Normal results can vary, depending on your on your diet, activity level, and other factors. Because high ketone levels can be dangerous, be sure to talk to your health care provider about what is normal for you and what your results mean.
Ketone test kits are available at most pharmacies without a prescription. If you are planning to test for ketones at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to perform and can provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Ketones in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003585.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=ketone_bodies_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Video by Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Video by Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
Image by BruceBlaus
5:46
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
DrER.tv/YouTube
1:00
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
5:50
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
11:26
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
BruceBlaus
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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1.002
1.03
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
In the kidneys, most of the water, ions, and nutrients are returned to the body while waste products and excess ions are excreted through the urine.
Normally, the color of urine is straw-yellow but it may be affected by several situations, including infections, intake of certain foods or medications, or insufficient or excessive fluid intake. Your urine color may reflect how concentrated or diluted is your urine.
A urine specific gravity (SG) test is used to compare the density of your urine to the normal density of water. The result gives an overview of the concentration of the solutes (particles) in your urine. In other words, it shows how well your kidneys are diluting urine.
A shift in the urine SG test result may give the first indication that your kidneys are not working properly. However, if a kidney disorder is suspected, further tests should be taken to confirm or exclude certain disease.
A urine specific gravity test is mainly used as a partial analysis to assess the kidney’s ability to concentrate and dilute urine. Thus, it can be used to help detect certain disorders or diseases of the urinary tract.
Your doctor may order a urine specific gravity test as part of your routine health checkup, or to help diagnose or monitor the following conditions:
Urinary tract infection
Dehydration or overhydration
Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)
Kidney failure
Shifts in sodium levels (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
Diabetes
Shock
Heart failure
Testing for urine specific gravity starts with mid-stream urine sample collection. It is recommended that the sample is collected in the morning when the urine concentration is the highest.
To collect the urine sample, you need to clean your genitals and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container. You need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external germs. Once you have collected enough urine, put the container cap on and then you can finish emptying your bladder into the toilet.
After the collection, the sample is transported to the laboratory.
Your doctor may ask you to stop taking certain medications and foods before the test.
There are no risks related to a urine gravity test.
The normal value for urine specific gravity is 1.002-1.030.
Lower-than-normal values of urine gravity may indicate:
Higher-than-normal urine gravity test results may refer to an increased level of some substances in your urine, such as proteins, bacteria, glucose, urine crystals, red and white blood cells. These findings may occur in cases of:
Liver disease
Adrenal glands disorder
Heart disease
Dehydration (not consuming enough water, or losing too much fluid through sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea)
Shock
Certain foods may affect the color of your urine; therefore, it's advised not to eat foods such as beet, rhubarb, blackberries, carrots or lava beans before giving a urine sample.
Sometimes doctors may choose a urine osmolality test instead of a urine specific gravity test. The urine osmolarity test is more specific and could help your doctor to diagnose certain disorders more accurately.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003587.htm [accessed on Oct 09, 2021]
Urine Specific Gravity Test: Overview, Tests, and Procedure [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Urine specific gravity test: Procedure and results [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (20)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
The glomeruli are sets of looping blood vessels in nephrons--the tiny working units of the kidneys that filter wastes and remove extra fluid from the blood.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
Drawing of a swollen kidney that results from ureteropelvic junction obstruction. The point of blockage is labeled UPJ obstruction. UPJ obstruction occurs when urine is blocked where the ureter joins the kidney.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is usually eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid digestion. Under normal circumstances, very little, if any, bilirubin is excreted in the urine, but in cases of liver damage or a blockage of the bile ducts, some bilirubin can leak out and appear in the urine, turning it a darker color.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
Adequate water intake and kidney health. Replacing the water lost through sweating and waste elimination is vital to our health. Remaining hydrated is one way to help prevent kidney stones, which can form when certain waste minerals are highly concentrated in the urine. In this 3-D visualization, a clear bottle pours water into a model of a human kidney.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.
Image by TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Anatomy and physiology of animals Summary of the processes involved in the formation of urine.
Image by Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body
Image by BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.
Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
TheVisualMD
Urine
Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Blood in Urine Test
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
{"label":"Blood in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
A test called a urinalysis can detect whether there is blood in your urine. A urinalysis checks a sample of your urine for different cells, chemicals, and other substances, including blood. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection, or liver disease.
A urinalysis, which includes a test for blood in urine, may be done as part of a regular checkup or to check for disorders of the urinary tract, kidney, or liver.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine exam. You may also need this test if you have seen blood in your urine or have other symptoms of a urinary disorder. These symptoms include:
Painful urination
Frequent urination
Back pain
Abdominal pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." It includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the needed amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations before getting a test for blood in your urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a blood in urine test.
There are a variety of factors that can cause red or white blood cells to be present in the urine. Many are not cause for concern. Small amounts of blood in the urine may be due to certain medicines, intense exercise, sexual activity, or menstruation. If larger amounts of blood are found, your health care provider may request further testing.
Increased red blood cells in urine may indicate:
A viral infection
Inflammation of the kidney or bladder
A blood disorder
Bladder or kidney cancer
Increased white blood cells in urine may indicate:
A bacterial urinary tract infection. This is the most common cause of a high white blood cell count in urine.
Inflammation of the urinary tract or kidneys
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
A blood in urine test is usually part of a typical urinalysis. In addition to checking for blood, a urinalysis measures other substances in the urine, including proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals.
Lab Tests Online: Blood in Urine (Hematuria) [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
Video by mdconversation/YouTube
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Video by Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
Blood in the Urine
Video by St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Microscopic hematuria
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Image by J3D3
This browser does not support the video element.
Bleeding Tissue
Blood continues to flow into tissue after the piercing needle has left the finger. Camera starts off looking at the cut edges of bleeding capillaries in the tissue and then looks down at the cavity where blood is beginning to pool.
Video by TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
12:53
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
mdconversation/YouTube
0:50
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
2:24
Blood in the Urine
St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
J3D3
0:08
Bleeding Tissue
TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
PH of Urine Test
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.
{"label":"Urine pH reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.5},"text":"This means that your urine is acidic. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of meat, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Metabolic acidosis","Respiratory acidosis","Xanthine kidney stones","Cystine kidney stones","Uric acid kidney stones","Diabetes","Diarrhea","Starvation","Fanconi syndrome","Milkman syndrome"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":8},"text":"A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":14},"text":"This means that your urine is alkaline. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Kidney failure","Urinary tract infection","Calcium carbonate kidney stones","Calcium phosphate kidney stones","Struvite kidney stones","Respiratory alkalosis","Metabolic alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"value":6.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
pH
4.5
8
Your result is Normal.
A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.
Related conditions
A urine pH test is the analysis of the acidity/alkalinity of the urine. It is part of the chemical examination in a urinalysis. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
Some of the most common uses of the urine pH test are:
Evaluate the risk of developing kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
Assessment of metabolic acidosis
Monitor treatment of uric acid kidney stones
Help identify crystals in the urine
You will need to provide a urine sample.
No preparations are required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
A high urine pH (alkaline urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables. Other causes include:
Kidney failure
Urinary tract infection
Kidney stones made up from calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate)
Respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis
A low urine pH (acid urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of meat. Other causes include:
Metabolic acidosis
Respiratory acidosis
Kidney stones made up from xanthine, cystine, and uric acid
Diabetes
Diarrhea
Starvation
Fanconi syndrome
Milkman syndrome
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
013037: pH, Urine | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Protein in Urine Test
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
{"label":"Protein in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels.<br \/>\n<br \/>\nIf your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Lupus","High blood pressure","Preeclampsia","Diabetes","Certain types of cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. Proteins are substances that are essential for your body to function properly. Protein is normally found in the blood. If there is a problem with your kidneys, protein can leak into your urine. While a small amount is normal, a large amount of protein in urine may indicate kidney disease.
A protein in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to look for or to monitor kidney disease.
Your health care provider may have ordered a protein test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of kidney disease. These symptoms include:
Difficulty urinating
Frequent urination, especially at night
Nausea and vomiting
Loss of appetite
Swelling in the hands and feet
Fatigue
Itching
A protein in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will receive instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If at home, you will use a test kit. The kit will include a package of strips for testing and instructions on how to provide a clean catch sample. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Your health care provider may also request you collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This "24-hour urine sample test" is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including protein, can vary throughout the day. Collecting several samples in a day may provide a more accurate picture of your urine content.
You don't need any special preparations to test for protein in urine. If your health care provider has ordered a 24-hour urine sample, you will get specific instructions on how to provide and store your samples.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a urine in protein test.
If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels. Your health care provider may recommend additional urinalysis tests if a high level of protein is found. This testing may include a 24-hour urine sample test.
If your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition. These include:
Urinary tract infection
Lupus
High blood pressure
Preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy, marked by high blood pressure. If it is not treated, preeclampsia can be life-threatening to the mother and baby.
Diabetes
Certain types of cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If you will be doing your urine test at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which test kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to do and provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Urine Total Protein Test for Diseased Glomerulus : The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, which are recycled in the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
TheVisualMD
Urobilinogen Test
Urobilinogen Test
Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen
A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.
Urobilinogen Test
Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen
A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.
{"label":"Urobilinogen Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate a blockage in the blood flow of the liver or structures that carry bile from your liver or a problem with liver function.","conditions":["Liver issues"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Urinary urobilinogen may be increased in the presence of a hemolytic process such as hemolytic anemia. It may also be increased with infectious hepatitis, or with cirrhosis.","conditions":["Hepatitis","Cirrhosis","Liver damage","Hemolytic anemia"]}],"value":2.25}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A urobilinogen in urine test measures the amount of urobilinogen in a urine sample. Urobilinogen is formed from the reduction of bilirubin. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance found in your liver that helps break down red blood cells. Normal urine contains some urobilinogen. If there is little or no urobilinogen in urine, it can mean your liver isn't working correctly. Too much urobilinogen in urine can indicate a liver disease such as hepatitis or cirrhosis.
A urobilinogen test may part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. A urinalysis is often part of a routine exam.
Your health care provider may have ordered this test as part of your regular checkup, to monitor an existing liver condition, or if you have symptoms of a liver disease. These include:
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Nausea and/or vomiting
Dark colored urine
Pain and swelling in the abdomen
Itchy skin
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. He or she will provide you with special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having this test.
If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate:
A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
A blockage in the blood flow of the liver
A problem with liver function
If your test results show a higher-than-normal level of urobilinogen, it may indicate:
Hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Liver damage due to drugs
Hemolytic anemia, a condition in which red blood cells are destroyed before they can be replaced. This leaves the body without enough healthy red blood cells
If your results are abnormal, it does not necessarily indicate you have a medical condition requiring treatment. Be sure to tell your health care provider about any medicines and supplements you are taking, as these can affect your results. If you are a woman, you should tell your health care provider if you are menstruating.
This test is only one measure of liver function. If your health care provider thinks you might have a liver disease, additional urine and blood tests may be ordered.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (4)
Bilirubin Metabolism
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Urinalysis
Kidneys and Related Conditions : The value of routine urinalysis is that abnormal levels of substances such as protein or glucose, for example, will often appear in the urine before patients are aware they may have a problem. It is also used to detect disorders of the urinary tract, most commonly infections. Abnormal urine screens are typically followed up by more specific diagnostic tests.
Image by TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, filtering blood and removing toxins, storing sugars, lipids, and vitamins, and producing important blood proteins. Liver function is typically evaluated by a panel of tests, including one for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an enzyme made in liver cells, that help doctors distinguish among the many different possible causes of liver damage. Many types of liver damage, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver cancer or drug toxicity, can elevate ALP levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, filtering blood and removing toxins, storing sugars, lipids, and vitamins, and producing important blood proteins such as albumin as well as those involved in blood clotting. The liver also produces most of body's cholesterol (the rest comes from food) as well as a quart of bile each day, a greenish-brown, alkaline fluid that aids digestion. The gallbladder stores bile for release into the small intestine; bile contains cholesterol, bile salts, and bilirubin, a yellowish pigment produced by the breakdown of red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:44
Bilirubin Metabolism
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Urinalysis
TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
TheVisualMD
Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel
TheVisualMD
Nitrites in Urine Test
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
{"label":"Nitrites in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a urinary tract infection.","conditions":["UTI"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.
Related conditions
A urinalysis, also called a urine test, can detect the presence of nitrites in the urine. Normal urine contains chemicals called nitrates. If bacteria enter the urinary tract, nitrates can turn into different, similarly named chemicals called nitrites. Nitrites in urine may be a sign of a urinary tract infection (UTI).
UTIs are one of the most common types of infections, especially in women. Fortunately, most UTIs are not serious and are usually treated with antibiotics. It's important to see your health care provider if you have symptoms of a UTI so you can start treatment right away.
Other names: urine test, urine analysis, microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, UA
A urinalysis, which includes a test for nitrites in urine, may be part of a regular exam. It may also be used to check for a UTI.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine checkup or if you have symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms of a UTI may include:
Frequent urge to urinate, but little urine comes out
Painful urination
Dark, cloudy, or reddish colored urine
Bad smelling urine
Weakness and fatigue, particularly in older women and men
Fever
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider
You don't need any special preparations to test for nitrites in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a nitrites in urine test.
If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a UTI. However, even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites. If you have symptoms of a UTI, your health care provider will also look at other results of your urinalysis, especially the white blood cell count. A high white blood cell count in urine is another possible sign of an infection. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If a urinalysis is part of your regular checkup, your urine will be tested for a variety of substances along with nitrites. These include red and white blood cells, proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals in your urine.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
0:45
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Osmosis/YouTube
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
{"label":"Red Blood Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{cells}\/uL","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"One cross (+)","long":"One cross (+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":25},"text":"This indicates that small but significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Repeat test may be necessary and should be looked at in clinical setting.","conditions":["Persistent microscopic haematuria","Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Two crosses (++)","long":"Two crosses (++)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"This indicates that significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{cells}/uL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.
Related conditions
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, are cells that can be found circulating in the blood. They are produced in the bone marrow (the spongy tissue inside some of your bones), and their function is to carry a protein called hemoglobin through the body, which in turn delivers oxygen to the tissues and organs.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that RBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not usually ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells per high-powered field are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).; further information should be gathered to make a diagnose.
Presence of RBC’s in urine may be due to:
Glomerular disorders
Glomerulonephritis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Renal disorders
Polycystic kidney disease
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
Cancer
Cystitis
Pyelonephritis
Nephrolithiasis
Prostatitis
Intake or certain drugs
Trauma
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, menstruation traces, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
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10
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, are part of the immune system. These cells protect your body against viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungus, and any other strange organism or substance that may want to enter into your system.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that WBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
The normal range for WBCs in urine is:
<10 WBC/µl: not significant
10-100 WBC/µl: usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment
>100 WBC/µl: suggestive of infection
It is also considered normal to have less than 5 WBCs/hpf. A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
Pyuria
Pyuria : White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Pyuria
Bobjgalindo
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Your result is Few.
"Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range.
Related conditions
Epithelial cells are a type of cell that lines the surfaces of your body. They are found on your skin, blood vessels, urinary tract, and organs. An epithelial cells in urine test looks at urine under a microscope to see if the number of your epithelial cells is in the normal range. It's normal to have a small amount of epithelial cells in your urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition.
An epithelial cells in urine test is a part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine. A urinalysis may include a visual examination of your urine sample, tests for certain chemicals, and an examination of urine cells under a microscope. An epithelial cells in urine test is part of a microscopic exam of urine.
Your health care provider may have ordered an epithelial cells in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if your visual or chemical urine tests showed abnormal results. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a urinary or kidney disorder. These symptoms may include:
Frequent and/or painful urination
Abdominal pain
Back pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container will have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations for the test. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having the test.
Results are often reported as an approximate amount, such as "few," moderate," or "many" cells. "Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range. "Moderate" or "many" cells may indicate a medical condition such as:
Urinary tract infection
Yeast infection
Kidney disease
Liver disease
Certain types of cancer
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment. You may need more tests before you can get a diagnosis. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
There are three types of epithelial cells that line the urinary tract. They are called transitional cells, renal tubular cells, and squamous cells. If there are squamous epithelial cells in your urine, it may mean your sample was contaminated. This means that the sample contains cells from the urethra (in men) or the vaginal opening (in women). It can happen if you do not clean well enough when using the clean catch method.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Cancer screening
Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Markhamilton
Cancer screening
TheVisualMD
Urinary Casts Test
Urinary Casts Test
Also called: Urine Casts
Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.
Urinary Casts Test
Also called: Urine Casts
Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.
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Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Urinary casts are tiny cylindrical, tube-shaped structures that are produced by the kidneys and may be found in a urinalysis test when certain diseases or conditions are present.
This test usually forms part of a urine test (urinalysis), which can be ordered as part of a normal routine check-up, or when kidney diseases are suspected.
You will be asked to provide a urine sample by urinating into a sterile urine container.
To adequately do this, you need to clean your genitals, and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container.
No fasting or other preparations are necessary for this test. Follow the instructions provided by your healthcare professional.
There are no known risks associated with this test.
Hyaline casts: the presence of a few of these casts is usually normal and can occur in physiologic states (e.g., after exercise).
Fatty casts: these casts can be found in people who have lipids (fat) in the urine and are usually related to a kidney disease complication, such as nephrotic syndrome, glomerulonephritis, or other forms of chronic renal diseases.
Granular casts: these casts might be found after exercise, but also when certain kidney diseases are present.
Red blood cell casts: these casts are related to a very small amount of bleeding from the kidney. Red blood cell casts are seen in many kidney diseases.
Epithelial cell casts: the apparition of these casts implies damage to cells in the kidneys. These casts are seen in conditions such as heavy metal poisoning, and kidney transplant rejection, among others.
Waxy casts: these casts can be found in people with long-term (chronic) kidney disease and chronic kidney failure.
White blood cell (WBC) casts: these casts can be found when acute kidney infections are present.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Kidney Function Panel
Kidney Function Panel
Also called: Kidney Panel, Renal Function Panel, Renal Panel
Your kidneys filter and clean your blood. Kidney tests include blood, urine, and imaging tests that doctors use to diagnose and monitor kidney diseases.
Kidney Function Panel
Also called: Kidney Panel, Renal Function Panel, Renal Panel
Your kidneys filter and clean your blood. Kidney tests include blood, urine, and imaging tests that doctors use to diagnose and monitor kidney diseases.
Because your kidneys remove waste, toxins, and extra fluid from the blood, a doctor will use a blood test to check your kidney function. The blood tests will show how well your kidneys are doing their job and how quickly the waste is being removed. Here are a few blood tests that are used:
Serum creatinine. A serum creatinine blood test measures the amount of creatinine in your blood. If your kidneys are not working like they should, your serum creatinine level goes up. Normal levels for you will depend on your sex, age, and the amount of muscle mass your body has.
Usually a creatinine level more than 1.2 for women and more than 1.4 for men may be a sign that the kidneys are not working like they should. If your serum creatinine test results are higher than normal, your doctor may want to run other tests.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The GFR is a measure of how well your kidneys remove waste, toxins, and extra fluid from your blood. Your serum creatinine level, age, and sex are used to calculate your GFR number. Like other kidney tests, a normal GFR number for you will depend on your age and sex. If your GFR is low, your kidneys are likely not working as they should. As kidney disease progresses, your GFR goes down. The results of your test can mean the following:
If you have a GFR number of 60 or more together with a normal urine albumin test, you are in the normal range. But you’ll still want to talk to your doctor about when you should be checked again.
If you have a GFR number less than 60, it may mean you have kidney disease. You’ll want to talk to your doctor about treatment options that are best for you.
If you have a GFR number less than 15, it may mean your kidneys are failing. If your results show kidney failure, you’ll likely need dialysis or a kidney transplant. You should know that if your GFR level is less than 20 consistently over a 6- to 12-month period, as a precaution, your doctor may consider you for a kidney transplant.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN). This test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product your body makes from the breakdown of protein in the foods you eat. Healthy kidneys filter urea nitrogen out of your blood and it leaves your body through your urine. This process helps keep your BUN level within a normal range. A normal level of urea nitrogen will depend on your age and other health conditions you may have, but usually ranges from 7 to 20. If your levels are higher than normal, this may be a sign that your kidneys are not working as well as they should. As kidney disease progresses, your BUN level goes up.
If your BUN level reveals signs of kidney disease, your doctor will use your BUN test results, along with other tests, to decide on a treatment plan that best fits your needs.
Kidney Testing: Everything You Need to Know | CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 14, 2024]
Renal Panel Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 14, 2024]
Additional Materials (35)
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube
Stages of Kidney Disease
Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
Video by NKN/YouTube
How can I be tested for kidney disease?
Video by Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube
Testing and Treatment for Kidney Disease
Video by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
Intended for use by providers when explaining estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) results, this dial shows how certain eGFR values fall into healthy and unhealthy ranges. A GFR that is = 60 or higher is in the normal range. A GFR below 60 may mean kidney disease. A GFR of 15 or lower may mean kidney failure.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Creatinine
Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.
Image by TheVisualMD
Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney
Image by Madhero88
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Diagram showing how the kidneys work
Diagram showing how the kidneys work
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Kidneys and EPO
Top: process of normal red blood cell production with a healthy kidney. Bottom: process of reduced red blood cell production with a damaged kidney. Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called EPO. EPO prompts the bone marrow to make red blood cells, which then carry oxygen throughout the body. When the kidneys are diseased or damaged, they do not make enough EPO. As a result, the bone marrow makes fewer red blood cells, causing anemia.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Kidney with ACKD
Drawing of a male torso with kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra labeled, and a drawing below of a kidney with sacs of fluid labeled as cysts. Acquired cystic kidney disease happens when a person's kidneys develop fluid-filled sacs called cysts.
Image by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell : We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Renal Circulation
Kidney Cortex, cross section : The cortex is the outermost region of the kidney. It is densely packed with winding blood vessels, convoluted tubules, and collecting ducts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
Diseased Kidney : This visualization is the anterior view of an unhealthy kidney, damaged from chronic kidney disease and hypertension. This kidney exhibits a severe case of stage five chronic kidney disease (CKD). Shrinkage of the kidney and increased granulation and scarring on the surface are visible.
Image by TheVisualMD
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Urine Total Protein Test for Diseased Glomerulus : The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, which are recycled in the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diagram of two kidneys (healthy vs polycystic)
The healthy kidney on the lower right is smooth. The polycystic kidney on the upper left has many fluid-filled sacs on the surface. Labels point to the ureter and cysts on the polycystic kidney. The polycystic kidney roughly retains the same shape as the healthy kidney.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Kidney and Adrenal Gland
The kidney (including the surrounding fibrous tissue and fat layer, the renal pelvis, and the ureter) and the adrenal gland, as well as a close-up view of the renal pelvis. Image is included in this publication:
See also http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/wyntk/kidney.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Healthy and Diseased Kidney Comparison
Each day the kidneys filter 200 quarts of blood, removing toxins and excess salts to produce about 2 quarts of waste and excess water as urine. The kidneys also play a critical role in maintaining the body's equilibrium by constantly adjusting the levels of key chemicals in the blood such as sodium, phosphorus, and potassium. The kidneys monitor oxygen levels in the blood, and respond to low oxygen levels by releasing the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). Chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when the kidneys are increasingly unable to balance levels of electrolytes (like sodium or calcium) and fail to produce enough urine to eliminate toxins and wastes from the blood. Diabetes and hypertension account for 65% of cases of CKD. Kidney damage can easily go unnoticed until the condition is advanced and kidneys are working at just 15% of their normal capacity.
Image by TheVisualMD
Angiogram Showing Artery of Abdomen and Kidney
This angiogram depicts the kidneys, renal vasculature and the major abdominal arteries.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Nephron
Schematics of kidney and nephron. 1: Renal cortex. 2: Medulla. 3: Renal artery. 4: Renal vein. 5: Ureter. 6: Nephrons. 7: Afferent arteriole. 8: Glomerulus. 9: Bowman’s capsule. 10: Tubuli and loop of Henle. 11: Efferent arteriole. 12: Peritubular capillaries.
Image by File:Physiology_of_Nephron.svg: Madhero88 File:KidneyStructures_PioM.svg: Piotr Michał Jaworski; PioM EN DE PL derivative work: Daniel Sachse (Antares42)
Abdomen Revealing Kidney with Chronic Kidney Disease
Right Lateral view of male abdomen visualizing kidney with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Visible: right hand and aorta.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Left Kidney with Adhesive Bandage
Editorial image: managing CKD, repairing and preventing kidney damage
Image by TheVisualMD
Hands Holding Glowing Glass Kidney
Editorial image of two hands holding a glowing glass kidney
Image by TheVisualMD
Spine Between Right and Left Kidney and Ureter
Image showing the anterior view of the kidneys and ureters in relation with skeletal system.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Torso Revealing Kidney
Posterior view of female torso with urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder)
Image by TheVisualMD
What are the symptoms of kidney stones?
Kidney Stones causing Back Pain : Most types of kidney disease, such as those caused by high blood pressure and diabetes, don't cause pain. Kidney stones and infections do cause pain. Although the pain actually originates in the organ, it may seem to come from the back or from other parts of your body. Pain caused by your kidneys is usually felt in your flank area, at the lower edge of the ribs and on either side of the spine. Kidney pain is usually sharp and severe, and it generally occurs in waves.
Image by TheVisualMD
The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease
The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease : Because CKD can progress for years with few or no symptoms, anyone with risk factors should be routinely tested. There are three main types of tests for CKD: urine, blood, and imaging tests. Tests for CKD look for substances that normally are low or missing in the blood or urine, like protein and nitrogen. Other tests look for chemical imbalances or anemia. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urinalysis
Kidneys and Related Conditions : The value of routine urinalysis is that abnormal levels of substances such as protein or glucose, for example, will often appear in the urine before patients are aware they may have a problem. It is also used to detect disorders of the urinary tract, most commonly infections. Abnormal urine screens are typically followed up by more specific diagnostic tests.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Cancer
Kidney Cancer
Image by BruceBlaus
The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The glomerulus and convoluted tubules are located in the kidney cortex, while collecting ducts are located in the pyramids of the medulla. (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)
15:01
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Medcrine Medical/YouTube
6:58
Stages of Kidney Disease
UC San Diego Health/YouTube
8:29
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
NKN/YouTube
1:40
How can I be tested for kidney disease?
Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube
1:09
Testing and Treatment for Kidney Disease
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Renal Circulation
TheVisualMD
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
TheVisualMD
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
TheVisualMD
Diagram of two kidneys (healthy vs polycystic)
NIDDK Image Library
Kidney and Adrenal Gland
National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Healthy and Diseased Kidney Comparison
TheVisualMD
Angiogram Showing Artery of Abdomen and Kidney
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Nephron
File:Physiology_of_Nephron.svg: Madhero88 File:KidneyStructures_PioM.svg: Piotr Michał Jaworski; PioM EN DE PL derivative work: Daniel Sachse (Antares42)
Abdomen Revealing Kidney with Chronic Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
TheVisualMD
Left Kidney with Adhesive Bandage
TheVisualMD
Hands Holding Glowing Glass Kidney
TheVisualMD
Spine Between Right and Left Kidney and Ureter
TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
TheVisualMD
Female Torso Revealing Kidney
TheVisualMD
What are the symptoms of kidney stones?
TheVisualMD
The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Urinalysis
TheVisualMD
Kidney Cancer
BruceBlaus
The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)
Glucose
Blood Glucose Test
Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)
A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.
Blood Glucose Test
Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)
A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.
{"label":"Glucose (fasting) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":30,"max":70},"text":"Low blood sugar, also known as hypoglycemia, can be a dangerous condition. Low blood sugar can happen in people with diabetes who take medicines that increase insulin levels in the body.","conditions":["Addison disease","Alcohol use disorder","Diabetes medicines","Eating disorder","Hypothyroidism","Insulinoma","Kidney failure","Liver disease","Malnutrition"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":70,"max":100},"text":"A healthy (normal) fasting blood glucose level for someone without diabetes is 70 to 99 mg\/dL (3.9 to 5.5 mmol\/L). Values between 50 and 70 mg\/dL (2.8 to 3.9 mmol\/L) for people without diabetes can be \"normal\" too.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":125},"text":"A level of 100 to 125 mg\/dL means you may have prediabetes. ","conditions":["Prediabetes","Hyperglycemia","Pancreatitis","Hyperthyroidism"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VH","long":"Very high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":125,"max":200},"text":"A level of 126 mg\/dL or above means you may have diabetes and need to do the test again on a different day to be sure.","conditions":["Diabetes","Kidney disease","Hyperthyroidism","Pancreatitis","Pancreatic cancer"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":85}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
70
100
125
Your result is Normal.
A healthy (normal) fasting blood glucose level for someone without diabetes is 70 to 99 mg/dL (3.9 to 5.5 mmol/L). Values between 50 and 70 mg/dL (2.8 to 3.9 mmol/L) for people without diabetes can be "normal" too.
Related conditions
{"label":"Glucose (random) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":30,"max":80},"text":"Low blood sugar, also known as hypoglycemia, can be a dangerous condition. Low blood sugar can happen in people with diabetes who take medicines that increase insulin levels in the body.","conditions":["Medications, such as quinine","Hepatitis or kidney disorders","Tumor that produces excess insulin","Endocrine disorders, such as adrenal gland deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":140},"text":"In a random blood glucose test, a normal result depends on when you last ate. You may start your day at below 100 mg\/dL in the morning before breakfast and your blood glucose may rise as high as 140 mg\/dL about 2 hours after meals during the day. Most of the time, the blood glucose level will be below 125 mg\/dL (6.9 mmol\/L).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"A level of between 140\u2013200 mg\/dl is considered pre-diabetes.","conditions":["Prediabetes"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VH","long":"Very high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":200,"max":500},"text":"A level of 200 mg\/dL (11 mmol\/L) or higher paired with the classic symptoms of high blood sugar (excessive thirst, urination at night, blurred vision and, in some cases, weight loss) often means you have diabetes.","conditions":["Diabetes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":110}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
80
140
200
Your result is Normal.
In a random blood glucose test, a normal result depends on when you last ate. You may start your day at below 100 mg/dL in the morning before breakfast and your blood glucose may rise as high as 140 mg/dL about 2 hours after meals during the day. Most of the time, the blood glucose level will be below 125 mg/dL (6.9 mmol/L).
Related conditions
{"label":"Glucose (postprandial) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":65,"max":140},"text":"Within 2 hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. Normal blood glucose values in people who don't have diabetes are less than 140 mg\/dL, and in people with diabetes are less than 180 mg\/dL.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"If your blood glucose level is still high 2 hours after you've eaten, it could mean you have diabetes.","conditions":["High blood sugar","Type 2 diabetes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":102.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
140
Your result is Normal.
Within 2 hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. Normal blood glucose values in people who don't have diabetes are less than 140 mg/dL, and in people with diabetes are less than 180 mg/dL.
Related conditions
A blood glucose test measures the glucose levels in your blood. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells.
Too much or too little glucose in the blood can be a sign of a serious medical condition. High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) may be a sign of diabetes, a disorder that can cause serious, long-term health conditions.
High blood sugar may also be caused by other conditions that can affect insulin or glucose levels in your blood, such as problems with your pancreas or adrenal glands.
Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) are common among people with type 1 diabetes and people with type 2 diabetes who take certain diabetes medicines. Certain conditions, such as liver disease, may cause low levels of blood glucose in people without diabetes, but this is uncommon. Without treatment, severe low blood sugar can lead to major health problems, including seizures and brain damage.
Other names: blood sugar, self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), fasting blood sugar (FBS), fasting blood glucose (FBG), random blood sugar, glucose challenge test, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
A blood glucose test is used to find out if your blood sugar levels are in a healthy range. It is often used to help diagnose and monitor diabetes.
Your health care provider may order a blood glucose test if you have symptoms of high glucose levels or low glucose levels.
Symptoms of high blood glucose levels include:
Increased thirst and urination (peeing)
Blurred vision
Fatigue
Sores that don't heal
Weight loss when you're not trying to lose weight
Numbness or tingling in your feet or hands
Symptoms of low blood glucose levels include:
Feeling shaky or jittery
Hunger
Fatigue
Feeling dizzy, confused, or irritable
Headache
A fast heartbeat or arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Having trouble seeing or speaking clearly
Fainting or seizures
You may also need a blood glucose test if you have a high risk for developing type 2 diabetes. You're more likely to develop diabetes if you:
Are overweight or have obesity
Are age 45 or older
Have a family history of diabetes
Have high blood pressure
Don't exercise enough
Have a history of heart disease or stroke
Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes that happens only during pregnancy)
If you are pregnant, you will likely get a blood glucose test between the 24th and 28th week of your pregnancy to check for gestational diabetes.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
For some types of glucose blood tests, you will drink a sugary liquid and wait for an hour before your blood sample is taken:
A glucose challenge test is used to test for gestational diabetes in pregnancy. If your blood glucose level is higher than normal, you may have gestational diabetes. You'll need an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to get a diagnosis.
An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is used to diagnose gestational diabetes, and type 2 diabetes and prediabetes in people who aren't pregnant. A blood sample will be taken before you have a sugary drink and then again, every hour for the next 2 or 3 hours.
If your provider orders a fasting blood glucose test or an oral glucose tolerance test, you will need to fast (not eat or drink) for at least eight hours before the test. Other blood glucose tests don't require any special preparations. Ask your provider whether you need to fast before your glucose test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly. After an oral glucose tolerance test, you may feel light-headed. Your provider may suggest that you plan to have someone take you home.
If your results show higher than normal glucose levels, it may mean you have or are at risk for getting diabetes. High glucose levels may also be a sign of:
Hyperthyroidism
Pancreas disorders
Stress from surgery, very serious illness, or trauma
If you have diabetes, lower than normal glucose levels may be caused by:
Side effects from certain diabetes medicines
Not eating enough, especially after taking diabetes medicine
Being more physically active than usual
If you don't have diabetes, low blood glucose levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease
Kidney disease
Underactive adrenal, pituitary, or thyroid gland (hypothyroidism)
Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
If your glucose results are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines and stress can affect glucose levels. To learn what your test results mean, talk with your health care provider.
If you have diabetes, you may need to do blood sugar testing at home every day to help manage your blood glucose levels. There are two ways to do this:
Blood glucose meters require you to prick your finger with a small device called a lancet. You apply a drop of blood to a test strip and insert it into a small, electronic glucose meter, which measures the glucose is in your blood.
Continuous glucose monitors (CGM) use a tiny sensor that you insert under your skin. Every few minutes, the sensor measures glucose levels in fluids between your cells. If your glucose is too high or too low, you use a blood glucose meter to check your blood levels before making changes to raise or lower your glucose level.
Blood sugar test: Health Article | MedlinePlus - NIH [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
Random glucose test - Wikipedia [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
001032: Glucose | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
001818: Glucose, Plasma | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
Glucose (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
Blood Glucose Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 12, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Glucose: Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland (located behind the stomach) that secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum (small intestine), which then combine with bile, produced in the liver. The pancreas also produces the hormone insulin, which helps control blood sugar levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)
Our brains need a continuous supply of fuel in the form of glucose because they can't store energy as fat or glycogen. Though the brain represents only about 2% of the body's mass, it consumes 60% of the sugar coursing through our bloodstreams.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glucose: Insulin & Glucose
The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Blood levels of glucose rise after meals, but insulin keeps glucose levels within a narrow range; excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Glucose Insulin and Diabetes
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Diabetes and insulin injection
There are 3 main types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes develops when the body's immune system destroys the pancreatic cells that produce the hormone insulin. Type 2 diabetes develops when cells can no longer use insulin effectively, which can result in the pancreas gradually losing its ability to produce insulin. Both types of diabetes can require insulin injections to compensate for this deficiency. A third type, gestational diabetes, is a form of glucose intolerance that appears in some women during pregnancy.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health
Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin from a healthy pancreas keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, this balance is disrupted because either the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage blood vessels in the kidneys and eyes, as well as nerve cells; acute disruptions of the insulin/glucose balance can be life threatening. Blood and urine tests can determine whether someone is diabetic or pre-diabetic. Diabetes is looming as a major public health concern; an estimated 25 million people in the U.S. have diabetes, with more than a quarter of them undiagnosed.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Fasting Plasma Glucose
The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, also known as the fasting blood sugar test, measures blood sugar levels and is used to diagnose diabetes.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
What Is Type 2 Diabetes?
Go deep inside your body to see how type 2 diabetes happens, what it does to your body-and what you can do about it. Diabetes expert Dr. David Katz of the Yale Prevention Research Center talks about the frightening future of diabetes: in just a few decades, one third of all Americans may have diabetes. See the pancreas, where insulin is produced. Real imaging data reveals the body's inner anatomy slice by slice, from brain to base of spine. Dr. Cynthia Geyer of Canyon Ranch talks about how insulin resistance develops. View its results, as visceral abdominal fat builds up and chokes the vital organs. Discover the symptoms of type 2 diabetes and find out if you should be tested. See the complications of diabetes, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, vision damage, kidney disease, and gangrene. The good news? Diabetes is a highly manageable disease. Dr. Mark Liponis of Canyon Ranch talks about controlling your risk for type 2 diabetes and, by managing it, reversing its symptoms and literally slowing the aging process.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
What are Carbohydrates?
Most of the foods we consume, including fruits and vegetables, contain carbohydrates. Once metabolized, these macronutrients become the body's primary source of energy, providing food to cells. And while nature never produced any "good" or "bad" carbs, it's also true that excessive carbohydrate consumption can lead to unwanted weight gain. Before you strike carbs from your diet, though, learn more about how this important nutrient supports your good health.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Simple Carbohydrates
Because only the smallest molecules of sugar can pass through the intestinal walls and into the blood stream, foods ingested as simple carbohydrates (single- and double-molecule sugars) can be used immediately while complex carbohydrates (three or more molecules) require more time and action to break down and be absorbed. Some simple sugars occur naturally in vegetables, milk, honey, and other unprocessed foods. Synthetic sweeteners such as corn syrup and high fructose are simple sugars as well. Simple carbs cause a rapid rise and fall in glucose, leaving you feeling hungry faster.
Video by TheVisualMD
Glucose: Pancreas
TheVisualMD
Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)
TheVisualMD
Glucose: Insulin & Glucose
TheVisualMD
9:19
Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
7:24
Glucose Insulin and Diabetes
Khan Academy/YouTube
5:11
How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood
TED-Ed/YouTube
Diabetes and insulin injection
TheVisualMD
1:36
Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
0:23
Fasting Plasma Glucose
TheVisualMD
4:22
What Is Type 2 Diabetes?
TheVisualMD
1:11
What are Carbohydrates?
TheVisualMD
1:09
Simple Carbohydrates
TheVisualMD
Phosphate
Phosphate Blood Test
Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4
A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.
Phosphate Blood Test
Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4
A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
1
2.5
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.
Related conditions
A phosphate in blood test measures the amount of phosphate in a sample of your blood. Phosphate contains the mineral phosphorus. So, a phosphate test is sometimes called a phosphorus test.
Phosphate is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Your body also needs phosphates for many other important processes, such as:
Building strong bones and teeth. Most of the phosphate in your body is found in your bones where it is combined with the mineral calcium.
Making energy.
Helping your nerves and muscles work properly.
The phosphorus in phosphate comes from the foods you eat, including nuts and seeds, dairy products, dried beans, meats, poultry, and eggs. Your body tightly controls the amount of phosphate in your blood mainly through your:
Kidneys. They filter extra phosphate from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your phosphate level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
Intestines. They control how much phosphorous you absorb from the foods you eat.
The amount of phosphate in your blood is also linked to your levels of:
Calcium. When blood calcium levels increase, phosphate levels decrease. And when calcium levels decrease, phosphate levels increase.
Vitamin D. It helps your body use phosphate.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is made by parathyroid glands in your neck. It helps balance phosphate and calcium levels in your blood.
Abnormal phosphate levels may be a sign of problems with the systems in your body that control phosphate levels. To help understand the cause of abnormal levels, the test is often done with blood tests that measure calcium, vitamin D, and PTH.
Other names: phosphorus test, P, PO4, phosphorus-serum, phosphate, inorganic phosphorus
A phosphate in blood test is often used with other tests to help diagnose and/or monitor:
Kidney disease, especially chronic kidney disease. High phosphate levels are a common sign that the kidneys aren't working well to get rid of extra phosphate in the blood.
Bone disorders. High phosphate levels can pull calcium out of bones and weaken them over time.
Parathyroid disorders. Parathyroid hormones control the balance of phosphate and calcium in the blood. A phosphate test can help show how well the parathyroid glands are working.
A phosphate test may also be used to monitor people who:
Have diabetes that isn't well controlled
Have signs of an acid-base imbalance (having too much or too little acid in your blood)
Phosphate levels that are either high or mildly low usually don't cause any symptoms on their own. But you may need a phosphate test with other tests if you:
Have had an abnormal result on a calcium blood test. A calcium test may be part of a routine exam. Abnormal levels are often linked to abnormal phosphate levels.
Have symptoms of low calcium levels. High levels of phosphate can lower calcium levels in your blood, which can cause symptoms, such as:
Nails that break easily, and/or hair that becomes coarse
Rash and/or itchy skin
Muscle cramps
Bone pain
Seizures
Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
Have symptoms of severely low phosphate levels. This condition can become life-threatening and needs immediate treatment. Symptoms may include:
Muscle pain and/or weakness
Bone pain
Changes in your mental condition, such as feeling confused or very irritable
Seizures
Coma
You may also need to have your phosphate levels checked if you have or may have a condition that can cause abnormal phosphate levels, such as:
Kidney disease
Malnutrition
Malabsorption syndrome
A parathyroid gland disorder
Using certain medicines
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your health care provider will tell you how to prepare for your test. You may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before you give your blood sample.
Certain medicines, vitamins and supplements can affect the accuracy of your test results. So tell your provider about everything you take, including over-the-counter medicines. But don't stop taking any prescription medicines unless your provider tells you to.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
The results of your phosphate test may say "phosphorus levels" or "phosphate levels." These terms mean the same thing. The meaning of your test results depends on your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other tests.
In general:
A higher than normal phosphate level is called hyperphosphatemia. High levels are linked to many conditions, including:
Late stages of chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. If damaged kidneys can't filter out extra phosphate, it can build up in your blood. If you have a condition that affects your kidneys, eating too much phosphorus-rich food may also lead to high phosphate levels.
Hypoparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands don't make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). When PTH is low, calcium levels are low and phosphate levels are high.
Acidosis. This means having too much acid in your blood from a pH imbalance. It may be caused by a lung disorder or other health conditions, including kidney disease.
Long-term use of certain medicines. These include steroids, laxatives, and enemas that contain phosphate.
A lower than normal phosphate level is called hypophosphatemia. Mildly low levels often aren't a health problem. But many conditions that cause low levels may need treatment, including:
Hyperparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands make too much parathyroid hormone, which leads to high levels of blood calcium and low levels of phosphate.
Vitamin D deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to osteomalacia, a condition that causes soft bones. In children, this condition is called rickets.
Getting too little phosphorus from food. This is uncommon in the U.S. But some people are more likely to have trouble getting enough phosphorus, including:
Premature babies
People who have certain rare genetic disorders, severe malnutrition, alcohol use disorder, or problems absorbing nutrients
Long-term use of certain medicines. These include antacids that contain aluminum hydroxide or calcium carbonate and certain prescription diuretics ("water pills").
If your phosphate levels are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Also, children often have higher phosphate levels because their bones are still growing. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Your provider may order a phosphate in urine test instead of or with a phosphate in blood test.
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/33136/phosphorus [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]
https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8408 [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (11)
Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods
Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods : The phosphorus test is used to monitor the levels of phosphorus in the blood. Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus: Tooth
Along with calcium, phosphorus is an important building block of teeth.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus: Heart Function
Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Plate of High Phosphorus Food
Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus Ion
Phosphorus is an essential mineral, required by every cell in the body for normal function. It helps filter kidney waste; plays a critical role in energy storage and use; helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues, and cells; and is involved in the production of DNA and RNA. Phosphorus aids in the balance and use of many vitamins and minerals. It works closely with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. Phosphorus is found in milk, grains, and protein-rich foods.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphate
Space filling model of Phosphate
Image by Benjah-bmm27
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English
Video by familyhealthservice/YouTube
Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism
Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. About 80% of phosphorus resides in the bones and teeth. Because alcohol can leach phosphorus from the bones, phosphorus deficiency is often associated with alcoholism, especially when combined with malnutrition.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus, Kidney Failure
Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Higher-than-normal levels of phosphorus are often caused by kidney disease or a diet that has too much phosphorus and too little calcium; a fine balance must be maintained between dietary calcium and phosphorus for optimum bone density.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)
Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.
Image by TheVisualMD
Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods
TheVisualMD
Phosphorus: Tooth
TheVisualMD
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6:36
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19:27
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Calcium
Calcium Blood Test
Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test
A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.
Calcium Blood Test
Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test
A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
8.2
10.2
Your result is Normal.
A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.
Related conditions
{"label":"Ionized calcium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4.5},"text":"Low blood levels of ionized calcium can cause your heart rate to slow down or speed up, cause muscle spasms, and even result in a coma.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malabsorption","Osteomalacia","Pancreatitis","Renal failure","Rickets","Vitamin D deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":5.6},"text":"Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, \"free\" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.6,"max":15},"text":"High levels of ionized calcium in your blood may be due to a sedentary lifestyle or lack of mobility, use of medications and supplements or certain medical conditions.","conditions":["Decreased levels of calcium in the urine from an unknown cause","Hyperparathyroidism","Hyperthyroidism","Milk-alkali syndrome","Multiple myeloma","Paget disease","Sarcoidosis","Thiazide diuretics","Thrombocytosis","Certain kind of tumors","Vitamin A excess","Vitamin D excess"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":5.1}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
4.5
5.6
Your result is Normal.
Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, "free" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.
Related conditions
A calcium blood test measures the amount of calcium in your blood. If there is too much or too little calcium in the blood, it may be a sign of a wide range of medical conditions, such as bone disease, thyroid disease, parathyroid disorders, kidney disease, and other conditions.
Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. About 1% of the calcium in your body is in your blood. The rest is stored in your bones and teeth. Having the right amount of calcium in your blood is necessary for your nerves, muscles, and heart to work properly. It also helps blood vessels move blood throughout your body and helps release hormones that affect many body functions.
Other names: total calcium, ionized calcium
A blood calcium test is used to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose or monitor many types of medical conditions, including conditions that affect your bones, kidneys, digestive system, thyroid, and parathyroid glands.
There are two types of calcium blood tests that measure different forms of blood calcium:
Total calcium test measures all the calcium in your blood. You have two types of blood calcium that are normally present in about equal amounts:
"Bound calcium" is attached to proteins in your blood.
"Free calcium" is not attached to proteins. It's also called ionized calcium. This form of blood calcium is active in many body functions.
Normally, your body tightly controls the balance of bound and ionized calcium, so a total calcium test gives a good estimate of how much ionized calcium you have.
A total calcium test is the most common test for blood calcium. It's often part of a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), which are both routine screening tests.
An ionized calcium test measures only the "free calcium" in your blood that isn't attached to proteins. An ionized calcium test is more difficult to do, so it's usually ordered if the results of a total calcium test aren't normal. You may also have this test if you have a condition that affects your body's ability to balance the amounts of ionized and bound calcium in your blood, or if you are seriously ill or having surgery.
Your health care provider may have ordered a basic or comprehensive metabolic panel, which includes a calcium blood test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have this test to diagnose or monitor conditions that can affect your blood calcium or if you have symptoms of abnormal calcium levels.
Symptoms of high calcium levels may include:
Digestive symptoms, such as:
Constipation
Nausea and vomiting
Abdominal (belly) pain
Loss of appetite
Increased thirst
Urinating (peeing) more than usual
Kidney stones
Bone, joint, and muscle symptoms, such as weakness, aches, and pains
Fatigue
A change in mental health, such as depression or confusion
Symptoms of low calcium levels may include:
Dry skin, coarse hair, and nails that easily break (after a long period of low levels)
Muscle cramps, spasms, or stiffness
Tingling in the lips, tongue, fingers, and feet
Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
Seizures, if calcium levels are extremely low
Many people with high or low calcium levels don't have any symptoms. So your provider may order a calcium test if you have a known condition that may affect your calcium levels, such as:
Kidney disease
Thyroid or parathyroid disease
Malnutrition
Problems absorbing calcium
Certain types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You usually don't need any special preparations for a calcium blood test or a basic or comprehensive metabolic panel. Your provider may ask you to stop taking certain medicines or supplements, such as vitamin D, to make sure your test results are accurate. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Results from a total calcium test that are higher than normal may be a sign of many types of conditions, such as:
Overactive parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone
Certain types of cancer, including cancer that spreads to the bone
Bone disorders, including Paget's disease of the bone
Taking too much vitamin D over a long period of time
Results from a total calcium test that are lower than normal may be a sign of:
Low blood protein levels, which may be caused by liver disease or malnutrition
Underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too little parathyroid hormone
Too little calcium in your diet
Too little vitamin D or magnesium
Pancreatitis
Kidney disease
If your results from a total calcium blood test are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Your diet and certain medicines can affect your calcium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
A calcium blood test does not tell you how much calcium is in your bones. Bone health can be measured with a type of x-ray called a bone density scan, or dexa scan. A dexa scan measures the mineral content, including calcium, and other aspects of your bones.
Calcium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Calcium blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Calcium Test - Testing.com. Nov 29, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
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Calcium Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium regulation
Overview of calcium regulation
Image by Mikael Haggstrom
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones throughout a person's life; calcium also plays critical roles in nerve signaling, muscle contraction, the health of blood vessels, and the regularity of the heart beat. So important are these functions that when calcium levels are inadequate, the body will demineralize bone to maintain normal blood levels of the mineral.
Image by TheVisualMD
Dairy and non-dairy food sources of calcium
Dairy on the Left and non dairy on the Right
Image by Brookepinsent
Calcium Ion
The most common mineral in the body, calcium helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones. It also plays a role in blood clotting, nerve signaling, muscle contraction and relaxation, regulating heartbeat, and the release of certain hormones. The body cannot make calcium; it`s an essential nutrient that must be obtained through your diet.
Image by TheVisualMD
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Calcium Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
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Calcium regulation
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Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.
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Dairy and non-dairy food sources of calcium
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Calcium Ion
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Potassium
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
A potassium blood test measures the amount of potassium in your blood. Potassium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control fluid levels and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity and perform other important functions.
Your cells, nerves, heart, and muscles need potassium to work properly. Potassium levels that are too high or too low may be a sign of a medical problem.
Other names: potassium serum, serum potassium, serum electrolytes, K
A potassium blood test measures how much potassium is in your blood. The test is often part of a group of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. It may be used to monitor or diagnose conditions related to abnormal potassium levels. These conditions include kidney disease, high blood pressure, and heart disease.
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Fatigue
Muscle weakness
Nausea
Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
Irregular heartbeat
Muscle cramps
Weak or twitching muscles
Fatigue
Nausea
Constipation
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a potassium blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
Use of prescription diuretics
Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
Using too many laxatives
Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
Kidney disease
Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Repeated clenching and relaxing of your fist just before or during your blood test may temporarily increase the potassium levels in your blood. This may lead to an incorrect result.
Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
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3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
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Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube
What Causes Cramps?
Video by Life Noggin/YouTube
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
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Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Potassium Food
Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium Ion
Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Muscle Spasm
Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Heart Rate
Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Neural Conduction
Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
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1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
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1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
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2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
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4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
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5:18
3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
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4:03
Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
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1:46
What Causes Cramps?
Life Noggin/YouTube
3:26
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Wendy Westwood/YouTube
3:35
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
Fox News/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
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Plate of High Potassium Food
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Potassium: Heart Rate
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Sodium
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
{"label":"Sodium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":139}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. Sodium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Sodium also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
You get most of the sodium you need in your diet. If you take in too much, your kidneys get rid of the extra sodium in your urine. Normally, your body keeps your sodium levels in a very narrow range. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a kidney problem, dehydration, or another type of medical condition.
A sodium blood test is a routine test that may be used to check your general health. It may be used to help find and monitor conditions that affect the balance of fluids, electrolytes, and acidity in your body.
The test is often done as part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel. It may also be part of two other groups of tests called a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP)
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
Thirst
Urinating (peeing) very little
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your provider will let you know exactly how to prepare for a sodium blood test. On the day of the test, you may need to skip or delay certain medicines. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines, herbs, or supplements that you take. But don't stop any medicines without talking with your provider first.
You may also need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Ask your provider if you have any questions.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
A disorder of the adrenal glands
A kidney disease
Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
Kidney diseases
Cirrhosis of the liver
Heart failure
Certain brain and lung diseases
Certain types of cancer
Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
Addison disease
Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Sodium levels are often measured with other electrolytes in another test called the anion gap. An anion gap test looks at the difference between negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. The test checks for acid imbalances and other conditions.
Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
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Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
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Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.
Image by TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.
Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Image by Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.
Image by TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter
Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
3:07
Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
3:33
Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
6:46
You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
4:42
Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
Chloride
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
{"label":"Chloride reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":101}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
A chloride blood test measures the amount of chloride in your blood. Chloride is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Chloride is often measured with other electrolytes to diagnose or monitor conditions, such as kidney disease, heart failure, liver disease, and high blood pressure.
You usually get a chloride test as part of a routine blood screening to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose conditions related to an imbalance of acids or fluids in your body.
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
Vomiting over a long period of time
Diarrhea
Fatigue
Weakness
Dehydration
Trouble breathing
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a chloride blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Dehydration
Kidney disease
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Heart failure
Lung disease
Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Urine also contains some chloride. Your provider may also recommend a urine chloride test to get more information about your chloride levels.
Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (12)
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride
Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
Cross section Human Stomach
Image by TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
TheVisualMD
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
TED-Ed/YouTube
4:07
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
TheVisualMD
Bicarbonate
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
{"label":"Carbon dioxide reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":22},"text":"Low results may indicate a wide range of conditions, such as electrolyte imbalance. ","conditions":["Hypocapnia","Addison's disease","Acidosis","Ketoacidosis","Shock","Kidney disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":22,"max":28},"text":"Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":28,"max":60},"text":"High results may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Hypercapnia","Lung diseases","Disorders of the adrenal glands","Hormonal disorders","Kidney disorders","Alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":25}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"pCO2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"value":40}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Carbon dioxide is an odorless, colorless gas. It is a waste product that your body makes when it uses food for energy.
Your blood carries carbon dioxide to your lungs. When you exhale, you breathe out carbon dioxide. Having too much or too little carbon dioxide in your blood can be a sign of a health problem.
Most of the carbon dioxide in your body is in the form of bicarbonate, which is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. A CO2 blood test is often part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel.
An electrolyte panel may be part of a regular check-up. The test may also help diagnose or monitor conditions related to an electrolyte imbalance. These include high blood pressure and diseases of the kidneys, lungs, or liver.
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
Trouble breathing
Confusion
Weakness
Fatigue
Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a CO2 blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
Lung diseases
Cushing's syndrome
Kidney failure
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Shock
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Some prescription and over-the-counter medicines can increase or decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines you are taking.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Albumin
Albumin Blood Test
Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test
Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.
Albumin Blood Test
Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test
Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.
{"label":"Albumin reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Low albumin levels is called hypoalbuminemia. It may be caused by decreased production in the liver, increased loss in the gastrointestinal tract or kidneys, increased use in the body, or abnormal distribution between body compartments.","conditions":["Kidney diseases","Liver disease","Hepatitis","Cirrhosis","Burns","Surgery","Cancer","Diabetes","Hypothyroidism","Crohn disease","Low-protein intake","Malnutrition","Infection","Inflammatory bowel disease","Celiac disease","Whipple disease"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Albumin is the most abundant protein in the body. It is made by the liver and plays many important roles, including maintaining pressure in the blood vessels and transporting substances, such as hormones and medications.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":8},"text":"Higher than normal levels of albumin is called hyperalbuminemia. It may indicate dehydration or severe diarrhea. Hyperalbuminemia has also been associated with high protein diets.","conditions":["Dehydration","Severe diarrhea","High protein diet","Water intoxication","Certain medications"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"g\/dL","code":"g\/dL","name":"gram per deciliter"}],"value":4.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Albumin is the most abundant protein in the body. It is made by the liver and plays many important roles, including maintaining pressure in the blood vessels and transporting substances, such as hormones and medications.
Related conditions
An albumin blood test measures the amount of albumin in your blood. Low albumin levels can be a sign of liver or kidney disease or another medical condition. High levels may be a sign of dehydration.
Albumin is a protein made by your liver. Albumin enters your bloodstream and helps keep fluid from leaking out of your blood vessels into other tissues. It is also carries hormones, vitamins, and enzymes throughout your body. Without enough albumin, fluid can leak out of your blood and build up in your lungs, abdomen (belly), or other parts of your body.
An albumin blood test is used to check your general health and to see how well your liver and kidneys are working. If your liver is damaged or you're not well nourished, your liver may not make enough albumin. If your kidneys are damaged, they may let too much albumin leave your body in urine (pee).
An albumin blood test is often done as part of a group of blood tests that measure different enzymes, proteins, and other substances made in your liver. These tests are called liver function tests or liver panel. An albumin test may also be part of a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), a group of routine blood tests that measures several substances.
Your health care provider may order an albumin test as part your regular checkup. The test may be ordered as part of a group of liver function tests or a comprehensive metabolic panel. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of liver or kidney disease.
Symptoms of liver disease include:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
With some types of kidney disease, such as chronic kidney disease, you may not have symptoms until the later stages.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations to test for albumin in blood. If your provider ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow. Certain medicines may affect your test results, so tell your provider what you are taking. But don't stop taking any medicines without talking with your provider first.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An albumin blood test alone cannot diagnose a condition. Your provider will usually consider your albumin test results with the results of other tests to make a diagnosis.
Lower than normal albumin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease, including severe cirrhosis, hepatitis, and fatty liver disease
Kidney disease
Malnutrition
Infection
Digestive diseases that involve problems using protein from food, such as Crohn's disease and malabsorption disorders
Burns over a large area of your body
Thyroid disease
Higher than normal albumin levels may be a sign of dehydration, which may be caused by severe diarrhea or other conditions.
If your albumin levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines, including steroids, insulin, and hormones, can increase albumin levels. Not eating can cause a large decrease in albumin after 24 to 48 hours. Other medicines, including birth control pills, can lower your albumin levels. Albumin levels are lower during pregnancy.
Your provider can explain what your test results mean.
Albumin Blood Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Albumin - blood (serum): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Albumin Blood Test - Testing.com. Nov 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (8)
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
Video by NKN/YouTube
Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin
The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin
The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin, Kidney Disease
Proteins are normally filtered out of the blood and recycled by the kidneys, including the blood protein albumin, which is produced by the liver and helps maintain the fluid balance of blood as well as transport hormones, vitamins, and other substances throughout the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows proteins like albumin to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin: Kidney Disease
Kidney disease can result in abnormal albumin levels because diseased or damaged kidneys are not able to effectively filter out and recycle albumin in the blood; instead, albumin leaks into the urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin: Blood Serum
The serum is the clear, liquid portion of the blood. There are two classes of proteins, albumin and globulin, found in the blood. Albumin is the most abundant protein; its main purpose is to keep fluid from leaking out of blood vessels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
3:51
Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
7:55
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
NKN/YouTube
Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin
TheVisualMD
Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin
TheVisualMD
Albumin, Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Albumin: Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Albumin: Blood Serum
TheVisualMD
Creatinine
Creatinine Test
Also called: Creat, Creatinine
This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.
Creatinine Test
Also called: Creat, Creatinine
This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.
{"label":"Creatinine reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.7},"text":"Lower-than-normal creatinine levels are rare and usually do not possess any clinical significance.","conditions":["Low muscle mass","Starvation","Severe hepatic disease","",""]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.7,"max":1.2},"text":"Creatinine is a chemical waste product of muscle metabolism. The muscle mass in the body is related to creatinine levels in the blood. Creatinine is removed from blood by kidneys, therefore creatinine test gives an overview of kidney function.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.2,"max":3},"text":"High levels of creatinine indicate a kidney disease or condition that may affect kidney function.","conditions":["Pyelonephritis","Blockage in the urinary tract","Kidney stones","Prostate disease","Tubular necrosis","Damaged blood vessels in the kidneys","Reduced blood flow to the kidneys","Diabetes","Atherosclerosis","High blood pressure","Dehydration"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":1}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
0.7
1.2
Your result is Normal.
Creatinine is a chemical waste product of muscle metabolism. The muscle mass in the body is related to creatinine levels in the blood. Creatinine is removed from blood by kidneys, therefore creatinine test gives an overview of kidney function.
Related conditions
This test measures creatinine levels in a sample of your blood and/or urine (pee). Creatinine is a normal waste product in your body. It's made when you use your muscles and some of the muscle tissue breaks down.
Normally, your kidneys filter creatinine from your blood and remove it from your body in your urine. If there is a problem with your kidneys, creatinine can build up in your blood and less may be released in urine. If blood and/or urine creatinine levels are not normal, it may be a sign of kidney disease.
Creatinine in blood may be measured by itself or as part of a group of tests called a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) or a basic metabolic panel (BMP). Your health care provider may order these tests as part of a routine checkup.
Other names: blood creatinine, serum creatinine, urine creatinine, kidney function, renal function
A creatinine test is used to help:
Check the health of your kidneys
Diagnose kidney disease
Monitor known kidney problems and see how well treatment is working
Check for side effects from medicines that may affect your kidneys
Creatinine testing alone isn't the best way to check how well your kidneys are working. That's because people make different amounts creatinine depending on how much muscle they have, the foods they eat, their age, and how active they are. So, the results from creatinine testing are often used in calculations or compared with other substances to help get more information:
Creatinine levels in blood are often used to calculate how fast your kidneys filter waste out of your blood. This is called an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The calculation includes information about your age, weight, height, and sex. An eGFR is a more accurate way to measure kidney health than creatinine levels in blood or urine alone. An eGFR can also help show how serious kidney disease may be.
Creatinine levels in blood and urine maybe be compared with each other. This is called a creatinine clearance calculation. Like an eGFR, it estimates how fast your kidneys filter waste. But an eGFR is more accurate. A creatinine clearance may still be useful to help identify the cause of high or low levels of blood creatinine in people who have very high muscle mass or a loss of muscle mass from age, illness, or the loss of an arm and/or leg.
Creatinine levels in urine may be used to calculate a urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR), which is sometimes called a microalbumin creatinine ratio. Albumin is the main protein found in blood. Normally your kidneys filter out just a trace of albumin, or none at all. If larger amounts of albumin pass into your urine, it may be a sign of kidney damage. A UACR compares the amounts of creatinine and albumin in your urine to get a more accurate measurement of how much albumin is in your urine.
Creatinine blood levels measured as part of a CMP or a BMP may be compared with the level of BUN (blood urea nitrogen) that's measured in the same test. This can help find out the cause of a kidney problem.
Your provider may order a creatinine test:
To check your kidney health as part of a routine checkup.
If you have symptoms of kidney disease. Symptoms may include:
Swelling in the hands and feet or puffy eyelids
Dry skin, itching, or numbness
Fatigue
Increased or decreased need to urinate (pee)
Urine that is bloody or foamy
Loss of appetite and weight loss
Muscle cramps
Nausea and vomiting
Shortness of breath
Sleep problems
Trouble thinking clearly
If you have a high risk for developing kidney disease, even if you don't have symptoms now. Chronic (long-term) kidney disease (CKD) often doesn't have symptoms in the early stages. Your risk for kidney disease is increased if you:
Have diabetes
Have high blood pressure
Have a family health history of kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure
Have heart disease
Are over 50 years old
Smoke
Have obesity
If you have kidney problems or possible kidney problems because you have:
Had an abnormal result on a kidney test in the past
Been diagnosed with kidney disease
Taken certain medicines that could affect your kidneys
Had a kidney transplant
For a creatinine blood test:
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a creatinine urine test:
You may need to provide all the urine you pass over 24 hours. That's because creatinine levels vary through the day. But your provider may use a urine sample from a shorter period of time.
For a 24-hour urine sample, you will be given a special container to collect your urine over a full day and instructions on how to collect and store your sample. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
Your provider will let you know how to prepare for your test. You may be told to not eat meat for 24 hours before your test. That's because meat can temporarily increase creatinine levels.
If creatinine is being measured as part of a CMP or a BMP test, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for up to 12 hours before your test.
Certain medicines and supplements can affect your test results. So be sure to tell your provider everything you're taking. But don't stop taking any medicine unless your provider tells you to stop.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is no risk to having a urine test.
Creatinine levels that are considered normal for you will depend on how much muscle you have, what you eat, your age, and how active you are. If you're healthy, your levels are usually fairly stable over time.
But a normal creatinine test result doesn't always mean that your kidneys are healthy. Sometimes, blood creatinine levels remain in a normal range during the early stages of kidney disease. They rise as the condition of your kidneys becomes more serious. If your provider suspects you have a kidney condition, you will likely have other kidney tests even if your creatinine results seem normal.
If your results are abnormal, a single high creatinine test can't diagnose a specific condition. You will likely need to be retested and/or have other tests, too.
In general, if your blood creatinine level is:
High for you, it may be a sign of:
Kidney disease or injury, including infection, poor blood flow to the kidneys, a blockage in the urinary system, or kidney failure
A condition that affects your kidneys, such as heart failure or diabetes
High blood creatinine levels don't always mean you have a kidney problem. They may be caused by dehydration, muscle disorders and injuries, muscular dystrophy, intense exercise, or a diet high in meat. Certain health problems in pregnancy can also cause increases in creatinine.
Low for you, it may be a sign of malnutrition or a condition that causes your muscles to get smaller, such as a long illness, a nerve disorder, or muscle loss from aging. Serious liver disease can also lead to low levels. Low levels of blood creatinine aren't common.
If your results from creatinine blood or urine tests were used to calculate an eGFR, creatinine clearance, and/or a urine albumin to creatinine ratio, ask your provider to explain what these measurements say about your kidney health.
If you have questions about any your results, talk with your provider.
Creatinine Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]
Creatinine blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (17)
Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
Video by NKN/YouTube
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
BUN and Creatinine
Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube
Creatinine
Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Diagnosing CKD
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diagnosing CKD
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney
Image by Madhero88
Creatine 3D Molecule
An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.
Creatine Kinase (CK)
Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in striated muscle of the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The enzyme plays a role in energy production, and becomes more concentrated in muscle tissue in response to energy demands. When muscle is damaged or diseased, CK leaks into the bloodstream, where elevated levels can be detected. There are three different forms of CK in the body, existing in varying ratios. CK-MB is found mostly in cardiac muscle; CK-MM mostly in skeletal muscle; and CK-BB mostly in the brain. Identifying which form is elevated in blood tests is helpful in determining which kind of tissue has been damaged.
Image by TheVisualMD
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Video by Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
CREATININE: LAB VALUES
Video by NursingSOS/YouTube
Creatinine levels: often misunderstood
Video by SelfTestable/YouTube
Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options
Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube
3:10
Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
8:29
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
NKN/YouTube
3:01
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
5:26
BUN and Creatinine
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Creatinine
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Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Diagnosing CKD
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Diagnosing CKD
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Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Madhero88
Creatine 3D Molecule
Creatine Kinase (CK)
TheVisualMD
6:50
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
15:01
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Medcrine Medical/YouTube
5:17
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
4:03
CREATININE: LAB VALUES
NursingSOS/YouTube
6:59
Creatinine levels: often misunderstood
SelfTestable/YouTube
10:32
Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options
DocMikeEvans/YouTube
BUN
Blood Urea Nitrogen Test
Also called: BUN, Urea Nitrogen
The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.
Blood Urea Nitrogen Test
Also called: BUN, Urea Nitrogen
The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
8
23
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide important information about your kidney function. The main job of your kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from your body. If you have kidney disease, this waste material can build up in your blood. Over time, this may lead to serious health problems, including high blood pressure, anemia, and heart disease.
The BUN test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product that your kidneys remove from your blood. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working well.
People with early kidney disease may not have any symptoms. A BUN test can help uncover kidney problems at an early stage when treatment can be more effective.
A BUN test is often part of a series of tests called a comprehensive metabolic panel. It can help diagnose or monitor a kidney disease or disorder.
Your health care provider may order a BUN test as part of a routine check-up or if you have or are at risk for a kidney problem. Early kidney disease usually does not have any signs or symptoms. You may be more likely to develop kidney disease if you have:
Family of kidney problems
Diabetes
High blood pressure
Heart disease
Your provider may check your BUN levels if you are having symptoms of later stage kidney disease, such as:
Needing to urinate (pee) more often or less often than usual
Itching
Fatigue
Swelling in your legs, feet, or ankles
Muscle cramps
Trouble sleeping
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a BUN test. But if your provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Normal BUN levels can vary, but generally a high level of blood urea nitrogen is a sign that your kidneys are not working well. But abnormal results don't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment.
Higher than normal BUN levels can also be caused by dehydration (too little fluid in your body), burns, certain medicines, a high protein diet, or other factors, including your age. BUN levels normally increase as you get older. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
A BUN test is only one type of measurement of kidney function. If your provider thinks you may have kidney disease, you may need other tests. These may include tests to measure:
Creatinine, which is another waste product that your kidneys remove from your body
GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate), which estimates how well your kidneys are filtering blood
BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
001040: Urea Nitrogen | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
BUN | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
Fontanarosa, P., & Christiansen, S. (2009, April 01). Laboratory Values. AMA Manual of Style. Ed. [accessed on Oct 09, 2018]
Additional Materials (15)
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
Video by NKN/YouTube
Acute Renal Failure
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
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Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) (Nursing Lab Values)
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
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Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube
BUN Test/Urea: Role in Kidney function Testing- Conditions with High Blood Urea Nitrogen- Dr Kasi MD
Video by Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube
Kidney function test normal range
Video by Shomu's Biology/YouTube
Urea Nitrogen Molecule
The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the amount of the waste urea found in the blood. Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is produced by the breakdown of proteins; it combines with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to form urea, which is then released into the bloodstream and carried to the kidneys, where it is filtered out and eliminated in the urine. If the kidneys are damaged, their ability to remove urea from the blood is impaired.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Urinary System
This anterior view of a male torso reveals the upper urinary tract (kidneys, ureter and bladder) in situ. Anatomy overlaying this system including the liver, pancreas, small intestines, and ribs, have been \"ghosted in\" in order to allow an unobstructed view of the structures underneath. Completely visible anatomy surrounding the kidneys include the perirenal fat, adrenal gland, pelvis, aorta, vena cava and lower spinal column. The kidneys are the body's primary filtering system, responsible for processing and eliminating wastes from the bloodstream such as excess salts and proteins. Once extracted, these are then broken down into a substance called urea. Urea flows to the bladder and is eventually expelled as urine. Working non-stop day and night, the kidneys filter nearly 200 quarts of blood per day, producing about two quarts of urine (depending on body size). The left kidney is usually positioned slightly higher in the body than the right. This occurs because the developing liver on the right side of the spine grows more rapidly than the kidneys and displaces the right kidney downwards.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Protein
Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is produced by the breakdown of proteins; it combines with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to form urea, which is released into the blood; the kidneys, in turn, filter it out and eliminate it in the urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Kidneys
Each day, our kidneys filter 200 quarts of blood to extract 2 quarts of waste products and excess water. The wastes and water become urine, which flows via tubes called ureters to the bladder, where it is stored until released through urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diagnosing CKD
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Glomerulus
The kidneys are extraordinarily good at filtering and removing wastes from the bloodstream (at a rate of 200 quarts each day). The basic filtering unit in the kidney is the glomerulus, a tuft of capillaries that remove wastes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Nitrogenous Wastes
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. "Moose" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS)
Image by CNX Openstax
8:29
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
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1:42
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2:34
BUN Test/Urea: Role in Kidney function Testing- Conditions with High Blood Urea Nitrogen- Dr Kasi MD
Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube
4:45
Kidney function test normal range
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TheVisualMD
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Nitrogenous Wastes
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GFR
Glomerular Filtration Rate
Also called: GFR, Estimated GFR, eGFR, Calculated GFR, cGFR
A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test that estimates how much blood passes through filters in the kidneys each minute. It helps diagnose kidney disease in its early stages when it's most treatable. It is also used to monitor kidney function in people with kidney disease — the lower the GFR number, the worse the kidney function.
Glomerular Filtration Rate
Also called: GFR, Estimated GFR, eGFR, Calculated GFR, cGFR
A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test that estimates how much blood passes through filters in the kidneys each minute. It helps diagnose kidney disease in its early stages when it's most treatable. It is also used to monitor kidney function in people with kidney disease — the lower the GFR number, the worse the kidney function.
{"label":"eGFR reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"KF","long":"Kidney failure","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":15},"text":"In people with CKD, an eGFR result less than 15 indicates stage 5 CKD. It means that the kidneys are close to failure or have already failed (less than 15% kidney function). People at this stage feel very sick and need dialysis or a kidney transplant to stay alive. If this was your first eGFR test, you may need to be tested again in a few months.","conditions":["Chronic kidney disease","Kidney failure","Dialysis","Kidney transplant"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"SD","long":"Severely decreased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":29},"text":"In people with CKD, an eGFR result between 15 and 29 indicates stage 4 CKD. This means severe loss of kidney function (your kidney function is at 15-29%). If this was your first eGFR test, you may need to be tested again in a few months.","conditions":["Chronic kidney disease"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"MTSD","long":"Moderately to severely decreased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":29,"max":44},"text":"In people with CKD, an eGFR result between 30 and 44 indicates stage 3b CKD. This means moderate to severe loss of kidney function (your kidney function is at 30-44%). If this was your first eGFR test, you may need to be tested again in a few months.","conditions":["Chronic kidney disease"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"MTMD","long":"Mildly to moderately decreased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":44,"max":59},"text":"An eGFR below 60 for three months or more indicates kidney disease. In people with CKD, an eGFR result between 45 and 59 indicates stage 3a CKD. This means mild to moderate loss of kidney function (your kidney function is at 45-59%). If this was your first eGFR test, you may need to be tested again in a few months.","conditions":["Chronic kidney disease"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"MD","long":"Mildly decreased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":59,"max":90},"text":"People with mildly low eGFR (between 60 and 89) may not have kidney disease if there is no sign of kidney damage, such as protein in their urine. If there is kidney damage, this result may mean early kidney disease. In people with CKD, an eGFR result between 60 and 89 indicates stage 2 CKD. This means kidney damage with mild loss of kidney function (your kidney function is at 60-89%).","conditions":["Chronic kidney disease"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":90,"max":130},"text":"In adults, the normal eGFR number is more than 90. Normally, eGFR gets lower with age, even in people without kidney disease. An eGFR over 90 with signs of kidney damage, such as protein in their urine, is a sign of kidney disease.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":130,"max":160},"text":"A high eGFR is rare and may occur as a result of miscalculations. Consult a specialist if you have high eGFR values.","conditions":["Diabetes","Hypertension","Coronary artery calcification","Polycystic kidney disease"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mL\/min\/{1.73_m2}","code":"mL\/min\/{1.73_m2}","name":"milliliter per minute per 1.73 square meter"}],"value":110}[{"abnormal":3},{"abnormal":2},{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mL/min/{1.73_m2}
15
29
44
59
90
130
Your result is Normal.
In adults, the normal eGFR number is more than 90. Normally, eGFR gets lower with age, even in people without kidney disease. An eGFR over 90 with signs of kidney damage, such as protein in their urine, is a sign of kidney disease.
Related conditions
A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) test is a blood test that checks how well your kidneys are working. Your kidneys are two organs on either side of your spine near your waste. They have tiny filters called glomeruli. These filters remove waste and extra water from your blood and gets rid of them through urine (pee).
If your kidneys have been damaged by kidney disease, they can't filter your blood as fast as they should. A GFR test checks for kidney disease by measuring how much blood your kidneys filter each minute.
GFR can be measured directly, but it is a complicated test to do. So health care providers usually estimate GFR based on the amount of certain waste substances in your blood. An estimated GFR is called an eGFR.
To figure out your eGFR, your provider usually uses the results of a blood test that measures your creatinine level. Creatinine is a waste product that comes from normal wear and tear on your muscles. If your kidneys aren't working well, creatinine can build up in your blood.
People make different amounts of creatinine, depending on their size, diet, and activity levels. So, to calculate your eGFR, your provider will use your creatinine levels and other information about you, such as your:
Age
Weight
Height
Sex
This information is put into a mathematical formula, called a GFR calculator, to find your eGFR.
eGFR may also be calculated using the level of cystatin C in your blood. This is a protein that many cells in your body make. Cystatin C levels are not affected by muscle size, age, or diet, so some researchers think cystatin C provides a more accurate estimate of GFR than creatinine. In certain cases, creatinine and cystatin levels are both used to calculate eGFR in adults.
A GFR test is used to:
Screen for kidney disease in people without symptoms
Help diagnose kidney disease in a people who have symptoms
Help find out how serious kidney disease is
Monitor people who:
Have chronic kidney disease (CKD) to see if treatment is helping
Take medicines that could harm their kidneys
Check kidney health before people start certain treatments that could affect their kidneys
Early-stage kidney disease doesn't usually cause symptoms, so you may have an eGFR test to check your kidney health as part of a routine exam.
You may also need this test if you have a high risk of getting kidney disease. Your risk may be higher if you:
Have diabetes
Have high blood pressure
Have a family health history of kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure
Have heart disease
Are over 50 years old
Smoke
Have obesity
If you have a condition that increases you risk of kidney disease, ask your provider how often you should get tested.
Later stage kidney disease does cause symptoms. So, you may need an eGFR test if you have:
Swelling in your legs, feet, ankles, or hands or face
Urinating (peeing) more often or less often than usual
Dry skin and/or itching
Fatigue
Muscle cramps
Nausea and vomiting
Loss of appetite
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your provider will let you know how to prepare for your test. You may need to fast (not eat or drink) or avoid certain foods for several hours before the test. Certain medicines can affect your results. So be sure to tell your provider everything you're taking. But don't stop taking any medicine unless your provider tells you to stop.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your eGFR results may be reported as a number that shows how much blood your kidneys filter per minute. Your test results may also give your creatinine level and/or your cystatin C level.
Ask your provider to explain what your eGFR says about your kidney health. An eGFR isn't a perfect test and may not always reflect kidney damage. It's also possible to have an abnormal result even if you don't have kidney damage.
In general:
A normal eGFR means that you probably don't have kidney disease.
An eGFR that's below normal or low may mean that you may have kidney disease.
A very low eGFR means that you may have kidney failure.
If you're diagnosed with kidney disease, your provider will explain what you can do to protect your kidneys from more damage and help prevent kidney failure.
Your provider may order other tests that check your kidney health. These tests may be ordered with an eGFR or to find the cause of an abnormal eGFR result. They include:
A protein in urine test. Protein in urine is a sign of kidney damage.
A microalbumin creatinine ratio test. This test checks for very small amounts of a protein called albumin in a sample of your urine. Albumin in urine may be one of the first signs of kidney disease.
A BUN (blood urea nitrogen). BUN is a waste product your kidneys remove from blood. The test checks BUN levels in a sample of your blood.
Glomerular filtration rate: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
100768: Glomerular Filtration Rate, Estimated (eGFR) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
http://www.kidneyfund.org/prevention/tests-for-kidney-health/egfr-test.html [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) | NIDDK [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) | National Kidney Foundation [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
Chapter 1: Definition and classification of CKD [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]
High estimated glomerular filtration rate is associated with coronary artery calcification in middle-aged Korean men without chronic kidney disease | Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation | Oxford Academic [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/research-funding/at-niddk/labs-branches/kidney-diseases-branch/kidney-disease-section/glomerular-disease-primer/kidney-disease [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (15)
Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney
Image by Madhero88
Your Kidney Test Results
Document by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
What are your Kidney Numbers? uACR and eGFR Explained | CKD Heat Map | NKF
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
Understanding eGFR levels
Video by SelfTestable/YouTube
Nephrology - Glomerular Filtration
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
What is eGFR, and how is it used to measure kidney function?
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
How important is it for me to get my eGFR and uACR test if I don't have any symptoms?
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
What are some things that may affect my eGFR results?
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
How often should someone get their eGFR measured?
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
How is race or ethnicity related to eGFR?
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
eGFR Results: A patient's experience
Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
How is eGFR used to monitor kidney disease and IgAN?
How are CKD, CVD, and Diabetes Related? | The Kidney Disease, Heart Disease, and Diabetes Connection
National Kidney Foundation/YouTube
Anion Gap
Anion Gap Blood Test
Also called: Anion Gap, AGAP
The anion gap measures the difference—or gap—between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes in your blood. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems.
Anion Gap Blood Test
Also called: Anion Gap, AGAP
The anion gap measures the difference—or gap—between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes in your blood. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
4
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Your result is Normal.
The anion gap is a calculation of the difference between the amounts of some negatively charged electrolytes (such as chloride and bicarbonate) and the amount of positively charged electrolytes (such as sodium) in the blood.
Related conditions
An anion gap blood test is a way to check the acid-base balance (pH balance) of your blood. It tells you if your blood is too acidic or not acidic enough. The test uses the results of another blood test called an electrolyte panel. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals in your body, such as sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate. They help control the acid-base balance of your blood.
Some electrolytes have a positive electric charge. Others have a negative electric charge. The anion gap measures the difference—or gap—between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes in your blood. If the anion gap is too high, your blood is more acidic than normal. If the anion gap is too low, your blood isn't acidic enough. Both high and low results may be signs of a serious disorder in your body that needs attention.
Other names: Serum anion gap
The anion gap blood test shows whether your electrolytes are out of balance or if your blood is too acidic or not acidic enough. Too much acid in the blood is called acidosis. Too little acid in your blood is called alkalosis. Both conditions can be serious.
Your health care provider may order an anion gap blood test if you have symptoms that your blood acidity may not be normal. These symptoms may include:
Shortness of breath
Vomiting
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Confusion
Fatigue
The anion gap test is a calculation that's done with the results of an electrolyte panel, which is a blood test.
During a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
There is no special preparation necessary for an anion gap blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having this test. You may feel slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Several types of medical conditions can cause abnormal anion gap test results. Your provider will use the results of the anion gap test, your medical history, and other tests to make a diagnosis.
A high anion gap test result may mean that you may have acidosis (blood that is more acidic than normal). Acidosis may be caused by:
Dehydration
Diarrhea
Too much exercise
Kidney diseases
Diabetes (diabetic ketoacidosis)
Certain medicines and poisons
A low anion gap test result may mean you have alkalosis (blood that is less acidic than normal). But this result is so rare that your provider will usually have you tested again to make sure the results are accurate.
The most common cause of a low anion gap is a low level of albumin, a protein in the blood. Low albumin may be a sign of not eating enough protein, kidney problems, liver disease, heart disease, or some types of cancer.
The anion gap blood test provides information about the acid-base balance of your blood. This tells you about the health of many of your body functions. But there is a wide range of normal results and many possible causes of abnormal results. So, talk with your provider about what your test results mean and whether you need additional testing to make a diagnosis.
Anion Gap Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
Anion Gap (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
Anion Gap: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
Electrolytes | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
Acidosis
General symptoms of acidosis. These usually accompany symptoms of another primary defect (respiratory or metabolic).
Image by Mikael Haggstrom.
Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis
Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis
Image by OpenStax College
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Man Drinking Water with Visible Skeletal, Digestive and Cardiovascular Systems
Proper hydration is critical to health. The amount of water in blood must be kept within a narrow range if blood is to flow freely. Electrolytes help maintain the body's fluid balance, but if electrolyte levels are too high, the body retains fluid, which increases blood pressure, the force with which blood pushes against vessel walls. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by monitoring fluid balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink. Excessive sweating, diarrhea, vomiting, and diuretics can contribute to a fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Woman with Visible Anatomy Hydrating after a Workout
Proper hydration is critical to health. The amount of water in blood must be kept within a narrow range if blood is to flow freely. Electrolytes help maintain the body's fluid balance, but if electrolyte levels are too high, the body retains fluid, which increases blood pressure, the force with which blood pushes against vessel walls. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by monitoring fluid balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink. Excessive sweating, diarrhea, vomiting, and diuretics can contribute to a fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Woman feeling her heart looking concerned, EKG images of regular and irregular heart beat
Thanks to the marketing of sports drinks, most people know that electrolytes are important, even if they are not sure why. An electrolyte is a chemical compound, such as sodium chloride (table salt), that dissociates into its separate elements when dissolved. Electrolytes can be negatively or positively charged (sodium is positive, chloride is negative). This electric potential is what allows electrolytes to do their jobs, which includes the transportation of substances into and out of cells, the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle fibers. An electrolyte imbalance can cause muscle spasms, numbness, tingling, fatigue, and confusion; heart rhythm is also sensitive to electrolyte imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Man holding his face, with motion blur indicating dizziness
Thanks to the marketing of sports drinks, most people know that electrolytes are important, even if they are not sure why. An electrolyte is a chemical compound, such as sodium chloride (table salt), that dissociates into its separate elements when dissolved. Electrolytes can be negatively or positively charged (sodium is positive, chloride is negative). This electric potential is what allows electrolytes to do their jobs, which includes the transportation of substances into and out of cells, the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle fibers. An electrolyte imbalance can cause muscle spasms, numbness, tingling, fatigue, and confusion.
Image by TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Potassium Deficiency
The kidneys maintain the blood's pH level (its relative acidity or alkalinity), vital to the body's health. To help maintain that level, the kidneys provide the blood with a buffer solution that compensates for any rise or fall in the level of acidity or alkalinity caused by diet or stress. They do this by adjusting the amount of fluids and vital salts, called electrolytes, in the blood. These electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, and other substances. A potassium deficiency in the body can lead to an irregular heartbeat, muscle weakness, a feeling of pins and needles in the extremities, decreased appetite, and frequent urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sodium, Blood Test
Measurements of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) are routinely included in a blood test known as the basic metabolic panel. If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is the excessive intake of a particular electrolyte or excessive loss through an underlying metabolic disorder.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Nephron
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidneys
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Healthy Kidney to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
Animation begins with a still image of a male torso. The image is cropped at the neck to just below the umbilicus. As the camera slowly zooms into the right side of the abdomen just where the right kidney resides, a visualized healthy kidney fades in. The animation continues with the kidney morphing from healthy to Congestive Kidney Disease (CKD). CKD results when the kidneys are increasingly unable to balance adequate levels of electrolytes (like sodium and calcium) and fail to produce enough urine to eliminate the toxins and other waste from the bloodstream.
Video by TheVisualMD
All Charged Up: Electrolytes & Vitality
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Abdominal Cavity Revealing Kidneys
Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by keeping fluids and electrolytes in balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will trigger thirst to return fluid balance to normal. The kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of other blood components. Specialized kidney cells that are sensitive to low oxygen levels produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.
Image by TheVisualMD
Electrolytes
Importance of Electrolytes : Sodium is an electrolyte that plays a role in many physiological processes, including nerve transmission and muscle contraction. Along with other electrolytes, sodium helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes
Image by TheVisualMD
Salt
Sodium is one of several electrolytes our bodies need to contract muscles, conduct nerve impulses, and maintain proper fluid balance. But chronic intake of too much sodium (in the form of table salt) can lead to serious health problems. If the kidneys cannot efficiently eliminate excess sodium, the body retains water in order to maintain the right concentration of sodium in the bloodstream. This forces the heart to work harder, which raised the risk of high blood pressure (hypertension), heart attacks and strokes. How salt affects blood pressure and health depends on many factors, however, including genes, age, race, and medical conditions.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes are salts that dissolve in water and separate into smaller atoms or molecules (ions) that carry an electric charge. Why does the body need electrical charges? Like a telephone uses wire to carry the human voice, our cells use electrolytes to carry the messages that control many nerve and muscle functions. Pure water does not conduct electricity very well; if there weren't electrolytes circulating with the body's water, those messages would never be sent. Learn about the electrolytes in your body and what fluids are best to keep your body hydrated.
Video by TheVisualMD
Chloride Ion
Chloride is a salt and electrolyte consisting of two elements, one of which is chlorine. It makes up about 0.15 percent of the body weight and is found mainly in the fluid outside cells. As one of the mineral electrolytes, chloride works closely with sodium and water in the distribution of body fluids. In addition to table salt or sea salt (sodium chloride), vegetables are a common source of chloride. Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, and olives. Potassium chloride is found in most foods and is usually the main ingredient of salt substitutes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Water and sodium molecule
On every scale, water and sodium (Na+) are dependent on one another for balance. Water, sometimes referred to as the universal solvent, has the capacity to break weak bonds in other molecules. When the broken bond results in a single ion (as in the case of NaCl), water can form oriented solvent shells, meaning that each shell`s relative position in space is unchanging (one pole remains on top, the other on bottom). The shells produce electric fields that oppose the fields produced by the independent ions. As a result of orienting water around the shells, sodium weakens the hydrogen bonds of nearby water molecules. The orientation of water molecules around an ion also contributes to osmosis, the process in which water crosses through semipermeable membranes. The solvent shell can contain between 3 and 7 water molecules, and the number can vary over time. 5 is the most common configuration. The location of water relative to Na+ falls into patterns of three molecules. This 3D model is based on the two configurations that occur most frequently. Water is shown as bright blue and sodium as darker blue.
Image by TheVisualMD
Acidosis
Mikael Haggstrom.
Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis
OpenStax College
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
8:00
Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
4:19
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
9:43
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
6:36
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
EmpoweRN/YouTube
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
Man Drinking Water with Visible Skeletal, Digestive and Cardiovascular Systems
TheVisualMD
Woman with Visible Anatomy Hydrating after a Workout
TheVisualMD
Woman feeling her heart looking concerned, EKG images of regular and irregular heart beat
TheVisualMD
Man holding his face, with motion blur indicating dizziness
TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Potassium Deficiency
TheVisualMD
Sodium, Blood Test
TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Nephron
TheVisualMD
Kidneys
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
0:16
Healthy Kidney to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
TheVisualMD
All Charged Up: Electrolytes & Vitality
TheVisualMD
Male Abdominal Cavity Revealing Kidneys
TheVisualMD
Electrolytes
TheVisualMD
Salt
TheVisualMD
1:31
Electrolytes
TheVisualMD
Chloride Ion
TheVisualMD
Water and sodium molecule
TheVisualMD
Treatment
This browser does not support the video element.
What is Hydration?
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
What is Hydration?
Where there is water, there is life. Maintaining adequate hydration is fundamental to human health as it is to all organic life on Earth. We're born with an innate and ongoing demand for fluid, but behind the familiar sensation of thirst is a reliance on water to transport nutrients, create blood pressure, eliminate waste, fight disease, feed cells, and conduct many more life-giving functions. At every moment, molecules of H2O flow through every cell of every part of the body.
Video by TheVisualMD
How Do Health Care Professionals Treat Diabetes Insipidus?
The main way to treat diabetes insipidus is to drink enough liquids to prevent dehydration. But doing so can disrupt your regular lifestyle, including your sleep. Your health care professional may refer you to a specialist, such as a nephrologist or an endocrinologist for more specific treatments. Other treatments vary by cause.
Central diabetes insipidus
Health care professionals most often treat central diabetes insipidus with a man-made hormone called desmopressin, which replaces the vasopressin your body is not making. You can take this medicine as a nasal spray, a pill, or a shot.
Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
In some cases, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus may go away after treating its cause. For example, switching medicines or taking steps to balance the amount of calcium or potassium in your body may be enough to resolve the problem. Your health care professional may also prescribe a class of diuretic medicines called thiazides to help reduce the amount of urine your kidneys make. Other treatments can include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or other types of diuretics.
Dipsogenic diabetes insipidus
Researchers haven’t found an effective way to treat dipsogenic diabetes insipidus. Sucking on ice chips or sugar free candies to moisten your mouth and increase saliva flow may help reduce your thirst. If you wake up many times at night to urinate, your health care professional may suggest you take a small dose of desmopressin at bedtime. Your health care professional may also monitor your blood levels of sodium, which can drop too low if you have this condition.
Gestational diabetes insipidus
Health care professionals treat gestational diabetes insipidus with desmopressin, which is safe for both mother and baby. An expectant mother’s placenta does not destroy desmopressin as it does vasopressin. Gestational diabetes insipidus usually goes away after the baby is born, but may return if the mother becomes pregnant again.
Most people with diabetes insipidus can prevent serious problems and live a normal life if they follow their health care professional’s recommendations and keep their symptoms under control.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (5)
This browser does not support the video element.
The Thirst Cycle
From the day we're born our brain and body knows how to detect and resolve a need for fluids. A fantastic series of internal signals are relayed to convey the sensation of thirst, an essential mechanism involved in keeping our bodies fluids in balance. Learn how your body first senses this imbalance, and what steps it takes to make you aware of this imbalance through the sensation of thirst.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes are salts that dissolve in water and separate into smaller atoms or molecules (ions) that carry an electric charge. Why does the body need electrical charges? Like a telephone uses wire to carry the human voice, our cells use electrolytes to carry the messages that control many nerve and muscle functions. Pure water does not conduct electricity very well; if there weren't electrolytes circulating with the body's water, those messages would never be sent. Learn about the electrolytes in your body and what fluids are best to keep your body hydrated.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Dr. David L. Katz, MD on water's role in the body
Dr. David L. Katz, MD on water's role in the body
Video by TheVisualMD
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Dr. David L. Katz, MD on thirst
Dr. David L. Katz, MD on thirst
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Leslie J. Bonci, MPH, RD on fluid needs
Leslie J. Bonci, MPH, RD on fluid needs
Video by TheVisualMD
1:42
The Thirst Cycle
TheVisualMD
1:31
Electrolytes
TheVisualMD
0:39
Dr. David L. Katz, MD on water's role in the body
TheVisualMD
0:48
Dr. David L. Katz, MD on thirst
TheVisualMD
0:45
Leslie J. Bonci, MPH, RD on fluid needs
TheVisualMD
Living With
Sodium-Restricted DIet
Image by CDC
Sodium-Restricted DIet
Entitled, “Reducing Sodium: From Menu to Mouth”, this is one of a series of informative infographics created in 2014, by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in order to disseminate information to consumers about the high levels of sodium contained in fast food, or sit-down restaurants, as compared to home-cooked meals. The graphic also provides the following “5 strategies” to help support sodium reduction in restaurant foods: - Provide nutrition information at the point of purchase - Make sodium reduction a part of training for restaurant licensing - Make health department dietitians available to assist with nutrition support - Incentivize sodium reduction through favorable changes to licensure and zoning requirements - Create group purchasing organizations for saving on purchase of lower sodium items
Image by CDC
How Do Eating, Diet, and Nutrition Affect Diabetes Insipidus?
Researchers have not found that eating, diet, and nutrition play a role in causing or preventing diabetes insipidus. To reduce symptoms, your health care professional may suggest you eat a diet that is low in salt and protein to help your kidneys make less urine. In some cases, these changes alone may be enough to keep your symptoms under control, particularly if you have nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (4)
Your Guide to Lowering Your Blood Pressure with DASH
What you choose to eat affects your chances of developing high blood pressure, or hypertension (the medical term). Recent studies show that blood pressure can be lowered by following the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan—and by eating less salt, also called sodium.
Document by www.nhlbi.nih.gov
Choose Wisely—Sodium Content Can Vary Within Food Categories
Two sandwiches, one marked Higher Sodium Choices and the other marked Lower Sodium Choices. Each component of the sandwiches is labeled with its amount of sodium. The higher sodium choices yield a total of 1,522 milligrams of sodium per whole sandwich, while the lower sodium choices yield a total of 917 milligrams of sodium per whole sandwich.
Image by CDC
Low sodium Foods
Low sodium Foods
Image by Qartonm1lk
Plate of High Sodium Food
Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.
Image by TheVisualMD
Your Guide to Lowering Your Blood Pressure with DASH
www.nhlbi.nih.gov
Choose Wisely—Sodium Content Can Vary Within Food Categories
Send this HealthJournal to your friends or across your social medias.
Diabetes Insipidus
Diabetes insipidus is a rare disorder where your kidneys produce a large amount of urine that is "insipid," or colorless and odorless. It also makes you very thirsty even if you have something to drink. Learn about causes and treatment.