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Romano-Ward Syndrome

Table of Contents

Romano-Ward Syndrome

Types of Atrial Fibrillation

Image by Agateller (Anthony Atkielski)

Diagnosis

cardiac arrhythmias

Image by OpenStax College

How Is Long QT Syndrome Diagnosed?

If someone in your family has LQTS, your doctor may use heart tests and genetic testing to screen you for this condition. If you have an inherited type of LQTS, talk to your doctor and family members about possible genetic testing for your family members.

To diagnose long QT syndrome, your doctor will ask about your medical history, your family’s medical history, your symptoms, and what medicines you take. They will perform a physical exam and may order one or more tests:

Blood tests can check your electrolytes and thyroid hormones levels.
Genetic testing will look for changes in your genes that may cause LQTS and find out which type of LQTS you have.
Heart tests measure your heart’s electrical activity. An EKG is the most common test used to diagnose LQTS. Because your QT interval may change from time to time, you may need to have several EKGs over a period of days or weeks or use a Holter monitor. You may also need a stress test to measure your heart rhythm while your heart is working hard and beating fast.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Additional Materials (3)

ECG from an individual with long QT syndrome demonstrating T-wave alternans

Shashank P Behere/Wikimedia

9:15

Mayo Clinic Led Study on Long QT Syndrome Sheds Light on Genetic Testing

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

What To Expect During Echocardiography

National Heart Lung and Blood Insitute (NIH)

EKG

Electrocardiogram

Also called: EKG, ECG

An electrocardiogram (EKG) is a test that measures electrical signals in your heart. An abnormal EKG can be a sign of heart damage or disease.

Electrocardiogram

Also called: EKG, ECG

An electrocardiogram (EKG) is a test that measures electrical signals in your heart. An abnormal EKG can be a sign of heart damage or disease.

{"label":"EKG reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"EKG results are normal with a consistent heartbeat and rhythm. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"The EKG identified an abnormal heart rhythm.","conditions":["Arrhythmia","Tachycardia","Bradycardia","Myocardial ischemia","Aneurysm","Atherosclerosis","Heart attack"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
EKG results are normal with a consistent heartbeat and rhythm.
Related conditions
An electrocardiogram (EKG) test is a simple, painless, and quick test that records your heart's electrical activity. Each time your heart beats, an electrical signal travels through your heart. The signal triggers your heart's four chambers to contract (squeeze) in the proper rhythm so that your heart can pump blood to your body.
An EKG recording of these signals looks like wavy lines. Your provider can read these lines to look for abnormal heart activity that may be a sign of heart disease or damage.
An EKG can show:
- How fast your heart is beating
- Whether the rhythm of your heartbeat is steady or irregular
- The strength and timing of the electrical signals passing through each part of your heart
Sometimes information from an EKG can help measure the size and position of your heart's chambers.
An EKG is often the first test you'll have if you have signs of a heart condition. It may be done in your provider's office, an outpatient clinic, in a hospital before surgery, or as part of another heart test called a stress test.
An EKG test is also called an ECG. EKG is based on the German spelling, elektrokardiogramm. EKG may be preferred over ECG to avoid confusion with an EEG, a test that measures brain waves.
Other names: ECG test, Holter monitor, ambulatory electrocardiography, continuous electrocardiograms, transtelephonic event monitors
An EKG test is used to help diagnose and monitor many types of heart conditions and their treatment. These conditions include:
- Arrhythmia
- Cardiomyopathy
- Coronary artery disease
- Heart attack
- Heart failure
- Heart valve diseases
- Congenital heart defects
EKG tests are mainly used for people who have symptoms of a heart condition or have already been diagnosed with a heart condition. They are not generally used to screen people who don't have symptoms unless they have an increased risk of developing heart disease. Your provider can explain your risk for heart disease and let you know if need to have an EKG test. In certain cases, your provider may have you see a cardiologist, a doctor who specializes in heart diseases.
You may need an EKG test if you have symptoms of a heart condition, including:
- Chest pain
- Rapid or irregular heartbeat
- Shortness of breath
- Dizziness
- Fatigue
- A decrease in your ability to exercise
You may also need an EKG to:
- Find out if you had a heart attack in the past but didn't know it
- Monitor your heart if you have a known heart condition
- Check how well your heart treatment is working, including medicine and/or a pacemaker
- Check your heart health:
  Before having surgery
  If you have an increased risk for developing heart disease because:
  Heart disease runs in your family
  You have another condition, such as diabetes, that makes your risk higher than normal
An EKG test only takes a few minutes. It generally includes these steps:
- You will lie on an exam table.
- A provider will place several electrodes (small sensors that stick to your skin) on your arms, legs, and chest. The provider may need to shave body hair to make sure the electrodes stay on.
- The electrodes are attached by wires to a computer or a special EKG machine
- You will lie very still while your heart's electrical activity is recorded on a computer or printed on paper by an EKG machine.
An EKG is a "snapshot" of your heart's activity over a very short time. If you have heart symptoms that come and go, a regular EKG may not catch the problem. In that case, your provider may recommend that you wear a small portable EKG monitor that can record your heart for days or longer while you do your normal activities. You may also need a longer EKG recording if your provider wants to check how well your heart is working after a heart attack or to see if treatment is helping you.
There are many types of long-term EKG monitors. The two main groups are Holter monitors, which can be worn for up to two days, and event monitors, which may record your heart activity for weeks to years depending on the type.
A Holter monitor is about the size of a small camera. You usually wear it on a belt or strap around your neck for a day or two. Wires under your clothes attach to electrodes that stick to your chest. The monitor records your heart's electrical signals the whole time you're wearing it. You may be asked to keep a diary of your symptoms during the test period. After the test period, you remove the monitor and return it according to the instructions. A provider will review the recording of your heart's electrical activity from the monitor.
An event monitor records your heart's electrical activity when you press a button or when the device detects abnormal heart activity. There two main types of event monitors:
- Event monitors that you wear or carry with you. You wear some monitors on your chest or wrist. Other monitors are designed to carry. If you have symptoms, you hold the monitor to your chest. These event monitors may be used for weeks to months. Some of them wirelessly transmit information about your heart to a provider. Others must be returned so a provider can examine the recorded information.
- Event monitors that are inserted under the skin of your chest. These are called implantable event monitors. They are put under your skin during minor surgery that's often done in a doctor's office. These monitors can track your heart's electrical activity for years. You may need this type of EKG monitor if you had a stroke or frequent fainting, and your provider hasn't found the cause. Implantable monitors wirelessly transmit the information they record so your provider can regularly check it.
1. Electrocardiogram: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 09, 2023]
2. Electrocardiogram: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Feb 04, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (35)

How to Read an Electrocardiogram (ECG): Introduction – Cardiology | Lecturio

Video by Lecturio Medical/YouTube

Major Types of Heart Block

Video by Jeff Otjen/YouTube

How An ECG Works

Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

What are Arrhythmias?

Your heart is electric. In this video you'll see how your heart's electrical system works, and what happens when it malfunctions. Voyage inside the human body as Dr. Mehmet Oz and others explain the dangers of heart arrhythmias, including tachycardia, bradycardia, and atrial fibrillation.

Video by TheVisualMD

12 Lead ECG Explained, Animation

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Bundle Branch Block, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

QRS Transitional Zone. See link for real voice update in description!

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

ECG Interpretation Basics - ST Segment Changes. See link for real voice update in description!

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Cardiac Axis Interpretation. See link for real voice update in description!

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Electrical system of the heart | Circulatory system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Cardiovascular | EKG Basics

Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube

Cardiovascular | EKG's

Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube

Normal sinus rhythm on an EKG | Circulatory System and Disease | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Cardiac Conduction System and Understanding ECG, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Willem Einthoven and the ECG - Stuff of Genius

Video by Stuff of Genius - HowStuffWorks/YouTube

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

A useful tool for determining whether a person has heart disease, an electrocardiogram (ECG) is a test that records the electrical activity of the heart. An ECG, which is painless (no electricity is sent through the body), is used to measure damage to the heart, how fast the heart is beating and whether it is beating normally, the effects of drugs or devices used to control the heart (such as a pacemaker), and the size and position of the heart chambers.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cardiac cycle

Cardiac Cycle vs Electrocardiogram

Image by OpenStax College

Medical Checkups

Image by TheVisualMD

Electrocardiogram

Electrocardiograms (EKGs) are the most commonly given test used to diagnose coronary artery disease. They record the heart's electrical activity and show evidence of angina or heart attack.

Image by TheVisualMD

electrocardiogram-illustration made up from Medications

https://pixabay.com/en/electrocardiogram-blood-pressure-ekg-2858693/

Image by GDJ

Electrocardiogram

A normal tracing shows the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. Also indicated are the PR, QT, QRS, and ST intervals, plus the P-R and S-T segments.

Image by CNX Openstax

What To Expect After an Electrocardiogram

Normal ECG/EKG complex with labels

Image by Derivative: Hazmat2 Original: Hank van Helvete

Cardiac Stress Test

The image shows a patient having a stress test. Electrodes are attached to the patient's chest and connected to an EKG (electrocardiogram) machine. The EKG records the heart's electrical activity. A blood pressure cuff is used to record the patient's blood pressure while he walks on a treadmill.

Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

Relationship between the Cardiac Cycle and ECG

Initially, both the atria and ventricles are relaxed (diastole). The P wave represents depolarization of the atria and is followed by atrial contraction (systole). Atrial systole extends until the QRS complex, at which point, the atria relax. The QRS complex represents depolarization of the ventricles and is followed by ventricular contraction. The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles and marks the beginning of ventricular relaxation.

Image by CNX Openstax

The Electric Heart

Image by TheVisualMD

Electrocardiogram (EKG)

Electrocardiogram (EKG) is a test used to measure the electrical activity of the heart.

Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine

Comparison of Arrhythmia and Normal ECG

As the muscle tissue in an overstressed heart expands, it tears and scars. The resulting tissue - hardened and marred - does not conduct electricity well. The result is that the system can no longer be relied on to deliver the carefully synchronized pattern of jolts needed to keep the heart pumping smoothly. Doctors call it \"arrhythmia.\" The heart is literally \"skipping a beat.\" This can be measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG). In some cases, arrhythmia can mean simply that the heartbeat is too fast or too slow - a bothersome but not necessarily life-threatening condition. In the worst cases, the arrhythmia indicates a potentially lethal instability in the heart's electric system. The signals that control the heart's contractions get crossed and the heart spasms. If not corrected immediately, this fibrillation of the heart is often fatal. In the U.S., more than 1,000 people die every day from sudden cardiac death, or cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Heart Revealing Chamber and Valve

Your heart beats faster or slower depending on information from your brain, which monitors your body's need for blood. However, the basic rhythm of your heart is automatic; it does not depend on signals from your brain. Your heart cells can generate their own electrical signals, which trigger the contractions and cause the entire heart to pump in synchrony. A specialized bundle of muscle and nerve cells called the sinoatrial node (SA node) sits at the top of the right atrium and is the pacemaker of the heart. It generates the signal for the atria to contract and send blood to the ventricles. A similar node - the atrioventricular or AV node - sits at the atrioventricular septum near the bottom of the right atrium and relays the signal from the SA node to the ventricles to contract and pump blood out of the heart. An electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the electrical signals given off by these two nodes and their conduction through the heart. By looking at the frequency and the height of the peaks and valleys of these signals on an ECG, healthcare professionals get a very good idea of how well the electrical system of your heart is working.

Image by TheVisualMD

Electrocardigram

An electrocardiogram (EKG) detects and records the heart's electrical activity. When the electrical impulse passes through the atria a small peak is recorded (P), followed by a steep spike as it erupts through the ventricles (R), and then another small peak (T) as the wave passes through and the heart repolarizes (recharges) itself for the next beat.

Image by TheVisualMD

Electro- cardiogram

Electrocardiograms, or EKGs, record the electrical activity of the heart. Since injured heart muscle conducts electrical impulses abnormally, the EKG shows if the patient has had or is having a heart attack. It is usually the first test performed.

Image by TheVisualMD

SinusRhythmLabels

Schematic diagram of normal sinus rhythm for a human heart as seen on ECG. In atrial fibrillation, however, the P waves, which represent depolarization of the atria, are absent.

Image by Agateller (Anthony Atkielski)

How To Use an Automated External Defibrillator

The image shows a typical setup using an automated external defibrillator (AED). The AED has step-by-step instructions and voice prompts that enable an untrained bystander to correctly use the machine.

Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

Who Needs an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator?

Lead II (2) ECG EKG strip of an AICD ICD converting a patient back into thier baseline cardiac ryhthm. The AICD fires near the end of the strip, where the straight line is seen.

Image by Public Domain

Cardiac Cycle

CG Animated Human Heart cut section showing the atria, ventricles and valves, synced with wiggers diagram.

Image by DrJanaOfficial/Wikimedia

Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels

The beating of the heart is regulated by an electrical impulse that causes the characteristic reading of an ECG. The signal is initiated at the sinoatrial valve. The signal then (a) spreads to the atria, causing them to contract. The signal is (b) delayed at the atrioventricular node before it is passed on to the (c) heart apex. The delay allows the atria to relax before the (d) ventricles contract. The final part of the ECG cycle prepares the heart for the next beat.

Image by CNX Openstax

9:53

How to Read an Electrocardiogram (ECG): Introduction – Cardiology | Lecturio

Lecturio Medical/YouTube

9:23

Major Types of Heart Block

Jeff Otjen/YouTube

2:45

How An ECG Works

LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

3:27

What are Arrhythmias?

TheVisualMD

3:27

12 Lead ECG Explained, Animation

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

3:48

Bundle Branch Block, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

3:50

QRS Transitional Zone. See link for real voice update in description!

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

1:24

ECG Interpretation Basics - ST Segment Changes. See link for real voice update in description!

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

3:32

Cardiac Axis Interpretation. See link for real voice update in description!

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

9:43

Electrical system of the heart | Circulatory system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

52:29

Cardiovascular | EKG Basics

Ninja Nerd/YouTube

20:37

Cardiovascular | EKG's

Ninja Nerd/YouTube

8:53

Normal sinus rhythm on an EKG | Circulatory System and Disease | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:45

Cardiac Conduction System and Understanding ECG, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

1:46

Willem Einthoven and the ECG - Stuff of Genius

Stuff of Genius - HowStuffWorks/YouTube

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

TheVisualMD

Cardiac cycle

OpenStax College

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

Electrocardiogram

TheVisualMD

electrocardiogram-illustration made up from Medications

GDJ

Electrocardiogram

CNX Openstax

What To Expect After an Electrocardiogram

Derivative: Hazmat2 Original: Hank van Helvete

Cardiac Stress Test

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

Relationship between the Cardiac Cycle and ECG

CNX Openstax

The Electric Heart

TheVisualMD

Electrocardiogram (EKG)

U.S. National Library of Medicine

Comparison of Arrhythmia and Normal ECG

TheVisualMD

Heart Revealing Chamber and Valve

TheVisualMD

Electrocardigram

TheVisualMD

Electro- cardiogram

TheVisualMD

SinusRhythmLabels

Agateller (Anthony Atkielski)

How To Use an Automated External Defibrillator

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

Who Needs an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator?

Public Domain

Cardiac Cycle

DrJanaOfficial/Wikimedia

Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels

CNX Openstax

Electrolytes

Electrolyte Panel

Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes

An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.

Electrolyte Panel

Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes

An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.

Electrolytes are minerals that have an electrical charge when they are dissolved in water or body fluids. You have electrolytes in your blood, urine, tissues, and other body fluids. They are important because they help:
- Balance the amount of water in your body
- Balance your body's acid-base (pH) level
- Move nutrients into your cells
- Move waste out of your cells
- Support your muscle and nerve function
- Keep your heart rate and rhythm steady
- Keep your blood pressure stable
- Keep your bones and teeth healthy
Electrolytes are in your blood, urine (pee), tissues, and other body fluids. An electrolyte panel is used to check for electrolyte, fluid, or pH imbalances.
An electrolyte panel, also known as a serum electrolyte test, is a blood test that measures levels of the body's main electrolytes:
- Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in your body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
- Chloride, which also helps control the amount of fluid in your body. In addition, it helps maintain healthy blood volume and blood pressure.
- Potassium, which helps your cells, heart, and muscles work properly.
- Bicarbonate, which helps maintain your body's acid- base balance (pH). It also plays an important role in moving carbon dioxide through the bloodstream.
- Calcium, which helps make and keep your bones and teeth strong.
- Magnesium, which helps your muscles, nerves, and heart work properly. It also helps control blood pressure and blood glucose (blood sugar) levels.
- Phosphate, which works together with the mineral calcium to build strong bones and teeth.
You get these electrolytes from the foods you eat and the fluids you drink.
The levels of electrolytes in your body can become too low or too high. This can happen when the amount of water in your body changes. The amount of water that you take in should equal the amount you lose. If something upsets this balance, you may have too little water (dehydration) or too much water (overhydration).
Abnormal levels of any of these electrolytes can be a sign of a serious health problem, including kidney disease, high blood pressure, and a life-threatening type of arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat).
Other names: serum electrolyte test, electrolyte blood test, electrolyte lab test, lytes, sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), carbon dioxide (CO2)
You may need this test if you have symptoms indicating that your body's electrolytes may be out of balance. These include:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Confusion and irritability
- Weakness
- Irregular or fast heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Diarrhea or constipation
- Fatigue
- Headaches
- Muscle weakness, cramps, or spasms
- Numbness or tingling in your arms, legs, fingers, and toes

Your results will include measurements for each electrolyte. Abnormal electrolyte levels can be caused by many different conditions, including:

Dehydration.
Kidney disease.
Heart disease.
Diabetes.
Lung infection (such as tuberculosis).
Malabsorption, a condition in which your body is not getting enough nutrients from the foods you eat.
Liver disease.
Acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.

An electrolyte imbalance can also happen if you take certain medicines, such as:

Antibiotics
Antacids, especially if you take large amounts
Chemotherapy medicines
Diuretics ("water pills"), which are used to treat high blood pressure and other conditions
Steroid medicines

Your specific results will depend on which electrolyte or electrolytes are affected and whether levels are too low or too high. If your electrolyte levels were not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical problem needing treatment. Many factors can affect electrolyte levels. These include taking in too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids and blood pressure medicines may cause abnormal results.

An electrolyte imbalance means that the level of an electrolyte is too low or too high. The names of the imbalances are:

Electrolyte	Too low	Too high
Bicarbonate	Acidosis	Alkalosis
Calcium	Hypocalcemia	Hypercalcemia
Chloride	Hypochloremia	Hyperchloremia
Magnesium	Hypomagnesemia	Hypermagnesemia
Phosphate	Hypophosphatemia	Hyperphosphatemia
Potassium	Hypokalemia	Hyperkalemia
Sodium	Hyponatremia	Hypernatremia

If you have questions about your results, talk to your provider.

1. Electrolyte Panel: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (10)

8:05

Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

3:26

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

EmpoweRN/YouTube

9:43

Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

4:19

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Bicarbonate

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
meq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"pCO2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"value":40}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
- Trouble breathing
- Confusion
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
- Lung diseases
- Cushing's syndrome
- Kidney failure
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
- Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Shock
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
- Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Calcium

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

{"label":"Calcium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":8.2},"text":"Abnormally low levels may result in abdominal cramps, muscle cramps, or tingling fingers.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malnutrition","Vitamin D deficiency","Magnesium deficiency","Pancreatitis","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Neurological disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8.2,"max":10.2},"text":"A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10.2,"max":18},"text":"Abnormally high levels of calcium can result in fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, increased thirst and urination.","conditions":["Excess vitamin D intake","Hyperparathyroidism","Paget's disease of the bone","Overuse of antacids","Certain cancers","Sarcoidosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":9.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
8.2
10.2
Your result is Normal.
A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.
Related conditions
{"label":"Ionized calcium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4.5},"text":"Low blood levels of ionized calcium can cause your heart rate to slow down or speed up, cause muscle spasms, and even result in a coma.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malabsorption","Osteomalacia","Pancreatitis","Renal failure","Rickets","Vitamin D deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":5.6},"text":"Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, \"free\" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.6,"max":15},"text":"High levels of ionized calcium in your blood may be due to a sedentary lifestyle or lack of mobility, use of medications and supplements or certain medical conditions.","conditions":["Decreased levels of calcium in the urine from an unknown cause","Hyperparathyroidism","Hyperthyroidism","Milk-alkali syndrome","Multiple myeloma","Paget disease","Sarcoidosis","Thiazide diuretics","Thrombocytosis","Certain kind of tumors","Vitamin A excess","Vitamin D excess"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
4.5
5.6
Your result is Normal.
Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, "free" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.
Related conditions
A blood calcium test is used to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose or monitor many types of medical conditions, including conditions that affect your bones, kidneys, digestive system, thyroid, and parathyroid glands.
There are two types of calcium blood tests that measure different forms of blood calcium:
- Total calcium test measures all the calcium in your blood. You have two types of blood calcium that are normally present in about equal amounts:
  "Bound calcium" is attached to proteins in your blood.
  "Free calcium" is not attached to proteins. It's also called ionized calcium. This form of blood calcium is active in many body functions.
  Normally, your body tightly controls the balance of bound and ionized calcium, so a total calcium test gives a good estimate of how much ionized calcium you have.
  A total calcium test is the most common test for blood calcium. It's often part of a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), which are both routine screening tests.
- An ionized calcium test measures only the "free calcium" in your blood that isn't attached to proteins. An ionized calcium test is more difficult to do, so it's usually ordered if the results of a total calcium test aren't normal. You may also have this test if you have a condition that affects your body's ability to balance the amounts of ionized and bound calcium in your blood, or if you are seriously ill or having surgery.
Your health care provider may have ordered a basic or comprehensive metabolic panel, which includes a calcium blood test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have this test to diagnose or monitor conditions that can affect your blood calcium or if you have symptoms of abnormal calcium levels.
Symptoms of high calcium levels may include:
- Digestive symptoms, such as:
  Constipation
  Nausea and vomiting
  Abdominal (belly) pain
  Loss of appetite
- Increased thirst
- Urinating (peeing) more than usual
- Kidney stones
- Bone, joint, and muscle symptoms, such as weakness, aches, and pains
- Fatigue
- A change in mental health, such as depression or confusion
Symptoms of low calcium levels may include:
- Dry skin, coarse hair, and nails that easily break (after a long period of low levels)
- Muscle cramps, spasms, or stiffness
- Tingling in the lips, tongue, fingers, and feet
- Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Seizures, if calcium levels are extremely low
Many people with high or low calcium levels don't have any symptoms. So your provider may order a calcium test if you have a known condition that may affect your calcium levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Thyroid or parathyroid disease
- Malnutrition
- Problems absorbing calcium
- Certain types of cancer
Results from a total calcium test that are higher than normal may be a sign of many types of conditions, such as:
- Overactive parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone
- Certain types of cancer, including cancer that spreads to the bone
- Bone disorders, including Paget's disease of the bone
- Taking too much vitamin D over a long period of time
Results from a total calcium test that are lower than normal may be a sign of:
- Low blood protein levels, which may be caused by liver disease or malnutrition
- Underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too little parathyroid hormone
- Too little calcium in your diet
- Too little vitamin D or magnesium
- Pancreatitis
- Kidney disease
If your results from a total calcium blood test are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Your diet and certain medicines can affect your calcium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Calcium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
3. Calcium blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
4. Calcium Test - Testing.com. Nov 29, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (9)

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Chloride

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

{"label":"Chloride reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":101}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
meq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
- Vomiting over a long period of time
- Diarrhea
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Dehydration
- Trouble breathing
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Kidney disease
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Heart failure
- Lung disease
- Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
4. Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Additional Materials (12)

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

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Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

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Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

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Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

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Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride

Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner

Cross section Human Stomach

Cross section Human Stomach

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gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

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4:52

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Magnesium

Magnesium Blood Test

Also called: Magnesium, Mag, Hypomagnesemia Test, Hypermagnesemia Test

This test measures the amount of magnesium in your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that is important for strong bones and muscles, heart health, energy production, and nerve function. A magnesium deficiency or excess magnesium can be a sign of a serious health problem.

Magnesium Blood Test

Also called: Magnesium, Mag, Hypomagnesemia Test, Hypermagnesemia Test

This test measures the amount of magnesium in your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that is important for strong bones and muscles, heart health, energy production, and nerve function. A magnesium deficiency or excess magnesium can be a sign of a serious health problem.

{"label":"Magnesium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1.6},"text":"Low blood levels may suggest either not enough magnesium intake, low absorption, or excess in urine excretion. Magnesium deficiency produces neuromuscular disorders. It may cause weakness, tremors, tetany, and convulsions.","conditions":["Hypomagnesemia","Malnutrition","Alcoholism","Gastrointestinal disorders\u00a0","Chron\u2019s disease","Prolonged diarrhea","Severe burns","Hypoparathyroidism","Uncontrolled diabetes","Long-term use of diuretics","Preeclampsia or eclampsia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.6,"max":2.3},"text":"Magnesium is one of many electrolytes in your body and normal levels of magnesium are important for the maintenance of heart and nervous system function.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.3,"max":5},"text":"High magnesium levels are usually not caused by an excess of intake, but because the kidneys do not excrete it properly. Increased magnesium levels relate mostly to patients in renal failure. ","conditions":["Hypothyroidism","Hyperparathyroidism","Dehydration","Kidney failure","Diabetic acidosis","Use of laxatives","Intake of certain antacids","Addison disease"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":1.9}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
1.6
2.3
Your result is Normal.
Magnesium is one of many electrolytes in your body and normal levels of magnesium are important for the maintenance of heart and nervous system function.
Related conditions
A magnesium blood test measures the amount of magnesium in a sample of your blood. Magnesium is a mineral that you get from many kinds of foods you eat. Some examples include nuts, seeds, beans, fortified breakfast cereals, green leafy vegetables, and milk.
Your body needs magnesium to help your muscles, nerves, and heart work properly. Magnesium also helps control blood pressure and blood glucose, also called blood sugar. It's important for building strong bones, and it supports your immune system.
Magnesium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body.
Most of your body's magnesium is stored in your bones, organs, and other body tissue. Only a small amount is found in your blood. Your body tightly controls the amount of magnesium in your blood mainly through your:
- Kidneys. They filter extra magnesium from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your magnesium level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
- Intestines. They control how much magnesium you absorb from the foods you eat.
Abnormal levels of blood magnesium can be caused by many different conditions. So, a magnesium test may be used to help diagnose a variety of disorders.
A magnesium blood test is used to check the level of magnesium in your blood. It's done if your health care provider thinks your levels may not be normal:
- A low magnesium level is also called magnesium deficiency or hypomagnesemia. This condition is more common than levels that are too high.
- A high magnesium level is also called hypermagnesemia. This condition is uncommon. Most cases happen in people who have kidney failure.
A magnesium blood test may also be used to help find the cause of abnormal levels of other minerals, including calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. That's because magnesium plays a role in how your body absorbs these minerals.
You may need a magnesium blood test if you have symptoms that could be caused by abnormal magnesium levels.
Symptoms of low magnesium include:
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea and vomiting
- Fatigue and weakness
- Muscle cramps
- Numbness and/or tingling
- Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Seizures (if magnesium levels are extremely low)
Symptoms of high magnesium are much the same as symptoms of low magnesium. They may also include:
- Diarrhea
- Abdominal (belly) cramping
- Cardiac arrest from extremely high levels of magnesium
You may also need to have your magnesium levels checked to monitor your health if you:
- Have a condition that's linked to abnormal magnesium levels, such as:
  Chronic kidney disease
  Diabetes that's not well controlled
  Alcohol use disorder
  Malabsorption syndrome
  Malnutrition
  Chronic (long-lasting) diarrhea
  Low levels of potassium and/or calcium
- Take medicine that can decrease magnesium levels, for example:
  Diuretics ("water pills")
  Certain antibiotics
  Proton pump inhibitors to reduce stomach acid
- Take medicine that can increase magnesium levels, for example:
  Aspirin
  Medicines that contain magnesium, such as laxatives for constipation and certain antacids for heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
  Lithium
- Are being treated with magnesium and/or calcium.
If the results of your magnesium blood test are abnormal, your provider will use your medical history and the results of other tests to diagnose the cause. Many different conditions can affect magnesium levels, so ask your provider to explain what your test results mean.
In general, low magnesium levels may mean that:
- You're not getting enough magnesium in your diet. Older adults and people with alcohol use disorder or malnutrition are more likely to have this problem.
- Your body isn't able absorb magnesium, even if you eat the right amount. Causes of this problem include digestive disorders, such as Crohn's disease, or taking certain medicines.
- Your body is getting rid of too much magnesium. Causes include kidney problems, long-term diarrhea, and diabetes, which can cause frequent urination (peeing) if blood glucose levels are too high.
Other health conditions linked to low magnesium include underactive parathyroid glands and pregnancy, which increases the need for magnesium.
Higher than normal magnesium levels may mean that:
- You're getting too much magnesium from dietary supplements, laxatives, antacids, or certain prescription medicines. It's rare to get too much magnesium from food alone.
- Your body has a problem getting rid of magnesium. The most common cause is kidney failure.
Other health conditions linked to high magnesium include dehydration, hypothyroidism, Addison disease, and overactive parathyroid glands.
Treatment for abnormal magnesium levels will depend on your condition.
1. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/magnesium [accessed on Sep 08, 2019]
2. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/30781/magnesium [accessed on Sep 08, 2019]

Additional Materials (9)

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Magnesium Ion

Magnesium, the fourth most abundant mineral in the body, is found in bone, the cells of body tissues, organs, and blood. Essential to more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body, magnesium helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps the heart rhythm steady, supports immunity, helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal blood pressure, and keeps bones strong. It may assist in the prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Most dietary magnesium comes from vegetables, particularly dark green, leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard and spinach. Other good sources include mustard greens, summer squash, broccoli, blackstrap molasses, halibut, turnip greens, pumpkin seeds, and peppermint.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium Ion

Magnesium, the fourth most abundant mineral in the body, is found in bone, the cells of body tissues, organs, and blood. Essential to more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body, magnesium helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps the heart rhythm steady, supports immunity, helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal blood pressure, and keeps bones strong. It may assist in the prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Most dietary magnesium comes from vegetables, particularly dark green, leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard and spinach. Other good sources include mustard greens, summer squash, broccoli, blackstrap molasses, halibut, turnip greens, pumpkin seeds, and peppermint.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Alcoholism

Most magnesium is stored in bones and tissues and then released as needed to keep blood levels stable (which means blood levels may be normal even as stores are depleted). Magnesium deficiency is often associated with alcoholism and malnutrition. While mild deficiency may cause few or no symptoms, severe or persistent deficiency can result in fatigue, nausea, muscle cramps, numbness or tingling, confusion, seizures, and cardiac arrhythmia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nerve Function/Nerve Damage

Magnesium is necessary for healthy nerve function. The body maintains magnesium levels by regulating how much it absorbs and how much is excreted or recycled by the kidneys. Magnesium deficiencies can be caused by malnutrition, malabsorption, or kidney damage. Excess magnesium is usually easily eliminated, but persistently high levels (often caused by supplementation or antacid overuse) can cause depression of the central nervous system or cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium, Muscle Function

Magnesium is necessary for normal skeletal muscle contraction. Magnesium is also important to the function of smooth muscle. Magnesium will sometimes be used in emergency rooms to open up the airways of people having severe asthma attacks by relaxing the smooth muscle tissue surrounding the bronchi. Because of its calming effect on smooth muscle, the symptoms of migraines may similarly ease with magnesium supplementation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Foods High in Magnesium

Food sources of magnesium: bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinach

Magnesium: Muscle Function

Magnesium is necessary for healthy muscle contraction. Among the symptoms of magnesium deficiency are muscle cramps, twitching, and weakness. Magnesium is also sometimes given to relax the smooth muscles surrounding the bronchi, thereby reducing the risk of death from severe asthma attacks.

Image by TheVisualMD

Magnesium: Nerve Function

Magnesium is necessary for healthy nerve function. And although excessive magnesium levels are rare and usually easily corrected through elimination in the urine, persistent or severe magnesium toxicity can cause depression of the central nervous system or cardiac or respiratory arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

4:19

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

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Magnesium Ion

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Magnesium Ion

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Magnesium, Alcoholism

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Nerve Function/Nerve Damage

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Magnesium, Muscle Function

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Foods High in Magnesium

Magnesium: Muscle Function

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Magnesium: Nerve Function

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Phosphate

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

{"label":"Phosphate Blood Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VL","long":"Very low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Phosphorus levels of less than 1.0 mg\/dL is considered a critical result and may be life-threatening.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2.5},"text":"Low levels of phosphorous may result in muscle weakness, destruction of red cells, and bone deformity.","conditions":["Hypophosphatemia","Overuse of diuretics","Excess level of calcium in the blood","Malnutrition","Alcoholism","Severe burns","Hypokalemia","Hypothyroidism","Diabetic ketoacidosis after treatment","Chronic antacid use","Osteomalacia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.5,"max":4.5},"text":"The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":10},"text":"High phosphorus concentration may lead to osteoporosis and heart disease. Children have naturally higher levels of phosphorus since it is necessary for bone development.<br \/>\n","conditions":["Diabetic ketoacidosis","Overconsumption of phosphurus","Hypoparathyroidism","Renal failure","Liver disease","Hypocalcemia","Phosphate dietary intake"]}],"value":3.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
1
2.5
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.
Related conditions
A phosphate in blood test measures the amount of phosphate in a sample of your blood. Phosphate contains the mineral phosphorus. So, a phosphate test is sometimes called a phosphorus test.
Phosphate is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Your body also needs phosphates for many other important processes, such as:
- Building strong bones and teeth. Most of the phosphate in your body is found in your bones where it is combined with the mineral calcium.
- Making energy.
- Helping your nerves and muscles work properly.
The phosphorus in phosphate comes from the foods you eat, including nuts and seeds, dairy products, dried beans, meats, poultry, and eggs. Your body tightly controls the amount of phosphate in your blood mainly through your:
- Kidneys. They filter extra phosphate from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your phosphate level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
- Intestines. They control how much phosphorous you absorb from the foods you eat.
The amount of phosphate in your blood is also linked to your levels of:
- Calcium. When blood calcium levels increase, phosphate levels decrease. And when calcium levels decrease, phosphate levels increase.
- Vitamin D. It helps your body use phosphate.
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is made by parathyroid glands in your neck. It helps balance phosphate and calcium levels in your blood.
Abnormal phosphate levels may be a sign of problems with the systems in your body that control phosphate levels. To help understand the cause of abnormal levels, the test is often done with blood tests that measure calcium, vitamin D, and PTH.
Other names: phosphorus test, P, PO4, phosphorus-serum, phosphate, inorganic phosphorus
A phosphate in blood test is often used with other tests to help diagnose and/or monitor:
- Kidney disease, especially chronic kidney disease. High phosphate levels are a common sign that the kidneys aren't working well to get rid of extra phosphate in the blood.
- Bone disorders. High phosphate levels can pull calcium out of bones and weaken them over time.
- Parathyroid disorders. Parathyroid hormones control the balance of phosphate and calcium in the blood. A phosphate test can help show how well the parathyroid glands are working.
A phosphate test may also be used to monitor people who:
- Have diabetes that isn't well controlled
- Have signs of an acid-base imbalance (having too much or too little acid in your blood)
Phosphate levels that are either high or mildly low usually don't cause any symptoms on their own. But you may need a phosphate test with other tests if you:
- Have had an abnormal result on a calcium blood test. A calcium test may be part of a routine exam. Abnormal levels are often linked to abnormal phosphate levels.
- Have symptoms of low calcium levels. High levels of phosphate can lower calcium levels in your blood, which can cause symptoms, such as:
  Nails that break easily, and/or hair that becomes coarse
  Rash and/or itchy skin
  Muscle cramps
  Bone pain
  Seizures
  Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Have symptoms of severely low phosphate levels. This condition can become life-threatening and needs immediate treatment. Symptoms may include:
  Muscle pain and/or weakness
  Bone pain
  Changes in your mental condition, such as feeling confused or very irritable
  Seizures
  Coma
You may also need to have your phosphate levels checked if you have or may have a condition that can cause abnormal phosphate levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Malnutrition
- Malabsorption syndrome
- A parathyroid gland disorder
- Using certain medicines
The results of your phosphate test may say "phosphorus levels" or "phosphate levels." These terms mean the same thing. The meaning of your test results depends on your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other tests.
In general:
A higher than normal phosphate level is called hyperphosphatemia. High levels are linked to many conditions, including:
- Late stages of chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. If damaged kidneys can't filter out extra phosphate, it can build up in your blood. If you have a condition that affects your kidneys, eating too much phosphorus-rich food may also lead to high phosphate levels.
- Hypoparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands don't make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). When PTH is low, calcium levels are low and phosphate levels are high.
- Acidosis. This means having too much acid in your blood from a pH imbalance. It may be caused by a lung disorder or other health conditions, including kidney disease.
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include steroids, laxatives, and enemas that contain phosphate.
A lower than normal phosphate level is called hypophosphatemia. Mildly low levels often aren't a health problem. But many conditions that cause low levels may need treatment, including:
- Hyperparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands make too much parathyroid hormone, which leads to high levels of blood calcium and low levels of phosphate.
- Vitamin D deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to osteomalacia, a condition that causes soft bones. In children, this condition is called rickets.
- Getting too little phosphorus from food. This is uncommon in the U.S. But some people are more likely to have trouble getting enough phosphorus, including:
  Premature babies
  People who have certain rare genetic disorders, severe malnutrition, alcohol use disorder, or problems absorbing nutrients
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include antacids that contain aluminum hydroxide or calcium carbonate and certain prescription diuretics ("water pills").
If your phosphate levels are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Also, children often have higher phosphate levels because their bones are still growing. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/33136/phosphorus [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]
2. https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8408 [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (11)

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods : The phosphorus test is used to monitor the levels of phosphorus in the blood. Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

Along with calcium, phosphorus is an important building block of teeth.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

Phosphorus is an essential mineral, required by every cell in the body for normal function. It helps filter kidney waste; plays a critical role in energy storage and use; helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues, and cells; and is involved in the production of DNA and RNA. Phosphorus aids in the balance and use of many vitamins and minerals. It works closely with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. Phosphorus is found in milk, grains, and protein-rich foods.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Space filling model of Phosphate

Image by Benjah-bmm27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

Video by familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. About 80% of phosphorus resides in the bones and teeth. Because alcohol can leach phosphorus from the bones, phosphorus deficiency is often associated with alcoholism, especially when combined with malnutrition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Higher-than-normal levels of phosphorus are often caused by kidney disease or a diet that has too much phosphorus and too little calcium; a fine balance must be maintained between dietary calcium and phosphorus for optimum bone density.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

TheVisualMD

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Benjah-bmm27

19:27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

TheVisualMD

Potassium

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

{"label":"Potassium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypokalemia","long":"Hypokalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Low levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting and diarrhea, or the side effects of drugs including, mostly commonly, diuretics.","conditions":["Acute or chronic diarrhea","Cushing syndrome (rare)","Diuretics","Hyperaldosteronism","Hypokalemic periodic paralysis","Not enough potassium in the diet","Renal artery stenosis","Renal tubular acidosis (rare)","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hyperkalemia","long":"Hyperkalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":7},"text":"Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia, which is most commonly caused by reduced kidney function, particularly in dialysis patients.","conditions":["Addison disease (rare)","Blood transfusion","Certain medicines","Crushed tissue injury","Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis","Hypoaldosteronism (very rare)","Kidney insufficiency or failure","Metabolic or respiratory acidosis","Red blood cell destruction","Too much potassium in your diet"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":4.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
meq/L
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Fatigue
- Muscle weakness
- Nausea
- Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Irregular heartbeat
- Muscle cramps
- Weak or twitching muscles
- Fatigue
- Nausea
- Constipation
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
- Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
- Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
- Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
- Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
- The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
- A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
- Use of prescription diuretics
- Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
- Using too many laxatives
- Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
- Kidney disease
- Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
- A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

Video by DoctorOz/YouTube

Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

What Causes Cramps?

Video by Life Noggin/YouTube

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

Video by Fox News/YouTube

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.

Image by TheVisualMD

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

4:52

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

5:18

3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

DoctorOz/YouTube

4:03

Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

1:46

What Causes Cramps?

Life Noggin/YouTube

3:26

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Wendy Westwood/YouTube

3:35

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

Fox News/YouTube

13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

TheVisualMD

Sodium

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

{"label":"Sodium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":139}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
meq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
- Thirst
- Urinating (peeing) very little
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
- A disorder of the adrenal glands
- A kidney disease
- Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
- A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
  Kidney diseases
  Cirrhosis of the liver
  Heart failure
  Certain brain and lung diseases
  Certain types of cancer
  Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
- Addison disease
- Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Sodium Food

Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.

Image by TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.

Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Image by Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sodium: Blood Vessels

A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.

Image by TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter

Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

3:07

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

NURSINGcom/YouTube

3:33

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

NURSINGcom/YouTube

6:46

You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

4:42

Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Sodium Food

TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

TheVisualMD

Sodium: Blood Vessels

TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

Thyroid Hormone

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

{"label":"TSH reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.45},"text":"A low TSH level usually indicates that the thyroid is producing too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism). Occasionally, a low TSH may result from an abnormality in the pituitary gland, which prevents it from making enough TSH to stimulate the thyroid (central hypothyroidism).","conditions":["Hyperthyroidism","Chronic thyroiditis","Hashimoto's Disease","Graves' disease","Toxic nodular goiter","Multinodular goiter","Damage to the pituitary gland","Insufficient anti-thyroid medication","Too much iodine in the body"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.45,"max":4.5},"text":"The pituitary gland releases TSH into the blood to stimulate the thyroid to make more thyroid hormone. The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of thyroid hormone in the body. In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":10},"text":"A high TSH level indicates that the thyroid gland is not making enough thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism).","conditions":["Hypothyroidism","Grave's Disease","Pituitary gland tumor",""]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(mi.U.)\/mL","code":"m[IU]\/mL","name":"milli international unit per milliliter"}],"value":2.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(mi.U.)/mL
0.45
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The pituitary gland releases TSH into the blood to stimulate the thyroid to make more thyroid hormone. The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of thyroid hormone in the body. In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.
Related conditions
You may need a TSH test if you have symptoms of too much or too little thyroid hormone in your blood.
Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone) is also called overactive thyroid. Having more thyroid hormones than you need speeds up your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Weight loss, even though you may be eating more than usual
- Rapid or irregular heartbeat
- Feeling nervous or irritable
- Trouble sleeping, fatigue
- Shaky hands, muscle weakness
- Sweating or being very sensitive to heat
- Frequent bowel movements (pooping a lot)
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid)
Hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone) is also called underactive thyroid. Not having enough thyroid hormone slows down your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Fatigue
- Weight gain
- Being very sensitive to cold
- Joint and muscle pain
- Dry skin
- Dry, thinning hair
- Heavy or irregular menstrual periods
- Depression
- Constipation
You may also have a TSH test, along with other tests, to help diagnose unusual bumps or lumps on your thyroid that may be thyroid cancer or thyroid nodules (growths on your thyroid that aren't cancer).
Your TSH test results can tell you if your thyroid is making too much or too little thyroid. But the test can't explain why your TSH levels may be too high or too low.
If your test results aren't normal, your provider will probably order other thyroid blood tests to find out what's causing your thyroid problem. These blood tests may include:
- T4 thyroid hormone test
- T3 thyroid hormone test
- Thyroid antibodies test to help diagnose an autoimmune thyroid disorder, such as:
  Graves' disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism
  Hashimoto's disease, that the most common cause of hypothyroidism
In certain cases, an abnormal TSH result may be a sign of a pituitary gland problem, but this doesn't happen often.
1. 004259: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
2. TSH test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
3. TSH [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
4. 004593: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) in Pregnancy | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (28)

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which play key roles in regulating many aspects of metabolism, the rate at which the cells use energy and carry out chemical processes. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid and the hormones it produces, for example, are under control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), which is produced by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

Image by CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid contains spherical follicles that absorb iodine ions from the blood for use in the production of T4 and T3. Iodine deficiency, rare in the U.S., affects two billion people worldwide and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the skull, between the optic nerves. It is often referred to as the endocrine system's \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other glands. The pituitary, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when. The pituitary governs testosterone and estrogen production, as well as ovulation and breast milk production; it also helps regulate growth, blood pressure, maintain proper fluid balance, and other aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Image by MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

The time scale starts with the (LMP), given as day number. Day number 1 corresponds to 0 to 0.99 days from LMP, and Day number 2 corresponds to 1.00 to 1.99 days from LMP and so forth. The time scale ends at whatever is the actual next menstruation, which marks the beginning of the next cycle, which is equivalent to starting all over again from the beginning of the time scale.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Diagram of typical immunoassay home pregnancy test which detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (A) A urine sample is applied to the stick. If pregnant, this should contain hCG. (B) As the sample is absorbed into the stick it goes through free dye-labeled antibodies that recognize and stick to hCG. (C) An anchored set of antibodies stick to and capture hCG molecules (and the attached dye-labeled antibodies), creating the first line. In the "not pregnant" sample no hCG is attached to the dye-labeled antibodies, so they wash past this point and no line appears. (D) A second anchored set of antibodies captures the dye-labeled antibodies, providing a positive control to indicate that the test is working properly.

Image by Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Proptosis and Lid Retraction from Graves Disease : Photograph showing a classic finding of Graves' Disease, proptosis and lid retraction.

Image by Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Graves' disease symptoms

Image by Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the orbits, showing congestion of the retro-orbital space and enlargement of the extraocular muscles (arrows), consistent with the diagnosis of Graves' Ophthalmopathy.

Image by Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam`s apple. Hormones produced by the thyroid gland have an enormous impact on many aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

A Classic Negative Feedback Loop

Image by OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck. The gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid is under the control of a hormone called thyroid-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary gland; the pituitary gland, in turn, takes its orders from the hypothalamus. Thyroid problems usually fall into one of two categories: hypothroidism, when the gland produces too little hormone; or hyperthroidism, when the gland produces too much.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland, which is often referred to as the \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces hormones that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. Hyperthyroidism (when too much hormone is produced) is often caused by an autoimmune disorder called Graves' disease, in which antibodies produced by the immune system over-stimulate the thyroid. The production of thyroid hormones is under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. A goiter is any visible enlargement of the thyroid gland. In the past, goiters were often due to a lack of iodine in the diet (iodized salt has greatly reduced such goiters). Goiters can be present in cases of either hormone overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism).

Image by TheVisualMD

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

What Is High FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

What is FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Video by Janux/YouTube

What is Graves Disease?

Video by TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

Graves' Disease Education

Video by Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Male Sex Hormones

Video by Academic Algonquin/YouTube

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

A normal thyroid cell (Nthy.ori 3-1) adhered to gold surface. Picture taken by a Scanning electron microscope (SEM), University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.

Image by ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

5 different scintigramms taken from thyroids with different syndroms: A) normal thyroid, B) Graves disease, diffuse increased uptake in both thyroid lobes, C) Plummers disease (TMNG, toxic multinodular goitre), D) Toxic adenoma, E) Thyroiditis. Marker 99Tc

Image by Petros Perros

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

TheVisualMD

3:15

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

1:16

What Is High FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

2:46

What is FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

3:38

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Janux/YouTube

2:25

What is Graves Disease?

TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

9:07

Graves' Disease Education

Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

10:15

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

CrashCourse/YouTube

2:30

Male Sex Hormones

Academic Algonquin/YouTube

1:55

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

Petros Perros

Treatment

Lifestyle for a Healthy Heart

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Long QT Syndrome Treated and Managed?

The goal of treating LQTS is to prevent arrhythmias and fainting spells. Treatment isn’t a cure for the disorder and may not restore a normal QT interval. However, treatment greatly lowers the risk of life-threatening problems.

Treatment may include:

Lifestyle changes: Your doctor may ask you to avoid things that can cause problems with your heart rhythm, such as swimming and other vigorous physical activity, sudden loud noises such as an alarm clock, stressful situations, and some medicines. Ask your doctor about eating more potassium-rich foods (such as bananas) or taking potassium supplements daily.
Medicine: You may need beta blockers to prevent your heart from beating faster in response to physical or emotional stress. If you have low electrolyte ion levels, your doctor may give you magnesium or potassium through your veins.
Medical devices: Your doctor may recommend a device such as a pacemaker or implantable cardioverter defibrillator to help control your heart rhythm.
Surgery: You may need surgery to cut the nerves that cause dangerous heart rhythms. This keeps your heart beating at a steady pace and lowers the risk of arrhythmias caused by stress or exercise.

What happens if it is not treated?

LQTS is usually a lifelong condition. The risk of having an abnormal heart rhythm that leads to fainting or cardiac arrest may lessen as you get older, especially in men after age 40. However, the risk never completely goes away. In boys who have LQTS, the QT interval often returns to normal after puberty. If this happens, the risk of LQTS symptoms and complications goes down.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Additional Materials (2)

3:26

Combating Long QT syndrome | Science In The Hospital

TomorrowsMed/YouTube

Male Thorax with Heart Pacemaker

TheVisualMD

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