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Coats Disease

Table of Contents

Coats Disease

Retinal Telangiectasia; Exudative Retinitis; Leber Miliary Aneurysm

Coats disease is an eye disorder characterized by abnormal development of the blood vessels in the retina (retinal telangiectasia). This rare disorder was first described by a Scottish ophthalmologist, George Coats, in 1908. Learn about causes, symptoms and treatment.

Coats' disease

Image by Fernandes BF et al.

Summary

Coats' disease

Image by Fernandes BF, Odashiro AN, Maloney S, Zajdenweber ME, Lopes AG, Burnier MN Jr.

Coats' disease

Coats' disease: histopathological findings. Total exsudative retinal detachment

Image by Fernandes BF, Odashiro AN, Maloney S, Zajdenweber ME, Lopes AG, Burnier MN Jr.

What Is Coats Disease?

Coats disease is an eye disorder characterized by abnormal development of the blood vessels in the retina (retinal telangiectasia). Most people begin showing symptoms in childhood. Early signs and symptoms vary but may include vision loss, "crossed eyes" (strabismus), and a white mass in the pupil behind the lens of the eye (leukocoria). Over time, Coats disease may also lead to retinal detachment, glaucoma, and clouding of the lens of the eye (cataracts). In most cases, only one eye is affected. Coats disease is not inherited and the underlying cause is not known. It has been theorized that some cases may be due to somatic mutations (acquired, not inherited) in the NDP gene. Treatment depends on the symptoms present and may include cryotherapy and laser photocoagulation (alone or in combination), steroids for inflammation, and/or surgery for retinal detachment.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (7)

Coats' Disease Is Discussed on The Doctors

Video by Laura Nelson/YouTube

How to Cure Coats' Disease, presented by Akrit Sodhi, MD, PhD

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

Can Coats Disease affect the brain in any way?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

Differentiating Coats Disease from Retinoblastoma

Video by Eye Cancer Heroes/YouTube

Gary's Coats' Disease Story

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

Are there any supplements that can be helpful for Coats patients?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

What are the most effective treatment options?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

4:55

Coats' Disease Is Discussed on The Doctors

Laura Nelson/YouTube

11:48

How to Cure Coats' Disease, presented by Akrit Sodhi, MD, PhD

CoatsDisease/YouTube

0:31

Can Coats Disease affect the brain in any way?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

7:48

Differentiating Coats Disease from Retinoblastoma

Eye Cancer Heroes/YouTube

2:48

Gary's Coats' Disease Story

CoatsDisease/YouTube

1:34

Are there any supplements that can be helpful for Coats patients?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

1:19

What are the most effective treatment options?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

Causes

Mutation

Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Mutation

A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can result from DNA copying mistakes made during cell division, exposure to ionizing radiation, exposure to chemicals called mutagens, or infection by viruses.

Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

What Causes Coats Disease?

NDP gene may lead to isolated cases of Coats disease. However, this has not been proven.

Coats disease has been reported as one feature of several genetic syndromes. In these cases, the underlying cause of each syndrome may be responsible for Coats disease. When Coats disease occurs with additional abnormalities that affect the brain, bones, gastrointestinal system, and other parts of the body, it is called Coats plus syndrome and is caused by mutations in the CTC1 gene.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

NDP Gene

Ideogram of human chromosome X

Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Ideogram of human chromosome X

Selected genes, traits, and disorders associated with the chromosome listed; (blue and violet) regions reflecting the unique patterns of light and dark bands seen on human chromosomes stained to allow viewing through a light microscope; (red) the centromere, or constricted portion, of each chromosome; (yellow) chromosomal regions that vary in staining intensity and sometimes are called hererochromatin (meaning “different color”); (lines between yellow) variable regions, called stalks, that connect a very small chromosome arm (a “satellite”) to the chromosome.

Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

NDP Gene: Norrin Cystine Knot Growth Factor NDP

Normal Function

The NDP gene provides instructions for making a protein called norrin. Norrin participates in chemical signaling pathways that affect the way cells and tissues develop. Studies suggest that norrin may play a role in Wnt signaling, which is important for cell division (proliferation), attachment of cells to one another (adhesion), cell movement (migration), and many other cellular activities.

Norrin is one of many proteins, or ligands, that can attach (bind) to other proteins called frizzled receptors. These receptors are embedded in the outer membranes of cells. Norrin binds with the receptor frizzled-4 (produced from the FZD4 gene), fitting together like a key in a lock. When a ligand binds to a frizzled receptor, it initiates a multi-step process that regulates the activity of certain genes.

The norrin protein and its receptor frizzled-4 participate in developmental processes that are believed to be crucial for normal development of the eye and other body systems. In particular, norrin seems to play critical roles in the specialization of cells in the retina (the thin layer at the back of the eye that senses light and color) and the establishment of a blood supply to the retina and the inner ear.

Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes

Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy

Several NDP gene mutations have been found to cause the eye disorder familial exudative vitreoretinopathy. These mutations change single protein building blocks (amino acids) in the norrin protein, altering the normal folding of norrin or preventing it from binding to frizzled-4. The defective norrin disrupts chemical signaling in the developing eye, which interferes with the formation of blood vessels at the edges of the retina. The resulting abnormal blood supply to this tissue leads to retinal damage and vision loss in some people with familial exudative vitreoretinopathy.

Norrie disease

More than 115 mutations in the NDP gene have been identified in people with Norrie disease. Norrie disease is an inherited eye disorder that leads to blindness in male infants at birth or soon after birth. NDP gene mutations that cause this condition affect the ability of the norrin protein to bind with frizzled-4, interfering with the specialization of retinal cells for their unique sensory function. As a result, masses of immature retinal cells accumulate in the back of the eyes. Disruption of norrin's role in the establishment of blood vessels supplying the eye eventually causes some of the tissues to break down.

Norrin is also expressed in other systems of the body, and the effects of the disorder can be widespread, including intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and delayed development. Specific abnormalities and their severity depend on the type and location of the NDP gene mutation. Mutations that delete portions of the NDP gene prevent production of norrin and result in severe problems affecting many body systems in addition to the eyes. Mutations that delete or change single amino acids usually result in less widespread effects.

Other retinal dystrophies

NDP gene mutations may cause other disorders that affect the retina. One mutation is associated with a disorder called Coats disease. This disorder causes leakage of blood vessels in the retina and retinal detachment, a condition in which layers of the retina separate, resulting in vision loss. Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV) is another retinal disorder that may be caused by NDP gene mutations. In persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous, a remnant of a blood vessel found in the eye before birth remains as a fibrous white stalk between the back of the eye and the lens. Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous can cause vision loss through retinal detachment, cloudiness of the lens (cataract), or increased pressure inside the eye (glaucoma) that can damage the optic nerve.

In addition, NDP gene mutations may influence the course of a retinal disorder that affects some premature infants. Retinopathy of prematurity is a condition in which abnormal blood vessels appear in the retina and can cause retinal detachment. Babies with retinopathy of prematurity may experience improvement of the condition over time, but some NDP gene mutations have been associated with a worsening of the condition.

Other Names for This Gene

ND
NDP_HUMAN
Norrie disease (pseudoglioma)
norrin

Genomic Location

The NDP gene is found on the X chromosome.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Inheritance

Baby and chromosomes - Inheritance

Image by TheVisualMD

Baby and chromosomes - Inheritance

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Coats Disease Inherited?

Isolated Coats disease is not an inherited condition. Rarely, Coats disease can be a feature of an underlying, inherited genetic syndrome. For example, it is a key feature of a condition called Coats plus syndrome, which is characterized by Coats disease plus abnormalities of the brain, bones, gastrointestinal system, and other parts of the body. Coats plus syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (1)

Gary's Coats' Disease Story

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

2:48

Gary's Coats' Disease Story

CoatsDisease/YouTube

Symptoms

A young child with the yellow eye of coats' disease - still in an early stage. Only visible with a flash camera.

Image by Peter Puype

A young child with the yellow eye of coats' disease - still in an early stage. Only visible with a flash camera.

A young child with the yellow eye of coats' disease - still in an early stage. Only visible with a flash camera.

Image by Peter Puype

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Coats Disease?

Early signs and symptoms may include loss of vision, misalignment of the eyes (strabismus), and/or the development of a white mass in the pupil behind the lens of the eye (leukocoria). As the disease progresses, affected people may develop glaucoma, cataracts, reddish discoloration in the iris (rubeosis iridis or neovascular glaucoma), shrinking of the affected eyeball (phthisis bulbi), and/or swelling and irritation of the middle layer of the eye (uveitis). Over time, Coats disease may cause detachment of the retina and substantial loss of vision.

When Coats disease occurs with additional abnormalities that affect the brain, bones, gastrointestinal system, and other parts of the body, it is called Coats plus syndrome.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (3)

Know the Glow

Video by Children's Hospital Los Angeles/YouTube

Coat's Disease

Video by Remagin/YouTube

Can Coats Disease affect the brain in any way?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

6:58

Know the Glow

Children's Hospital Los Angeles/YouTube

2:53

Coat's Disease

Remagin/YouTube

0:31

Can Coats Disease affect the brain in any way?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

Diagnosis

Coats' disease

Image by Fernandes BF et al.

Coats' disease

Computed Tomography. Total exsudative retinal detachment in the right eye.

Image by Fernandes BF et al.

How Is Coats Disease Diagnosed?

A diagnosis of Coats disease is often suspected based on the presence of signs and symptoms, and findings on a thorough eye examination. Specialized tests to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other conditions may include retinal fluorescein angiography, diagnostic echography, and in some cases, a CT scan of the orbits, and/or MRI.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (1)

Differentiating Coats Disease from Retinoblastoma

Video by Eye Cancer Heroes/YouTube

7:48

Differentiating Coats Disease from Retinoblastoma

Eye Cancer Heroes/YouTube

Fluorescein Angiography

Fluorescein Angiography

Also called: Fluorescein Eye Angiogram, Fundus Fluorescence Photography

Fluorescein eye angiography is a diagnostic procedure that uses orange fluorescent dye (fluorescein) and a special camera to look at blood vessels and the flow of blood inside the eye. The test is particularly useful in the management of diabetic retinopathy and macular degeneration.

Fluorescein Angiography

Also called: Fluorescein Eye Angiogram, Fundus Fluorescence Photography

Fluorescein eye angiography is a diagnostic procedure that uses orange fluorescent dye (fluorescein) and a special camera to look at blood vessels and the flow of blood inside the eye. The test is particularly useful in the management of diabetic retinopathy and macular degeneration.

{"label":"Fluorescein Angiography Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result means the vessels appear a normal size, there are no new abnormal vessels, and there are no blockages or leakages.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If blockage or leakage is present, the pictures will map the location for possible treatment.","conditions":["Blood flow (circulatory) problems, such as blockage of the arteries or veins","Cancer","Diabetic or other retinopathy","High blood pressure","Inflammation or edema","Macular degeneration","Microaneurysms -- enlargement of capillaries in the retina","Tumors","Swelling of the optic disc"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means the vessels appear a normal size, there are no new abnormal vessels, and there are no blockages or leakages.
Related conditions
A fluorescein eye angiography is a test that helps the doctor diagnosis or monitor problems with your eye.
The test involves taking pictures of the blood vessels in your eye with the help of a special dye. This dye is called contrast. Contrast helps the blood vessels show up better in the pictures. The test lets your doctor see the blood vessels in your eye and how blood flows to two parts of your eyes:
- The choroid (the middle layer of the eye).
- The retina (the back of the eye).
The test usually takes about 2 hours.
- The nurse or technician will put drops in your eyes to dilate (enlarge) your pupils.
- The nurse will insert an IV (intravenous) catheter (small tube) into a vein in your arm.
- You may feel some pain when the catheter is inserted.
- The nurse will inject contrast into the IV catheter. The contrast travels up to your eye within a few seconds and “lights up” the blood vessels for the camera.
- You may feel some pain if any contrast leaks out of the catheter and into your vein.
- The camera technician will take several pictures as the contrast passes through the blood vessels of your eye.
- After the test is done, the nurse will remove the IV catheter.
Drink plenty of water and other fluids for 36 hours after the test to flush the contrast out of your body. You can resume your normal activities once the test is done.
- You may eat and drink fluids before the test unless your doctor tells you not to.
- If you wear contacts, take them out before the test.
- Make a plan have someone drive you home after. Your vision may be blurred for about 12 hours after the test so you may not be able to drive.
Let your doctor know if you:
- Might be pregnant or are pregnant or breastfeeding.
- Have ever had a bad reaction to contrast.
- Have an allergy to iodine, penicillin, or sulfa drugs.
- Feel dizzy or lightheaded when you get blood drawn.
It’s normal to have:
- Some pain when the catheter is inserted.
- Burning where the catheter is inserted.
- Mild nausea.
- Vomiting.
- A feeling of warmth.
- A headache.
- A metallic taste after the contrast is injected.
- A yellow color to the skin for about 12 hours after the test.
- A bright yellow color to the urine for up to 36 hours after the test.
Call the doctor or nurse if:
- You itch or have hives.
- You start sneezing.
- Your heart feels like it’s beating fast or racing.
- Your face or hands begin to swell.
- You feel lightheaded or dizzy.
- You notice these changes where the catheter was:
  Pain.
  Redness.
1. https://cc.nih.gov/ccc/patient_education/pepubs/fluorescein.pdf [accessed on Dec 12, 2018]
2. Fluorescein Angiogram | National Eye Institute [accessed on Dec 12, 2018]
3. Fluorescein angiography: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 12, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Fluorescein angiography

Fluorescein retinography of a 33 years old patient (right eye), showing the optical disc at the inferior right quadrant and the macula lutea at the inferior left quadrant (darker spot). No anomalies detected.

Image by Mekhahertz

Choroid folds in high hypermetropia (fluorescein angiography)

Choroid folds in high hypermetropia (fluorescein angiography)

Image by Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf

diabetic retinopathy (fluorescein angiography)

Emptied retinal venules due to arterial branch occlusion in diabetic retinopathy (fluorescein angiography)

Image by Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf

Epiretinal Membrane using fluorescein angiography

Epiretinal Membrane using fluorescein angiography

Image by basherkit

American Academy of Ophthalmology-Fluorescein Angiography

Video by retina/YouTube

Can Screens Damage Your Eyes?

Video by SciShow/YouTube

Fluorescein Angiography

Video by Bigsease30/YouTube

Real-Time Fluorescein Angiography

Video by JAMA Network/YouTube

Central retinal vein occlusion

Comparison of foveal avascular zone between optical coherence tomography angiography and fluorescein angiography in patients with retinal vein occlusion.

Image by Werner JU, Böhm F, Lang GE, Dreyhaupt J, Lang GK, Enders C

retinal vein occlusion

Comparison of foveal avascular zone between optical coherence tomography angiography and fluorescein angiography in patients with retinal vein occlusion.

Image by Werner JU, Böhm F, Lang GE, Dreyhaupt J, Lang GK, Enders C

Dendritic corneal ulcer after fluorescein staining

Dendritic corneal ulcer after fluorescein staining

Image by Imrankabirhossain

Keratitis

Dendritic corneal ulcer after fluorescein staining under cobalt blue illumination

Image by Imrankabirhossain

The eye uses many layers of nerve cells to convert light into sight

This image captures the many layers of nerve cells in the retina. The top layer (green) is made up of cells called photoreceptors that convert light into electrical signals to relay to the brain. The two best-known types of photoreceptor cells are rod- and cone-shaped. Rods help us see under low-light conditions but can't help us distinguish colors. Cones don't function well in the dark but allow us to see vibrant colors in daylight. This image is part of the Life: Magnified collection, which was displayed in the Gateway Gallery at Washington Dulles International Airport June 3, 2014, to January 21, 2015. To see all 46 images in this exhibit, go to https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/life-magnified/Pages/default.aspx.

Image by Wei Li, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

diagnosis of Stargardt's disease

Optical coherence tomography is used for diagnosis of Stargardt's disease.

Image by medOCT-group, Dept of Med. Physics, Med. Univ. Vienna

Retina close-up

A picture of a patient’s retina is displayed at the optometry clinic March 11, 2016, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. The clinic is the only one in Montana that has a retinal imagining device called an Optos, used to look at the retina without diluting it. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Retinal mapping of the eye

Patients can watch the retinal mapping of their eye as the image slowly rotates, giving a 200-degree view immediately after scanning with the new ophthalmoscope.

Image by Air Force photo by Margo Wright

Chloroquine retinopathy

Chloroquine retinopathy in the left eye of a 55-year-old woman who had taken chloroquine for rheumatoid arthritis for more than 4 years, with an estimated total dose of 365 gr (250 mg daily). She first presented with a history of gradually decreasing visual acuity without any other symptoms approximately two years earlier. The latest examination revealed that her visual acuity was 30/200 right eye and 60/200 left eye. Left image shows typical bull's eye sign and right image is the fluorescien angiogram of the same eye showing increased fluorescence in the macular area and round-shaped blocked fluorescence in the central fovea.

Image by Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Optical coherence tomography

The healthy optic disc (optic nerve head) of a 24 year old male (cross-section view). This image is released to Wikimedia with patient consent. Imaged in-vivo with an Optovue iVue Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomographer (SD-OCT) at the office of Drs. Harry Wiessner, Steven Davis, Daniel Wiessner, and Eric Wiessner in Walla Walla, WA, USA.

Image by Wies6014/Wikimedia

Fluorescein Angiography

Fluorescein Angiography

Image by Litev / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%94%D0%A0-%D0%9C%D0%9B%D0%A6.JPG

Fluorescein Angiography

Fluorescein Angiography

Image by Litev / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%94%D0%A0-%D0%9D%D0%92%D0%95.JPG

Fluorescein angiography

Mekhahertz

Choroid folds in high hypermetropia (fluorescein angiography)

Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf

diabetic retinopathy (fluorescein angiography)

Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf

Epiretinal Membrane using fluorescein angiography

basherkit

7:45

American Academy of Ophthalmology-Fluorescein Angiography

retina/YouTube

3:45

Can Screens Damage Your Eyes?

SciShow/YouTube

1:44

Fluorescein Angiography

Bigsease30/YouTube

1:40

Real-Time Fluorescein Angiography

JAMA Network/YouTube

Central retinal vein occlusion

Werner JU, Böhm F, Lang GE, Dreyhaupt J, Lang GK, Enders C

retinal vein occlusion

Werner JU, Böhm F, Lang GE, Dreyhaupt J, Lang GK, Enders C

Dendritic corneal ulcer after fluorescein staining

Imrankabirhossain

Keratitis

Imrankabirhossain

The eye uses many layers of nerve cells to convert light into sight

Wei Li, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

diagnosis of Stargardt's disease

medOCT-group, Dept of Med. Physics, Med. Univ. Vienna

Retina close-up

U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Retinal mapping of the eye

Air Force photo by Margo Wright

Chloroquine retinopathy

Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Optical coherence tomography

Wies6014/Wikimedia

Fluorescein Angiography

Litev / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9D%D0%94%D0%A0-%D0%9C%D0%9B%D0%A6.JPG

Fluorescein Angiography

Litev / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%94%D0%A0-%D0%9D%D0%92%D0%95.JPG

Eye Examinations

Eye Examinations

Also called: Eye Exams, Routine Eye Examination, Standard Ophthalmic Exam, Vision Tests

A standard eye exam is a series of tests done to check your vision and the health of your eyes. Key elements of an eye examination include dilation, tonometry, visual field test and a visual acuity test.

Eye Examinations

Also called: Eye Exams, Routine Eye Examination, Standard Ophthalmic Exam, Vision Tests

A standard eye exam is a series of tests done to check your vision and the health of your eyes. Key elements of an eye examination include dilation, tonometry, visual field test and a visual acuity test.

Eye examinations tend to follow a certain pattern: After talking with your doctor about the type and severity of your symptoms, both eyes will usually be tested to measure the visual acuity (sharpness of sight). Then the doctor will look at your eyes from the outside, take a closer look at them using a slit lamp, and measure the intraocular pressure (the pressure inside the eyeball). Eye drops are given before some tests to dilate (enlarge) the pupil of the eye for a certain amount of time. This makes it easier for the doctor to see the back of the eye. Depending on the symptoms and any other medical conditions you may have, the eye examination might be carried out differently and additional tests might be done.
Structure of the eye
1. Standard eye exam: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]

Additional Materials (41)

Sclera (White of the Eye)

Human eye revealing sclera

Image by agnesliinnea

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

The prognosis for individuals with TSC is highly variable and depends on the severity of symptoms. Those individuals with mild symptoms usually do well and have a normal life expectancy, while paying attention to TSC-specific issues. Individuals who are severely affected can suffer from severe mental retardation and persistent epilepsy.

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Eye diagram — side view

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Pupil Response

Dilated and Undilated Pupil - Portions of the retina that can be seen through an undilated versus a dilated pupil.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Low Vision

What is Low Vision Infographic. Information on low vision: causes, numbers, what we can do, and vision rehabilitation.

Image by National Eye Institute

Human Eye

Anatomy of the human eye with corneal cross-section

Image by National Eye Institute

Dilated Pupil

My friend had a scratch down her eye and had to have it dilated at hospital for three days with drops.

Image by Sophie Riches

Eye Drops

Eye drops ophthalmology service Hospital Douala Cameroun

Image by Happi Raphael/Wikimedia

Retinography

Self made ophtalmogram of the retina of the right eye. It shows the optic disc as a bright area on the right (nasal side) where blood vessels converge. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula. The grey, more diffuse spot in the centre is a shadow artifact.

Image by Ske.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration Projected Statistics

Image by National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

Capt. Luanne Danes uses a light to check the anterior segment of Master Sgt. Timothy Vanderhoff's eye during his visit to the Optometry Clinic Nov. 19, 2009, Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. Captain Danes is looking for healthy structure of the eye and ensuring no corneal disease is present. Captain Danes, officer in charge of Optometry, is assigned to the 354th Medical Operation Squadron. Sergeant Vanderhoff, crew chief, is assigned to the 168th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

U.S. Navy Lt. Patricia Salazar examines a patient's eyes at a Continuing Promise medical clinic set up by staff assigned to the hospital ship USNS Comfort in Paita, Peru

Image by Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Eye Examination

Eye Examination

Image by 12019

Infant Eye cross section

Cross-section of the healthy eye of an infant, showing a retina that is in perfect condition, having never been exposed to smoke-borne toxins that would compromise circulation and result in retinal damage. Image supports content showing the health benefits of smoke cessation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cornea

Cornea - transparent covering over the eye

Image by www.keratomania.com Eye diagram by Chabacano via Wikimedia Commons

anatomy of the human eye, iris, cornea, pupil

Image by skeeze

Animation: Dilated Eye Exam

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Iris (anatomy)

Image by Shanon

Pupil

Dilated and Undilated Pupil - Portions of the retina that can be seen through an undilated versus a dilated pupil.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

How is glaucoma detected?

The PASCAL Dynamic Contour Tonometer

Image by Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Optical Coherence Tomography

A detailed cross-sectional image of the back of the eye is obtained using an optical coherence tomography (OCT).

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

Image by CDC

Dry Eye

Diffuse lissamine green staining in a person with severe dry eye.

Image by Jesse Vislisel, MD and Brice Critser, CRA

Tear Production

Cornea - Structures involved in tear production.

Image by National Eye Institute

Eyeglasses on display

Eyeglasses are displayed at the optometry clinic March 11, 2016, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. The clinic hosts an internship program open to students including primary care, ocular disease and two specialty clinics, lasting two months each. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Image by OpenStax

Eye movements elevators

Eye movements elevators

Image by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist

Treating Amblyopia

In addition to patching the eye, one hour of “near” work, or close-up work, such as coloring, is part of the treatment for amblyopia.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

This image shows deposits of cholesterol on the back of an eye affected by Coats’ Disease. The rare, congenital disease, only found in about one in 100,000 people, is caused by abnormal blood vessel development behind the retina. The affected blood vessels leak blood content into the eye leading to partial or complete retinal detachment if not treated. (Courtesy photo)

Image by Courtesy photo

Checking an elderly patient's eyes

U.S. Air Force Capt. Eric Noll, an optometrist with the 354th Medical Group, Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, checks a patient’s eyesight at Tata Primary and Secondary School during Pacific Angel 18-3 in Luganville, Espiritu Santo Island, Vanuatu, July 16, 2018. The optometry team handed out 228 pairs of eye glasses and 534 pairs of sunglasses during the first two days of the clinic. Now entering its eleventh year Operation PAC ANGEL ensures that the region’s militaries are prepared to work together to address humanitarian crises. (U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker

Eye Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Brett Ringger, an optometrist from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, tests a patient’s vision at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air National Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Lee County High School in Beattyville, Ky., June 23, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by Photo by: Lt. Col. Dale Greer | VIRIN: 180623-Z-VT419-0083.JPG; www.airforcemedicine.af.mil

Vision Test

U.S. Air Force Maj. Brett Ringger, an optometrist from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, tests a patient’s vision at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air National Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Lee County High School in Beattyville, Ky., June 23, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Vision Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Robert Groves, an optometrist from the New Hampshire Air National Guard’s 157th Air Refueling Wing, conducts a vision exam at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eyeglasses selection

U.S. Air Force Master Sgt. Julie Brown (left), a medic from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, helps Lindsey Howard of Richmond, Ky., select frames for a new pair of eyeglasses at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eye Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Robert Groves, an optometrist from the New Hampshire Air National Guard’s 157th Air Refueling Wing, examines a patient’s eyes at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Optometry

U.S. Air Force Senior Airman Dane Mendelsohn, a medic from the Kentucky Air National Guard’s 123rd Airlift Wing, screens an optometry patient at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Breathitt County High School in Jackson, Ky., June 20, 2018. The Jackson clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Visual Test

Visual Test - Comprehensive Eye exam

Image by Paul Diaconu

Slit Lamp test

Slit Lamp test - Comprehensive Eye exam

Image by Paul Diaconu

Presbyopia

Presbyopia - Visual Test

Image by Tumisu

Eye Exam

Eye Exam

Image by David Mark

Sclera (White of the Eye)

agnesliinnea

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Eye diagram — side view

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Pupil Response

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Low Vision

National Eye Institute

Human Eye

National Eye Institute

Dilated Pupil

Sophie Riches

Eye Drops

Happi Raphael/Wikimedia

Retinography

Ske.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Eye Examination

12019

Infant Eye cross section

TheVisualMD

Cornea

www.keratomania.com Eye diagram by Chabacano via Wikimedia Commons

anatomy of the human eye, iris, cornea, pupil

skeeze

3:24

Animation: Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Iris (anatomy)

Shanon

Pupil

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

How is glaucoma detected?

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Optical Coherence Tomography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

CDC

Dry Eye

Jesse Vislisel, MD and Brice Critser, CRA

Tear Production

National Eye Institute

Eyeglasses on display

U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

OpenStax

Eye movements elevators

Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist

Treating Amblyopia

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

Courtesy photo

Checking an elderly patient's eyes

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker

Eye Exam

Photo by: Lt. Col. Dale Greer | VIRIN: 180623-Z-VT419-0083.JPG; www.airforcemedicine.af.mil

Vision Test

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Vision Exam

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eyeglasses selection

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eye Exam

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Optometry

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Visual Test

Paul Diaconu

Slit Lamp test

Paul Diaconu

Presbyopia

Tumisu

Eye Exam

David Mark

Visual Acuity Test

Visual Acuity Test

Also called: Snellen Test

A visual acuity test is an eye exam that checks the smallest letters you can read on a standardized chart (Snellen chart) or a card held 20 feet (6 meters) away. Visual acuity refers to your ability to recognize the shapes and details of the things you see.

Visual Acuity Test

Also called: Snellen Test

A visual acuity test is an eye exam that checks the smallest letters you can read on a standardized chart (Snellen chart) or a card held 20 feet (6 meters) away. Visual acuity refers to your ability to recognize the shapes and details of the things you see.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
0.02
0.04
0.125
0.32
0.8
Your result is Normal Vision.
US: 20/25 to 20/12 (Metric: 6/7.5 to 6/4)
Visual acuity is expressed as a decimal or a fraction. 1 = US 20/20 or metric 6/6 is considered optimal vision.
The top number refers to the distance you stand from the chart. This is often 20 feet (6 meters).
The bottom number indicates the distance at which a person with normal eyesight could read the same line you correctly read.
Related conditions
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0027947/ [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
2. Visual acuity test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
3. http://www.icoph.org/downloads/visualstandardsreport.pdf [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
4. Visual acuity - Wikipedia [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
5. Visual Acuity: What is 20/20 Vision? [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
6. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/el/isd/ks/Visual_Acuity_Standards_1.pdf [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Snellen Eye Chart vs Prescription Glasses

Getting things in focus.

Image by David Travis/Unsplash

The Snellen Chart

The Snellen chart for visual acuity presents a limited number of Roman letters in lines of decreasing size. The line with letters that subtend 5 minutes of an arc from 20 feet represents the smallest letters that a person with normal acuity should be able to read at that distance. The different sizes of letters in the other lines represent rough approximations of what a person of normal acuity can read at different distances. For example, the line that represents 20/200 vision would have larger letters so that they are legible to the person with normal acuity at 200 feet.

Image by CNX Openstax

Saccadic Eye Movements

Saccades are rapid, conjugate movements of the eyes to survey a complicated visual stimulus, or to follow a moving visual stimulus. This image represents the shifts in gaze typical of a person studying a face. Notice the concentration of gaze on the major features of the face and the large number of paths traced between the eyes or around the mouth.

Image by CNX Openstax

Pituitary Tumor

The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone within the cranial floor, placing it immediately inferior to the optic chiasm. If the pituitary gland develops a tumor, it can press against the fibers crossing in the chiasm. Those fibers are conveying peripheral visual information to the opposite side of the brain, so the patient will experience “tunnel vision”—meaning that only the central visual field will be perceived.

Image by CNX Openstax

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

If the head is turned in one direction, the coordination of that movement with the fixation of the eyes on a visual stimulus involves a circuit that ties the vestibular sense with the eye movement nuclei through the MLF.

Image by CNX Openstax

Muscles Controlled by the Accessory Nerve

The accessory nerve innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, both of which attach to the head and to the trunk and shoulders. They can act as antagonists in head flexion and extension, and as synergists in lateral flexion toward the shoulder.

Image by CNX Openstax

Human Eye

Detailed Illustration of the cross section of the Human Eye - 1:posterior segment of eyeball 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:canal of Schlemm 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscle 15:inferior rectus muscle 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and veins 18:optic disc19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina

Image by Chabacano

Dilated fundus examination

Diagram of the Eye Before and After Dilated Eye Exam

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Macular

Cross-sectional view in grayscale of right human eye

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

What is Presbyopia?

Image by National Eye Institute, NIH

Age Related Macular degeneration - What are some low vision devices?

A scene as it might be viewed by a person with age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

The Visual System: How Your Eyes Work

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Your Baby - Visual Development - Birth to One Month

Video by movementlesson/YouTube

Bionic Eye Cures Blindness

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Vision Simulation

Video by Light12434/YouTube

What is Vision Impairment? - Vision Awareness Training Part One

Video by ouhnhs/YouTube

Low Vision

Video by EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

Structure and working of Human Eye

Video by Enliveeducation/YouTube

Visual Acuity Test with Snellen Eye Chart Exam | Cranial Nerve 2 Assessment Nursing

Video by RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

How to Check Your Patient's Visual Acuity

Video by dkcalgary/YouTube

Visual Acuity in 5 min

Video by Nick Smith/YouTube

Testing Your Visual Acuity

Video by University of Rochester/YouTube

Part 2: Visual Acuity Exam

Video by ALiEM Educational Videos/YouTube

Visual Acuity - OPHTHALMOLOGY - Ep 4

Video by UBC Medicine - Educational Media/YouTube

Snellen Eye Chart vs Prescription Glasses

David Travis/Unsplash

The Snellen Chart

CNX Openstax

Saccadic Eye Movements

CNX Openstax

Pituitary Tumor

CNX Openstax

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Muscles Controlled by the Accessory Nerve

CNX Openstax

Human Eye

Chabacano

Dilated fundus examination

National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Macular

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

What is Presbyopia?

National Eye Institute, NIH

Age Related Macular degeneration - What are some low vision devices?

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

2:20

The Visual System: How Your Eyes Work

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

5:40

Your Baby - Visual Development - Birth to One Month

movementlesson/YouTube

3:13

Bionic Eye Cures Blindness

Seeker/YouTube

2:04

Vision Simulation

Light12434/YouTube

11:26

What is Vision Impairment? - Vision Awareness Training Part One

ouhnhs/YouTube

4:11

Low Vision

EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

5:16

Structure and working of Human Eye

Enliveeducation/YouTube

2:09

Visual Acuity Test with Snellen Eye Chart Exam | Cranial Nerve 2 Assessment Nursing

RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

12:25

How to Check Your Patient's Visual Acuity

dkcalgary/YouTube

4:58

Visual Acuity in 5 min

Nick Smith/YouTube

2:17

Testing Your Visual Acuity

University of Rochester/YouTube

2:53

Part 2: Visual Acuity Exam

ALiEM Educational Videos/YouTube

2:14

Visual Acuity - OPHTHALMOLOGY - Ep 4

UBC Medicine - Educational Media/YouTube

Visual Field Test

Visual Field Test

Also called: Perimetry, Tangent screen exam, Automated perimetry exam, Goldmann visual field exam, Humphrey visual field exam

A visual field test is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumors or other neurological deficits.

Visual Field Test

Also called: Perimetry, Tangent screen exam, Automated perimetry exam, Goldmann visual field exam, Humphrey visual field exam

A visual field test is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumors or other neurological deficits.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The peripheral vision is normal.
Related conditions
1. Visual field: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Visual field test - Wikipedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. Visual Field Testing for Glaucoma and Other Eye Problems [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (28)

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

This image shows an eye fundus viewed through a retinal camera, with signs of macular degeneration

Image by Tmhlee

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinal Disparity

Because of the interocular distance, which results in objects of different distances falling on different spots of the two retinae, the brain can extract depth perception from the two-dimensional information of the visual field.

Image by CNX Openstax

Advanced age-related macular degeneration

A fundus photo showing advanced age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

A fundus photo showing.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Perimetry, a visual field test

Image by Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG)

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

A medical illustration depicting macular degeneration.

Image by BruceBlaus

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration Projected Statistics

Image by National Eye Institute

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Age-Related Macular Degeneration information at-a-glance.

Image by NEHEP

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration

Image by Ralf Roletschek

Human Head Showing Visual Pathway

3D visualization of the visual pathway based on scanned human data. Electrical nerve impulses travel from the eyes to the occipital lobe in the back of the brain via millions of nerves that make up the \"visual pathway.\" The white matter of the brain is made up of millions of nerve extensions (axons) which connect nerve fibers to other nerve fibers, target tissues or organs. In this illustration, bundles of axons in the white matter (colored blue and red) are seen radiating from the eyes to the visual centers of the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Topographic Mapping of the Retina onto the Visual Cortex

The visual field projects onto the retina through the lenses and falls on the retinae as an inverted, reversed image. The topography of this image is maintained as the visual information travels through the visual pathway to the cortex.

Image by CNX Openstax

Ventral and Dorsal Visual Streams

From the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe, visual processing continues in two streams—one into the temporal lobe and one into the parietal lobe.

Image by CNX Openstax

Brain Revealing Visual Pathway

3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of a superior view of the brain revealing the visual pathway and superior sagittal sinus. Electrical nerve impulses travel from the eyes to the occipital lobe in the back of the brain via millions of nerves fibers that make up the \"visual pathway\".

Image by TheVisualMD

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

Image by Eric Wiessner

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Muscle and Nerve of Human Eye

3D visualization of the nerves associated with the human eye. Several different nerve types serve the special functions of the structures associated with sight. The optic nerves are paired bundles of fibers that send visual signals from the retina to the brain. The oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerves control voluntary movements of the eye muscles and eyelids in addition to controlling pupil dilation and lens focusing.

Image by TheVisualMD

Macula of Retina

Instead of getting those crazy eye drops to dilate your eyes so the doctor can look at your retina, they just take a high-resolution digital picture. Much faster and easier. And they keep them on record so they can compare photos from year to year and better diagnose potential problems. The bright spot in the middle is the optic nerve (the blind spot); the darker spot next to the optic nerve is the macula, a small crater in the retina with a higher density of rods and cones, making it the best seeing portion of the eye.

Image by derivative work: Chmee2 (talk) Left_Retina.jpg: Hey Paul

Retina

This image schematically represents optic pathways from each of the 4 quadrants of view for both eyes simultaneously.

Image by Original uploader was Ratznium at en.wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

Connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves controlling eye movement keep the eyes centered on a visual stimulus, even though the head is moving. During head movement, the eye muscles move the eyes in the opposite direction as the head movement, keeping the visual stimulus centered in the field of view.

Image by CNX Openstax

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from human data. Anteriolateral view of a partially sectioned eye, as well as associated eye muscles. As well as being protected by the bony orbital cavity of the skull, the eyeball is anchored in place by several thin strap muscles that attach to virtually every one of its sides except the front. These muscles tug in concert, allowing the eye to move in any direction to track objects. The clear cornea covers and protects the front exterior of the eye while the colored iris dilates and constricts to insure the proper amount of light is striking the back of the eye. The lens contorts to focus the incoming light back to the retina, which covers roughly the entire back half of the eye. Special cells embedded within the retina are responsible for the sensation of light: the cones, for color perception, and rods, for black and white perception. Electrical nerve impulses are channeled into the optic nerve at the back of the eye to the visual cortex in the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Eye

Detailed Illustration of the Anatomy of the Human Eye

Image by A Hoofring ncbi/nlm/nih

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

If the head is turned in one direction, the coordination of that movement with the fixation of the eyes on a visual stimulus involves a circuit that ties the vestibular sense with the eye movement nuclei through the MLF.

Image by CNX Openstax

Visual Neural Pathways and Visual Field Defects

Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

Visual field processing | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

How to Take a Visual Field Examination? - Sheryl S. Wizov, COA

Video by WillsEye GlaucomaApp/YouTube

Visual Pathway and Lesions

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

What is Glaucoma? Explained using Animation.

Video by Devin Prabhakar/YouTube

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

Tmhlee

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinal Disparity

CNX Openstax

Advanced age-related macular degeneration

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Perimetry, a visual field test

Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG)

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

BruceBlaus

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

NEHEP

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Ralf Roletschek

Human Head Showing Visual Pathway

TheVisualMD

Topographic Mapping of the Retina onto the Visual Cortex

CNX Openstax

Ventral and Dorsal Visual Streams

CNX Openstax

Brain Revealing Visual Pathway

TheVisualMD

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

Eric Wiessner

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Muscle and Nerve of Human Eye

TheVisualMD

Macula of Retina

derivative work: Chmee2 (talk) Left_Retina.jpg: Hey Paul

Retina

Original uploader was Ratznium at en.wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

TheVisualMD

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

TheVisualMD

Human Eye

A Hoofring ncbi/nlm/nih

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

5:29

Visual Neural Pathways and Visual Field Defects

PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

4:10

Visual field processing | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

4:00

How to Take a Visual Field Examination? - Sheryl S. Wizov, COA

WillsEye GlaucomaApp/YouTube

6:12

Visual Pathway and Lesions

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

1:10

What is Glaucoma? Explained using Animation.

Devin Prabhakar/YouTube

Color Vision Testing

Color Vision Testing

Also called: Color Blindness Test, Color Perception Test, Ishihara Color Test

Eye care professionals use a variety of tests to diagnose color blindness. These tests can quickly diagnose specific types of color blindness. People with color blindness aren’t aware of differences among colors that are obvious to the rest of us.

Color Vision Testing

Also called: Color Blindness Test, Color Perception Test, Ishihara Color Test

Eye care professionals use a variety of tests to diagnose color blindness. These tests can quickly diagnose specific types of color blindness. People with color blindness aren’t aware of differences among colors that are obvious to the rest of us.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
You should be able to distinguish between all colors.
Related conditions
The most common types of color blindness are inherited. They are the result of defects in the genes that contain the instructions for making the photopigments found in cones. Some defects alter the photopigment’s sensitivity to color, for example, it might be slightly more sensitive to deeper red and less sensitive to green. Other defects can result in the total loss of a photopigment. Depending on the type of defect and the cone that is affected problems can arise with red, green, or blue color vision.
Red-green color blindness
The most common types of hereditary color blindness are due to the loss or limited function of red cone (known as protan) or green cone (deutran) photopigments. This kind of color blindness is commonly referred to as red-green color blindness.
- Protanomaly: In males with protanomaly, the red cone photopigment is abnormal. Red, orange, and yellow appear greener and colors are not as bright. This condition is mild and doesn’t usually interfere with daily living. Protanomaly is an X-linked disorder estimated to affect 1 percent of males.
- Protanopia: In males with protanopia, there are no working red cone cells. Red appears as black. Certain shades of orange, yellow, and green all appear as yellow. Protanopia is an X-linked disorder that is estimated to affect 1 percent of males.
- Deuteranomaly: In males with deuteranomaly, the green cone photopigment is abnormal. Yellow and green appear redder and it is difficult to tell violet from blue. This condition is mild and doesn’t interfere with daily living. Deuteranomaly is the most common form of color blindness and is an X-linked disorder affecting 5 percent of males.
- Deuteranopia: In males with deuteranopia, there are no working green cone cells. They tend to see reds as brownish-yellow and greens as beige. Deuteranopia is an X-linked disorder that affects about 1 percent of males.
Blue-yellow color blindness
Blue-yellow color blindness is rarer than red-green color blindness. Blue-cone (tritan) photopigments are either missing or have limited function.
- Tritanomaly: People with tritanomaly have functionally limited blue cone cells. Blue appears greener and it can be difficult to tell yellow and red from pink. Tritanomaly is extremely rare. It is an autosomal dominant disorder affecting males and females equally.
- Tritanopia: People with tritanopia, also known as blue-yellow color blindness, lack blue cone cells. Blue appears green and yellow appears violet or light grey. Tritanopia is an extremely rare autosomal recessive disorder affecting males and females equally.
Complete color blindness
People with complete color blindness (monochromacy) don’t experience color at all and the clearness of their vision (visual acuity) may also be affected.
There are two types of monochromacy:
- Cone monochromacy: This rare form of color blindness results from a failure of two of the three cone cell photopigments to work. There is red cone monochromacy, green cone monochromacy, and blue cone monochromacy. People with cone monochromacy have trouble distinguishing colors because the brain needs to compare the signals from different types of cones in order to see color. When only one type of cone works, this comparison isn’t possible. People with blue cone monochromacy, may also have reduced visual acuity, near-sightedness, and uncontrollable eye movements, a condition known as nystagmus. Cone monochromacy is an autosomal recessive disorder.
- Rod monochromacy or achromatopsia: This type of monochromacy is rare and is the most severe form of color blindness. It is present at birth. None of the cone cells have functional photopigments. Lacking all cone vision, people with rod monochromacy see the world in black, white, and gray. And since rods respond to dim light, people with rod monochromacy tend to be photophobic – very uncomfortable in bright environments. They also experience nystagmus. Rod monochromacy is an autosomal recessive disorder.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

What It's Like To Be Color Blind

Video by BuzzFeed Multiplayer/YouTube

Colorblind - A Colorful Guide to Colorblindness (infographic) V1

Video by gleiberkid/YouTube

How Many Colors Can We See?

Video by SciShow/YouTube

This Is What Color Blind People See With These Viral Glasses

Video by Tech Insider/YouTube

Chromosome X&Y (23) - Colour Blindness

Video by The Royal Institution/YouTube

How Vision Tests Work | Living Healthy Chicago

Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

Colorblindness

An Ishihara test image as seen by subjects with normal color vision and by those with a variety of color deficiencies.

Image by Eddau processed File:Ishihara 2.svg by User:Sakurambo,

Ishihara Plate 9

Ishihara Plate 9

Image by Unknown

Tritanopia color-blind

How tritanopia color-blind people see the world.

Image by Tohaomg

Cone Cells

Illustration of Cone cell structure in the retina

Image by Ivo Kruusamagi

Rod Cells

Illustration of Rod cell structure in the retina

Image by Madhero88

Rod Cells

Cross section of the retina. Rods are visible at far right.

Image by Cajal , Anka Friedrich (talk) , vectorisation by chris

Cone Cells

Seeing red. A. Light from the sun hits the apple. Some wavelengths are blocked by the chemicals in the apple's skin. B. Reflected wavelengths pass through the pupil and excite the cone cells at the back of the eye. C. The cones send a coded message to the brain about the wavelengths entering the eye. In this example, the L-cones are very excited, the M-cones are a little bit excited and the S cones are hardly excited at all. The brain translates this code into a sensation of "red".

Image by Wade A and Benjamin A

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia. Test for color blindness.

Image by Dan-yell / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ishihara-Test.svg

Ishihara 3

Ishihara colourblindness test No 3

Image by en:Shinobu Ishihara (died January 3, 1963)/Wikimedia

Ishihara 1

Ishihara Plate No. 1 (Number 12). Used to for the en:Ishihata test of color blindness.

Image by Nicoguaro/Wikimedia

Rough gray and white representation of a test chart so that people with complete color blindness can also get an impression of the test.

Image by Barbarossa at Dutch Wikipedia/Wikimedia

Ishihara 19

Image by /Wikimedia

Red-green colour blindness, do you have it?

Video by Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

2:38

What It's Like To Be Color Blind

BuzzFeed Multiplayer/YouTube

2:47

Colorblind - A Colorful Guide to Colorblindness (infographic) V1

gleiberkid/YouTube

2:35

How Many Colors Can We See?

SciShow/YouTube

3:43

This Is What Color Blind People See With These Viral Glasses

Tech Insider/YouTube

2:23

Chromosome X&Y (23) - Colour Blindness

The Royal Institution/YouTube

3:32

How Vision Tests Work | Living Healthy Chicago

LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

Colorblindness

Eddau processed File:Ishihara 2.svg by User:Sakurambo,

Ishihara Plate 9

Unknown

Tritanopia color-blind

Tohaomg

Cone Cells

Ivo Kruusamagi

Rod Cells

Madhero88

Rod Cells

Cajal , Anka Friedrich (talk) , vectorisation by chris

Cone Cells

Wade A and Benjamin A

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia

Dan-yell / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ishihara-Test.svg

Ishihara 3

en:Shinobu Ishihara (died January 3, 1963)/Wikimedia

Ishihara 1

Nicoguaro/Wikimedia

Rough gray and white representation of a test chart so that people with complete color blindness can also get an impression of the test.

Barbarossa at Dutch Wikipedia/Wikimedia

Ishihara 19

/Wikimedia

6:29

Red-green colour blindness, do you have it?

Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

Eye Pressure Test

Eye Pressure Test

Also called: Intraocular Pressure (IOP) Measurement, Tonometry

Eye pressure, also called intraocular pressure (IOP), is a measurement of the fluid pressure inside the eye. Measuring it is like measuring blood pressure using a method called tonometry. Having eye pressure that’s too low or too high can damage your vision.

Eye Pressure Test

Also called: Intraocular Pressure (IOP) Measurement, Tonometry

Eye pressure, also called intraocular pressure (IOP), is a measurement of the fluid pressure inside the eye. Measuring it is like measuring blood pressure using a method called tonometry. Having eye pressure that’s too low or too high can damage your vision.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
10
21
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means your eye pressure is within the normal range. However, the thickness of your cornea can affect measurements. A corneal thickness measurement (pachymetry) is needed to get a correct pressure measurement.
Related conditions
1. Tonometry: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Eye Pressure Testing - American Academy of Ophthalmology [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. What is low eye pressure and does it cause any damage to your eyes? - American Academy of Ophthalmology [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
4. Five Common Glaucoma Tests | Glaucoma Research Foundation [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
5. High Eye Pressure and Glaucoma | Glaucoma Research Foundation [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
6. Tonometry: Purpose, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
7. IOP and Tonometry - EyeWiki [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
8. Tonometry [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
9. Intraocular pressure - Wikipedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Ocular tonometry

Goldmann mires : Semicircles seen during Goldmann tonometry through slit lamp

Image by Manimury

Ocular tonometry

The PASCAL Dynamic Contour Tonometer

Image by Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

Connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves controlling eye movement keep the eyes centered on a visual stimulus, even though the head is moving. During head movement, the eye muscles move the eyes in the opposite direction as the head movement, keeping the visual stimulus centered in the field of view.

Image by CNX Openstax

Neuro-ocular syphilis

This funduscopic image reveals the effects of late neuro-ocular syphilis on the optic disk and retina. Note the typical features of neuro-ocular syphilis, which includes severe optic nerve atrophy, and chorioretinitis, or inflammation of the choroidal and neural layers of the retina.

Image by CDC/ Susan Lindsley

SVC Insight - Tonometry

Video by Linda Young/YouTube

Tonometer

A noncontact tonometer scans the eye of U.S. Air Force Staff Sgt. Timothy Gallagher, 23d Wing public affairs broadcast journalist, during an optometry appointment Feb. 4, 2014, at Moody Air Force Base, Ga. The tonometer is used to screen for glaucoma. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Ceaira Tinsley/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Ceaira Tinsley/Released

Ocular tonometry

Manimury

Ocular tonometry

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Neuro-ocular syphilis

CDC/ Susan Lindsley

6:01

SVC Insight - Tonometry

Linda Young/YouTube

Tonometer

U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Ceaira Tinsley/Released

Slit-Lamp Exam

Slit-Lamp Exam

Also called: Biomicroscopy, Slit Lamp Exam, Slit Lamp Test

A slit lamp exam is an eye examination using an instrument that combines a low-power microscope with a light source that makes a narrow beam of light. The instrument may be used to examine the retina, optic nerve, and other parts of the eye.

Slit-Lamp Exam

Also called: Biomicroscopy, Slit Lamp Exam, Slit Lamp Test

A slit lamp exam is an eye examination using an instrument that combines a low-power microscope with a light source that makes a narrow beam of light. The instrument may be used to examine the retina, optic nerve, and other parts of the eye.

{"label":"Slit-Lamp Exam Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result indicates that the eyelashes, eyelids, and lining of the eyelids (conjunctiva) look normal. All of the structures inside the eye are found to be normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal findings may include infections, diabetic complications, remnants of previous inflammatory problems, extreme allergies and cataracts.","conditions":["Cataract","Injury to the cornea","Dry eye syndrome","Retinal detachment","Retinal vessel occlusion","Retinitis pigmentosa","Uveitis"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result indicates that the eyelashes, eyelids, and lining of the eyelids (conjunctiva) look normal. All of the structures inside the eye are found to be normal.
Related conditions
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003880.htm [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
2. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/slit-lamp-eye-exam [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
3. https://www.verywellhealth.com/eye-exam-tests-and-procedures-3421854 [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Fleck dystrophy

Fleck corneal dystrophy. Appearance of the cornea by slit-lamp biomicroscopy (left image) and by confocal microscopy (right image) (Courtesy Dr. Charles N. McGhee). Klintworth Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases

Image by Klintworth GK

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

Maj. Ivy Madson, 99th Air Base Squadron optometry flight commander, uses a Slit Lamp to examine the interior of the eye during an exam for Airman 1st Class Hunter, 18th Reconnaissance Squadron Airman, Jan. 13, 2015, at Creech Air Force Base, Nevada. The Creech Medical Aid Station now offers optometry services to all personnel assigned to Creech AFB Tuesdays from 7:30 a.m. to 3 p.m. (Last names have been withheld for security purposes). (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Cystinosis

Slit-lamp photographs of three-year-old patient with nephropathic cystenosis before (left) and after (right) cysteamine eyedrop therapy. Treatment targeting metabolic defect dramatically dissolves painful crystals in the eye's cornea.

Image by NIH Clinical Center Location: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

How is a cataract detected?

Slit lamp image of the cornea, iris and lens (showing mild cataract)

Image by Baristoprak~commonswiki

Lisch nodules

Lisch nodules on surface of iris. The patient was a 14-year-old male with pulsating exophthalmos of the left eye and poor vision of this highly myopic left eye. There was also some ptosis of the left eye with mild puffiness. Upward gaze of the left eye was limited. Slit lamp examination showed multiple, slightly raised nodules of the right iris.

Image by National Eye Institute

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease : Slit lamp photograph showing retinal detachment in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Stress female student studying

Young female in a green shirt, viewed from the back at left, concentrating on work materials at a desk with a lamp lamp. Computer monitor, phone and bulletin board are visible, as are stacks of books and papers. Image supports content about identifying harmful patterns in your life, including work-related stress, so you can plan to replace them with more beneficial patterns

Image by TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of a cataract?

Slit lamp camera view of Cataract in Human Eye

Image by Rakesh Ahuja, MD

Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy

The cornea is particularly opaque in the anterior stroma by slit-lamp biomicroscopy.

Image by Klintworth GK

Ocular tonometry

Goldmann mires : Semicircles seen during Goldmann tonometry through slit lamp

Image by Manimury

Cystinosis

The patient was a 4 1/2-year-old male who looked about 2 1/2 years old at his first visit. He was admitted to the hospital because of poor growth and polydipsia. The patient was admitted to the hospital in uremia and coma. An examination of the cornea showed the surface and the immediate subepithelial region to be studded with golden-brown, fine scintillating particles, uniformly distributed throughout the entire cornea, but possibly sparing the most peripheral zone ([1]). The stroma appeared to be clear, but the posterior surface of the cornea showed the same type of particles in the lower nasal quadrant, although sparser than was the case on the surface. There were apparently also some crystals in the conjunctiva. The tentative diagnosis was cystinosis or Fanconi's syndrome, but unlike the other cases reported, the crystals appeared to be at the anterior and posterior surfaces and not in the stroma. The patient was seen again at age 8 years old, when he was back in the hospital. The cornea still contained crystals ([2]). The only noteworthy event in the recent history was a nosebleed of 20 hours duration. His non-protein nitrogen was 140 and he appeared very pale, but he was lively and alert. He had a persistent anemia and potassium depletion. Presumably both the anemia and the hemorrhagic diathesis were attributed to uremia. The patient died in the hospital. Noteworthy was the fact that his three siblings all showed clear corneas without crystals. However, the youngest was age three months and when she was examined again at age two years, she had abundant crystals and nephropathic cystinosis.

Image by National Eye Institute

What are the risks of cataract surgery?

Royal Australian Navy Lt. Elizabeth Livingstone and Singapore army Maj. Paul Zhao, both doctors embarked aboard the Military Sealift Command hospital ship USNS Mercy (T-AH 19), perform cataract surgery on a Vietnamese patient aboard Mercy during a Pacific Partnership 2010 visit to Quy Nhon, Vietnam. Pacific Partnership is the fifth in a series of annual U.S. Pacific Fleet humanitarian and civic assistance endeavors to strengthen regional partnerships.

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Eddie Harrison

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Fundoscopic (Ophthalmoscopic) Exam

Dr. (Maj.) Michael Bogaard, 509th Medical Operations Squadron optometrist, uses a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope to perform an eye assessment on Senior Airman Jeffrey Afemon, 509th MDOS public health technician, in the optometry clinic at Whiteman Air Force Base, Mo., Sept. 4, 2013. The ophthalmoscope helps focus the light inside the patient’s eye and provides an image that the doctor uses to judge the health of the retina.

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Nick Wilson/Released

Slit lamp photograph showing c in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

Slit lamp photograph showing retinal detachment in Von Hippel-Lindau disease.

Image by National Eye Institute/National Institutes of Health

Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs.

Lisch nodules are numerous nodules of dendritic melanocytes in aggregates within the iris. They are brown-yellow, round shape, raised papules as seen with slit lamp examination in the iris of patients with Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs. Similar nodules are also found in Watson syndrome which is in addition characterized by macrocephaly, pulmonary stenosis, short status and low intelligence. No treatment is required but a close follow-up of main diseases is mandatory for avoiding any serious complications.

Image by Dimitrios Malamos

Ocular tonometry

The PASCAL Dynamic Contour Tonometer

Image by Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Slit Lamp Exam and Techniques

Video by iSEE/YouTube

Slit Lamp Examination (Biomicroscopy) in English

Video by TheIACLE/YouTube

Slit Lamp Exam

Video by Brian Nelson/YouTube

Fleck dystrophy

Klintworth GK

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Cystinosis

NIH Clinical Center Location: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

How is a cataract detected?

Baristoprak~commonswiki

Lisch nodules

National Eye Institute

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Stress female student studying

TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of a cataract?

Rakesh Ahuja, MD

Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy

Klintworth GK

Ocular tonometry

Manimury

Cystinosis

National Eye Institute

What are the risks of cataract surgery?

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Eddie Harrison

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Fundoscopic (Ophthalmoscopic) Exam

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Nick Wilson/Released

Slit lamp photograph showing c in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

National Eye Institute/National Institutes of Health

Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs.

Dimitrios Malamos

Ocular tonometry

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

4:58

Slit Lamp Exam and Techniques

iSEE/YouTube

13:20

Slit Lamp Examination (Biomicroscopy) in English

TheIACLE/YouTube

7:10

Slit Lamp Exam

Brian Nelson/YouTube

Schirmer Test

Schirmer Test

Also called: Basal Secretion Test, Dry Eye Test, Tearing Test

A Schirmer test tells your eye doctor how quickly your eyes make tears. Your eye doctor will put a small piece of paper on the edge of your eyelid and see how long it takes for your body to make tears.

Schirmer Test

Also called: Basal Secretion Test, Dry Eye Test, Tearing Test

A Schirmer test tells your eye doctor how quickly your eyes make tears. Your eye doctor will put a small piece of paper on the edge of your eyelid and see how long it takes for your body to make tears.

{"label":"Schirmer test reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"S","long":"Severe","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"Wetting of less than 5 mm is indicative of deficient tear production, but is not necessarily diagnostic of Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome.","conditions":["Dry eye","Aging","Blepharitis","Climate change","Corneal ulcer","Corneal infection","Eye infection","Laser vision correction (LASIK)","Leukemia","Lymphoma","Rheumatoid arthritis","Sj\u00f6gren syndrome","Vitamin A deficiency"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":10},"text":"Less than 10 mm of moisture indicates you probable have dry eye syndrome.","conditions":["Dry eye","Aging","Blepharitis","Climate change","Corneal ulcer","Corneal infection","Eye infection","Laser vision correction (LASIK)","Leukemia","Lymphoma","Rheumatoid arthritis","Sj\u00f6gren syndrome","Vitamin A deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":15},"text":"More than 10 mm of moisture on the filter paper after 5 minutes is a sign of normal tear production. Both eyes normally release the same amount of tears.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":30},"text":"If your eyes produce more than 10 to 15 mm of moisture, further tests may also be required to determine the cause of your watery eyes.","conditions":["Watery eyes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm","code":"mm","name":"millimeter"}],"value":12.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm
5
10
15
Your result is Normal.
More than 10 mm of moisture on the filter paper after 5 minutes is a sign of normal tear production. Both eyes normally release the same amount of tears.
Related conditions
1. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/dry-eye/testing-dry-eye [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003501.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315974.php [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.hopkinssjogrens.org/disease-information/diagnosis-sjogrens-syndrome/schirmers-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
5. https://www.healthline.com/health/schirmers-test#results [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schirmer%27s_test [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Also called: TBUT

A tear break-up time (TBUT) test checks how long your tear film (layer of tears on your eyes) lasts after you blink. If your tear film does not last long, you may have dry eye.

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Also called: TBUT

A tear break-up time (TBUT) test checks how long your tear film (layer of tears on your eyes) lasts after you blink. If your tear film does not last long, you may have dry eye.

{"label":"Tear Break-Up Time Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"s","code":"s","name":"second - time"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"A short tear break-up time is a sign of a poor tear film and the longer it takes the more stable the tear film.","conditions":["Dry eye"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Marginal","long":"Marginal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":10},"text":"A short tear break-up time is a sign of a poor tear film and the longer it takes the more stable the tear film.","conditions":["Dry eye"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":15},"text":"Tear film break-up time (TBUT) is a method for determining the stability of the tear film and checking evaporative dry eye. Generally, >10 seconds is thought to be normal. ","conditions":[]}],"value":12.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
s
5
10
Your result is Normal.
Tear film break-up time (TBUT) is a method for determining the stability of the tear film and checking evaporative dry eye. Generally, >10 seconds is thought to be normal.
Related conditions
1. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/dry-eye/testing-dry-eye [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000426.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3570579/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Ophthalmoscopy

Ophthalmoscopy

Also called: Funduscopy, Retinal Examination

Ophthalmoscopy is an exam that uses a magnifying lens and a light to check the fundus of the eye (back of the inside of the eye, including the retina and optic nerve). Ophthalmoscopy may be used to check for eye problems, such as glaucoma, macular degeneration, eye cancer, optic nerve problems, or eye injury.

Ophthalmoscopy

Also called: Funduscopy, Retinal Examination

Ophthalmoscopy is an exam that uses a magnifying lens and a light to check the fundus of the eye (back of the inside of the eye, including the retina and optic nerve). Ophthalmoscopy may be used to check for eye problems, such as glaucoma, macular degeneration, eye cancer, optic nerve problems, or eye injury.

{"label":"Ophthalmoscopy Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"The retina, blood vessels, and the optic disc appear normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be seen on ophthalmoscopy with a variety of conditions.","conditions":["CMV retinitis","Diabetes","Glaucoma","High blood pressure","Loss of sharp vision due to macular degeneration","Melanoma of the eye","Optic nerve problems","Retinal tear or retinal detachment"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The retina, blood vessels, and the optic disc appear normal.
Related conditions
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003881.htm [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
2. https://www.verywellhealth.com/eye-exam-tests-and-procedures-3421854 [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

ophthalmoscopy video

Video by CHECT UK/YouTube

Approach to Fundoscopy / Ophthalmoscopy

Video by Stanford Medicine 25/YouTube

Veterinary Medicine

"GUANTANAMO BAY, Cuba %u2013 Army Sgt. Ardicio Galvao, an animal care non-commissioned officer at the Guantanamo Bay Veterinary Treatment Facility, performs an eye examination on a kitten up for adoption.

Image by The National Guard

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Retinoblastoma (Rb) is a rapidly developing cancer that develops from the immature cells of aretina, the light-detecting tissue of the eye and is the most common malignant tumor of the eye in children.

Image by Tero Kivela

ophtalmogram of the retina, optic nerve, fovea and macula. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula.

Self made ophtalmogram of the retina of the right eye. It shows the optic disc as a bright area on the right (nasal side) where blood vessels converge. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula. The grey, more diffuse spot in the centre is a shadow artifact.

Image by Ske.

Diabetic retinopathy - Diabetic Eye Disease NIDDK

Proliferative retinopathy Description: Proliferative retinopathy, an advanced form of diabetic retinopathy, occurs when abnormal new blood vessels and scar tissue form on the surface of the retina.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinitis

Fundus, photograph-CMV retinitis

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age Related Macular degeneration - How is AMD detected?

Description: A fundus photo showing intermediate age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Fluorescein angiography

Fluorescein retinography of a 33 years old patient (right eye), showing the optical disc at the inferior right quadrant and the macula lutea at the inferior left quadrant (darker spot). No anomalies detected.

Image by Mekhahertz

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration

Image by Ralf Roletschek

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Ocular fundus aspect of retinoblastoma

Image by Aerts, I, Lumbroso-Le Rouic, L, Marion Gauthier-Villars, M, Brisse, H, Doz, F, Desjardins, L. Retinoblastoma.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis

Fundus photograph of CMV retinitis

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

This image shows an eye fundus viewed through a retinal camera, with signs of macular degeneration

Image by Tmhlee

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

Retinal image of a left eye via Optos Optomap.

Image by Modified by Overand - Original by Judgesurreal777

In background retinopathy, a slight deterioration in the small blood vessels of the retina, portions of the vessels may swell and leak fluid into the surrounding retinal tissue.

Retinopathy in fundus of eye

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Optic Nerve

Healthy optic nerve

Image by Esteve.olm

Leber Congenital Amaurosis

Retina Photo of LCA : Retina photo of a patient with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), an inherited retinal disease that causes severe visual impairment early in childhood. Special gene testing is necessary to determine if the patient has the RPE65-associated type of the disease.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health.

Retinopathy of Prematurity (Small Animation)

Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)

Image by National Eye Institute/NIH

central retinal artery

Image by self

Drusen

Drusen in Optical Coherence Tomography

Image by Ipoliker

Chloroquine retinopathy

Chloroquine retinopathy in the left eye of a 55-year-old woman who had taken chloroquine for rheumatoid arthritis for more than 4 years, with an estimated total dose of 365 gr (250 mg daily). She first presented with a history of gradually decreasing visual acuity without any other symptoms approximately two years earlier. The latest examination revealed that her visual acuity was 30/200 right eye and 60/200 left eye. Left image shows typical bull's eye sign and right image is the fluorescien angiogram of the same eye showing increased fluorescence in the macular area and round-shaped blocked fluorescence in the central fovea.

Image by Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Cone dystrophy

Fundus of cone rod dystrophy : Fundus of a 34 year-old patient with cone rod dystrophy due to Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7 (SCA7). Note that the macular area, and also the mid periphery, are atrophic.

Image by Christian P Hamel

Bardet-Biedl syndrome

Bardet-Biedl syndrome : Fundus of a 31 year-old patient with Bardet Biedl syndrome. The peripheral retina does not show any large lesion but the macula is atrophic.

Image by Beales PL, Elcioglu N, Woolf AS, Parker D, Flinter FA

Diabetic Retinopathy

Fundus photo showing scatter laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Central retinal vein occlusion

Branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) Color fundus photograph of the left eye shows occlusion of the superotemporal branch of retinal vein resulting in intraretinal hemorrhages and retinal exudates in the corresponding sector of retina.

Image by Kim Baxter, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Wellcome Images

Infant Eye cross section

Cross-section of the healthy eye of an infant, showing a retina that is in perfect condition, having never been exposed to smoke-borne toxins that would compromise circulation and result in retinal damage. Image supports content showing the health benefits of smoke cessation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chorioretinitis

Chorioretinitis AIDS : Photograph taken of the back of the eye of an AIDS patient with chorioretinitis, which is an inflammation of the retina and choroid (thin pigmented vascular coat of the eye).

Image by NCI

Drusen

Macular Soft Drusen : Fundus image of macular soft Drusen in the right eye of a 70 year old male

Image by Ipoliker

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

Image by enableuser

Smoking and the eye

The effects of cigarette smoke have been associated with many ailments, including two sight-threatening eye conditions. Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. The yellow or off-white deposits, called drusen, that form beneath the retinal layer are a common sign that macular degeneration is in progress. Right, an eye with a cataract. The lens of the eye is usually crystal clear to allow unobstructed vision. Cataract also means \"waterfall.\" Doctors have likened the difficulty of seeing through a lens with a cataract to trying to see clearly through a rushing waterfall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

The prognosis for individuals with TSC is highly variable and depends on the severity of symptoms. Those individuals with mild symptoms usually do well and have a normal life expectancy, while paying attention to TSC-specific issues. Individuals who are severely affected can suffer from severe mental retardation and persistent epilepsy.

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Retinitis pigmentosa

Fundus of patient with retinitis pigmentosa, end stage: Fundus of patient with retinitis pigmentosa, end stage (Pigment deposits are present all over the retina. Retinal vessels are very thin and optic disc is pale.

Image by Christian Hamel

Retinopathy - Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts from a mutation in the CTC1 gene, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Image by Tero Kivela, MD, FEBO

Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. Right, an eye with a cataract.

This image features two sight-threatening eye conditions. Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. The yellow or off-white deposits, called drusen, that form beneath the retinal layer are a common sign that macular degeneration is in progress. Right, an eye with a cataract. The lens of the eye is usually crystal clear to allow unobstructed vision. Cataract also means \"waterfall.\" Doctors have likened the difficulty of seeing through a lens with a cataract to trying to see clearly through a rushing waterfall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Presumed Ocular Histoplasmosis Syndrome

Retinal photograph of ocular histoplasmosis

Image by Wickedthought

Neuro-ocular syphilis

This funduscopic image reveals the effects of late neuro-ocular syphilis on the optic disk and retina. Note the typical features of neuro-ocular syphilis, which includes severe optic nerve atrophy, and chorioretinitis, or inflammation of the choroidal and neural layers of the retina.

Image by CDC/ Susan Lindsley

Fundus Photography

An eye care professional takes fundus autofluorescence photographs to study the retina.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Complications of diabetes mellitus

Diabetes and Small Vessel Disease : High levels of blood glucose damage the smallest vessels in your body, the capillaries, just as they do the larger vessels. One cause of this damage may be the high levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that glucose creates inside capillary cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-section of retina, close-up of the photoreceptors

DHA and vision

Image by TheVisualMD

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

Eye with cross section revealing diabetic retinopathy; the damaged retina due to diabetes. The visible damaged includes yellow patches of fatty deposits and tiny dark dots, or microaneurysms.

Image by TheVisualMD

DiabeticRetinopathy

Diabetic Retinopathy

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014

Macula of Retina

photograph of the retina of the human eye, with overlay diagrams showing the positions and sizes of the macula, fovea, and optic disc

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from human data. Anteriolateral view of a partially sectioned eye, as well as associated eye muscles. As well as being protected by the bony orbital cavity of the skull, the eyeball is anchored in place by several thin strap muscles that attach to virtually every one of its sides except the front. These muscles tug in concert, allowing the eye to move in any direction to track objects. The clear cornea covers and protects the front exterior of the eye while the colored iris dilates and constricts to insure the proper amount of light is striking the back of the eye. The lens contorts to focus the incoming light back to the retina, which covers roughly the entire back half of the eye. Special cells embedded within the retina are responsible for the sensation of light: the cones, for color perception, and rods, for black and white perception. Electrical nerve impulses are channeled into the optic nerve at the back of the eye to the visual cortex in the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Month 1

A newborn sleeps 12-20 hours per day, but don't let that fool you: your baby will go through enormous transformations in his first month. Your womb was safe, warm, dark, and quiet. Now your baby has to adapt to the outside world, full of bright lights, noises, and unfamiliar sensations.

Image by TheVisualMD

Retina close-up

A picture of a patient’s retina is displayed at the optometry clinic March 11, 2016, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. The clinic is the only one in Montana that has a retinal imagining device called an Optos, used to look at the retina without diluting it. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Macula of Retina

Animation of Optic cup and macula - 3D motion parallax -The optic cup and macula of a healthy 24 year old female. Image is released to wikimedia commons with patient consent. GIF displays a three dimensional view of the cup via motion parallax. Imaged with a non-mydriatic fundus camera at Pacific University College of Optometry.

Image by Eric Wiessner

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

Image showing diabetic retinopathy , a condition caused by diabetes and affects the capillaries of the retina causing eventual blindness unless treated.

Image by TheVisualMD

Retina showing reticular pseudodrusen - early age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

A new clinical study led by the National Eye Institute (NEI), part of the National Institutes of Health, will follow 500 people over five years to learn more about the natural history of early age-related macular degeneration (AMD). By using the latest technologies to visualize structures within the eye and measure their function, researchers hope to identify biomarkers of disease progression, well before it advances to late-stage disease and causes vision loss. AMD is the leading cause of vision impairment and blindness among people age 50 and older in the United States.

Image by NIH Image Gallery

Hypotrichosis with juvenile macula dystrophy

ophthalmoscopy left eye of a 5-year-old boy with HJMD

Image by BazokaSmurf

9:33

ophthalmoscopy video

CHECT UK/YouTube

8:56

Approach to Fundoscopy / Ophthalmoscopy

Stanford Medicine 25/YouTube

Veterinary Medicine

The National Guard

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Tero Kivela

ophtalmogram of the retina, optic nerve, fovea and macula. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula.

Ske.

Diabetic retinopathy - Diabetic Eye Disease NIDDK

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinitis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age Related Macular degeneration - How is AMD detected?

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Fluorescein angiography

Mekhahertz

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Ralf Roletschek

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Aerts, I, Lumbroso-Le Rouic, L, Marion Gauthier-Villars, M, Brisse, H, Doz, F, Desjardins, L. Retinoblastoma.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

Tmhlee

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

Modified by Overand - Original by Judgesurreal777

In background retinopathy, a slight deterioration in the small blood vessels of the retina, portions of the vessels may swell and leak fluid into the surrounding retinal tissue.

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Optic Nerve

Esteve.olm

Leber Congenital Amaurosis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health.

Retinopathy of Prematurity (Small Animation)

National Eye Institute/NIH

central retinal artery

self

Drusen

Ipoliker

Chloroquine retinopathy

Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Cone dystrophy

Christian P Hamel

Bardet-Biedl syndrome

Beales PL, Elcioglu N, Woolf AS, Parker D, Flinter FA

Diabetic Retinopathy

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Central retinal vein occlusion

Kim Baxter, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Wellcome Images

Infant Eye cross section

TheVisualMD

Chorioretinitis

NCI

Drusen

Ipoliker

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

enableuser

Smoking and the eye

TheVisualMD

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Retinitis pigmentosa

Christian Hamel

Retinopathy - Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Tero Kivela, MD, FEBO

Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. Right, an eye with a cataract.

TheVisualMD

Presumed Ocular Histoplasmosis Syndrome

Wickedthought

Neuro-ocular syphilis

CDC/ Susan Lindsley

Fundus Photography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Complications of diabetes mellitus

TheVisualMD

Cross-section of retina, close-up of the photoreceptors

TheVisualMD

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

TheVisualMD

DiabeticRetinopathy

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014

Macula of Retina

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

TheVisualMD

Month 1

TheVisualMD

Retina close-up

U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Macula of Retina

Eric Wiessner

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

TheVisualMD

Retina showing reticular pseudodrusen - early age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

NIH Image Gallery

Hypotrichosis with juvenile macula dystrophy

BazokaSmurf

Retinoscopy

Retinoscopy

Also called: Ret, Shadow Test, Skiametry, Skiascopy

Retinoscopy is an objective determination of the refractive state of the eye (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism). By using a retinoscope, the amount of correction and the power of lens needed can be determined.

Retinoscopy

Also called: Ret, Shadow Test, Skiametry, Skiascopy

Retinoscopy is an objective determination of the refractive state of the eye (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism). By using a retinoscope, the amount of correction and the power of lens needed can be determined.

Retinoscopy is an accurate objective measurement of the refractive state of the eye, such as the degree of nearsightedness, farsightedness or astigmatism. It uses light reflected off the back of the eye and hand-held lenses to measure refractive error.
A retinoscopy can be especially useful in determining refractive error in very young children and infants or people with special needs, as it requires minimal cooperation.
1. https://www.aapos.org/terms/conditions/95 [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
2. https://nei.nih.gov/health/errors [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5646585/ [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
4. https://www.aao.org/young-ophthalmologists/yo-info/article/retinoscopy-101 [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
5. https://www.allaboutvision.com/eye-exam/expect.htm [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
6. https://www.lybrate.com/lab-test/retinoscopy [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
7. https://www.northrangeeyecare.com/your-eye-health/eye-exams/common-tests/retinoscope/ [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
8. https://www.slideshare.net/laxmieyeinstitute/retinoscopy-and-its-principles [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]

Additional Materials (17)

B&L Retinoscope

Bausch & Lomb Copeland Streak Retinoscope

Image by Janee

Retinoscopy of the eye (Ophthalmology)

Video by Tim Root/YouTube

Performing a Retinoscopy

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Determining Eyeglass Prescription

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Refractive Error Fact Sheet

Refractive errors occur when the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing directly on the retina. The length of the eyeball (longer or shorter), changes in the shape of the cornea, or aging of the lens can all cause refractive errors.

Document by National Eye Institute

Nearsightedness Fact Sheet

Nearsightedness, also known as myopia, is a common type of refractive error where close objects appear clearly, but distant objects appear blurry.

Document by National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

An eye care professional conducts a pediatric eye exam on a child.

Image by National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s right eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition. Note the eye chart in the background, which is known as an E chart, or a tumbling E chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s left eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s left eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition. Note the eye chart in the background, which is known as an E chart, or a tumbling E chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Eye exam

The woman pictured here, was undergoing an eye exam, whereupon, she was testing her visual acuity, by covering her left eye, and reading from a door-mounted eye chart, which used numbers as its symbols. Note that this eye chart was intended to be used with the patient standing at a distance of 10 feet from the chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

The woman pictured here, was undergoing an eye exam, whereupon, she was testing her visual acuity, by covering her left eye, and reading from a door-mounted eye chart, which used numbers as its symbols. The clinician was pointing to each of the various numbers, and the patient was reciting the highlighted number. Note that this eye chart was intended to be used with the patient standing at a distance of 10 feet from the chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination, being conducted by a female physician, who was using a handheld ophthalmoscope, enabling her to see into the patient’s left eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination from a female physician, who was using a hand-held ophthalmoscope to see into her right eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated young female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination from a male clinician, who was using a hand-held ophthalmoscope to see into her right eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Middle schoolers receive health screenings

A 52nd Aerospace Medicine Squadron optometrist, uses lenses to perform a retinoscopy on a Spangdahlem Middle School student during a school health screening on Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, Nov. 7, 2014. The screenings are held once a year to assess the weight, height, eyesight and hearing of students. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released

B&L Retinoscope

Janee

4:43

Retinoscopy of the eye (Ophthalmology)

Tim Root/YouTube

Performing a Retinoscopy

National Eye Institute

Determining Eyeglass Prescription

National Eye Institute

Refractive Error Fact Sheet

National Eye Institute

Nearsightedness Fact Sheet

National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

National Eye Institute

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Eye exam

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Middle schoolers receive health screenings

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released

Staging

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

Image by Courtesy photo

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

This image shows deposits of cholesterol on the back of an eye affected by Coats’ Disease. The rare, congenital disease, only found in about one in 100,000 people, is caused by abnormal blood vessel development behind the retina. The affected blood vessels leak blood content into the eye leading to partial or complete retinal detachment if not treated. (Courtesy photo)

Image by Courtesy photo

What Are the Stages of Coats Disease?

Stage 1 - retinal telangiectasia only (dilation of capillaries in the retina)
Stage 2 - telangiectasia and exudation (escape of fluids and material from blood vessels into surrounding tissues)
- A - extrafoveal exudation (exudation outside of the fovea, which is a small area in the retina responsible for the acute vision)
- B - foveal exudation (exudation in the fovea)
Stage 3 - exudative retinal detachment
- A - subtotal (partial) detachment
  - 1 - extrafoveal
  - 2 - foveal
- B - total retinal detachment
Stage 4 - total retinal detachment and glaucoma
Stage 5 - advanced end-stage disease (defined as a blind, non-painful eye with a total retinal detachment, often with cataract and phthisis bulbi)

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Treatment

Photocoagulation

Image by BruceBlaus

Photocoagulation

A medical illustration depicting a photocoagulation surgery.

Image by BruceBlaus

How Might Coats Disease Be Treated?

Laser photocoagulation (uses a laser to shrink or destroy blood vessels)
Cryotherapy (a procedure that uses extreme cold to destroy abnormal blood vessels)
Intravitreal corticosteroid injections to control inflammation
Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) injections

More advanced disease with extensive retinal detachment may also require surgical interventions such as vitrectomy, scleral buckling to correct a detached retina, and external drainage of fluids.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (3)

What are the most effective treatment options?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

How to Cure Coats' Disease, presented by Akrit Sodhi, MD, PhD

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

Are there any supplements that can be helpful for Coats patients?

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

1:19

What are the most effective treatment options?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

11:48

How to Cure Coats' Disease, presented by Akrit Sodhi, MD, PhD

CoatsDisease/YouTube

1:34

Are there any supplements that can be helpful for Coats patients?

CoatsDisease/YouTube

Prognosis

Eye Exam

Image by David Mark

Eye Exam

Eye Exam

Image by David Mark

What Is the Long-Term Outlook for People with Coats Disease?

In some older children and young adults, spontaneous regression (improvement of symptoms) has been reported. Younger children typically have more aggressive disease and often have a total retinal detachment by the time they are diagnosed; these children usually have a poor visual outcome. Some people present with advanced disease which does not benefit from treatment, while others show disease progression despite treatment. While most people respond well to treatment, approximately 25% will become worse and require removal of the eye. An ophthalmologist with knowledge about Coats disease may be able to make a general prediction about the chances of retaining the eye and preserving vision.

The extent of visual impairment varies considerably from person to person. Favorable visual outcomes are more likely to be achieved with early detection and treatment, with combined therapies as needed. Even when treatment is not able to restore sight, it is beneficial in saving the eye.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (2)

Dr. Mary Elizabeth Hartnett discusses the latest in Coats' Disease Research

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

Darius Manages Coats' Disease

Video by CoatsDisease/YouTube

9:32

Dr. Mary Elizabeth Hartnett discusses the latest in Coats' Disease Research

CoatsDisease/YouTube

3:13

Darius Manages Coats' Disease

CoatsDisease/YouTube

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Eye Diseases

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Eye Anatomy

The eye is the major sensory organ involved in vision. Light waves are transmitted across the cornea and enter the eye through the pupil. Learn more about the structure and function of the eye.

Retina

The retina is a thin layer of tissue that lines the inside back of your eye. It senses the light that comes into your eye and sends signals to your brain. It provides the sharp, central vision needed for reading, driving, and seeing fine detail. Read more about the retina.

Eye Care

Your eyes are an important part of your health. You should get your eyes checked as often as your health care provider recommends it, or if you have any new vision problems. Learn more on how to care for your eyes.

Eye Infections

Eye infections can be caused by bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Learn about the different types, including styes, and their symptoms and treatment.

Diabetic Eye Disease

Diabetes can impact various eye parts—retina, macula, lens, and optic nerve—leading to diabetic eye disease. Regular eye check-ups are essential for early detection and effective treatment. Finding and treating problems early may save your vision.

Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group of diseases that can damage the eye's optic nerve. It usually happens when the fluid pressure inside the eyes slowly rises, damaging the optic nerve. Often there are no symptoms at first. Vision loss happens slowly over time, but can lead to blindness. Learn more about the types of glaucoma, and how it's diagnosed and treated.

Strabismus

Strabismus, also called crossed eyes, is when your eyes do not line up in the same direction when you focus on an object. A variety of conditions can cause strabismus. Learn more.

Cataract

A cataract is a clouding of the lens in your eye. This causes blurry vision, colors that seem faded, glare, not being able to see well at night, double vision, and frequent prescription changes. Cataracts are very common in older people. Learn more about the symptoms, risk factors, and treatment options.

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Coats Disease

Coats disease is an eye disorder characterized by abnormal development of the blood vessels in the retina (retinal telangiectasia). This rare disorder was first described by a Scottish ophthalmologist, George Coats, in 1908. Learn about causes, symptoms and treatment.

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