Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation and irritation of the bronchial tubes; the airways that carry air to your lungs. Learn about the risk factors for chronic bronchitis, the signs and symptoms, and possible treatments.
Alveolus and Surrounding Capillary of Lung
Image by TheVisualMD
Chronic Bronchitis
What Is Bronchitis?
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute
What Is Bronchitis?
Bronchitis : Figure A shows the location of the lungs and bronchial tubes in the body. Figure B is an enlarged, detailed view of a normal bronchial tube. Figure C is an enlarged, detailed view of a bronchial tube with bronchitis. The tube is inflamed and contains more mucus than usual.
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute
What Is Chronic Bronchitis?
Chronic bronchitis is a type of COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). COPD is a group of lung diseases that make it hard to breathe and get worse over time. The other main type of COPD is emphysema. Most people with COPD have both emphysema and chronic bronchitis, but how severe each type is can be different from person to person.
Chronic bronchitis is inflammation (swelling) and irritation of the bronchial tubes. These tubes are the airways that carry air to and from the air sacs in your lungs. The irritation of the tubes causes mucus to build up. This mucus and the swelling of the tubes make it harder for your lungs to move oxygen in and carbon dioxide out of your body.
Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
Additional Materials (4)
Alveolus and Surrounding Capillary of Lung
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the heart and airways of the lungs. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery and veins are the only vessels that break the rules about arteries carrying oxygenated blood and veins carrying deoxygenated blood. Technically arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry it back. Everywhere else in the body, blood flowing away from the heart is oxygenated, and blood flowing back to the heart is deoxygenated, but not in the lungs. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
What is chronic bronchitis? | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
How Common is COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) ?
BC Lung Foundation/YouTube
Risk Factors
Air pollution
Image by Alfred Palmer, Library of Congress
Air pollution
Smokestacks from a wartime production plant, World War II
Image by Alfred Palmer, Library of Congress
Risk Factors of Chronic Bronchitis
The risk factors for chronic bronchitis include
Smoking. This the main risk factor. Up to 75 percent of people who have chronic bronchitis smoke or used to smoke.
Long-term exposure to other lung irritants, such as secondhand smoke, air pollution, and chemical fumes and dusts from the environment or workplace.
Age. Most people who have chronic bronchitis are at least 40 years old when their symptoms begin.
Genetics. This includes alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, which is a genetic condition. Also, smokers who get chronic bronchitis are more likely to get it if they have a family history of COPD.
Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (4)
Alpha-1 Antitrypsin
The liver produces antitrypsin alpha (AAT), a protein that helps to inactivate several enzymes. Elastase is the main enzyme countered by AAT. Immune cells produce elastase, which breaks down proteins and removes them from the lungs, preventing damage to lung tissue. Some forms of AAT are dysfunctional. Faulty AAT accumulates in the liver cells that produce it. The buildup begins to destroy the cells and damage the liver. AAT deficiency or dysfunction can lead to emphysema or cirrhosis of the liver.
Bronchial tubes are lined with hairlike cilia and mucus-producing goblet cells. The mucus traps pollutants and germs, and the cilia wave the trapped invaders back toward the exit. The system was not designed to manage the toxins in cigarette smoke, which cause inflammation. The results: cilia stop working, mucus is overproduced, and the damaged lining of your respiratory system is vulnerable.
Image by TheVisualMD
Causes of Chronic Bronchitis
The cause of chronic bronchitis is usually long-term exposure to irritants that damage your lungs and airways. In the United States, cigarette smoke is the main cause. Pipe, cigar, and other types of tobacco smoke can also cause chronic bronchitis, especially if you inhale them.
Exposure to other inhaled irritants can contribute to chronic bronchitis. These include secondhand smoke, air pollution, and chemical fumes or dusts from the environment or workplace.
Rarely, a genetic condition called alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency can play a role in causing chronic bronchitis.
Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (4)
How Smoking Impacts Your Lung Health
Video by American Lung Association/YouTube
What Causes Acute Bronchitis?
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
Smoking and Your Lungs
The first line of defense against tobacco toxins is the respiratory system. It takes a beating from cigarette smoke. Smokers are more likely to have respiratory infections, as well as chronic respiratory ailments and cancer throughout the body. Your body tries to push toxins out by building up extra mucus in the lungs. Cilia are hairlike projections lining the respiratory system which usually push mucus and invading toxins out of the airways. But smokers' cilia are shortened and damaged as a result of smoking. That's why smokers hack and cough to expel the mucus clogging their lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Smoking and Exposed Respiratory System
Smoking and Exposed Respiratory System
Image by ThevisualMD
6:47
How Smoking Impacts Your Lung Health
American Lung Association/YouTube
0:52
What Causes Acute Bronchitis?
Rehealthify/YouTube
Smoking and Your Lungs
TheVisualMD
Smoking and Exposed Respiratory System
ThevisualMD
Signs & Symptoms
Coughing, Wheezing, and Shortness of Breath
Image by TheVisualMD
Coughing, Wheezing, and Shortness of Breath
Coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath
Image by TheVisualMD
Signs, Symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis
At first, you may have no symptoms or only mild symptoms. As the disease gets worse, your symptoms usually become more severe. They can include
Frequent coughing or a cough that produces a lot mucus
Wheezing
A whistling or squeaky sound when you breathe
Shortness of breath, especially with physical activity
Tightness in your chest
Some people with chronic bronchitis get frequent respiratory infections such as colds and the flu. In severe cases, chronic bronchitis can cause weight loss, weakness in your lower muscles, and swelling in your ankles, feet, or legs.
Source: National Library of Medicine (NLM)
Additional Materials (2)
Signs and Symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
Signs and Symptoms of Acute Bronchitis?
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
0:35
Signs and Symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis
Rehealthify/YouTube
1:20
Signs and Symptoms of Acute Bronchitis?
Rehealthify/YouTube
Diagnosis
X-ray of COPD exacerbation - anteroposterior view
Image by Mikael Häggström
X-ray of COPD exacerbation - anteroposterior view
Chest X-ray of an 81 year old man with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), presenting with acute COPD exacerbation, mainly productive cough. It shows an opacity in the inferior parts of the right upper lobe. A nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae.
Image by Mikael Häggström
How Is Chronic Bronchitis Diagnosed?
Your health care provider may use many tools to make a diagnosis:
A medical history, which includes asking about your symptoms
A family history
Various tests, such as lung function tests, a chest x-ray or CT scan, and blood tests
A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. A normal chest CT means your chest appears normal.
Related conditions
A chest CT scan is a more detailed type of chest X-ray. This painless imaging test takes many detailed pictures, called slices, of your lungs and the inside of your chest. Computers can combine these pictures to create three-dimensional (3D) models to help show the size, shape, and position of your lungs and structures in your chest.
This imaging test is often done to follow up on abnormal findings from earlier chest x rays. A chest CT scan also can help determine the cause of lung symptoms such as shortness of breath or chest pain, or check to see if you have certain lung problems such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs that is known as pleural effusion, pulmonary embolism, emphysema, tuberculosis, and pneumonia.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. Doctors use this test to:
Follow up on abnormal results from standard chest x rays.
Find the cause of lung symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain.
Find out whether you have a lung problem, such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs, or a pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The test also is used to check for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if you have symptoms of lung problems, such as chest pain or trouble breathing. The scan can help find the cause of the symptoms.
A chest CT scan looks for problems such as tumors, excess fluid around the lungs, and pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The scan also checks for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if a standard chest x ray doesn't help diagnose the problem. The chest CT scan can:
Provide more detailed pictures of your lungs and other chest structures than a standard chest x ray
Find the exact location of a tumor or other problem
Show something that isn't visible on a chest x ray
Your chest CT scan may be done in a medical imaging facility or hospital. The CT scanner is a large, tunnel-like machine that has a table. You will lie still on the table and the table will slide into the scanner. Talk to your doctor if you are uncomfortable in tight or closed spaces to see if you need medicine to relax you during the test. You will hear soft buzzing or clicking sounds when you are inside the scanner and the scanner is taking pictures. You will be able to hear from and talk to the technician performing the test while you are inside the scanner. For some diagnoses, a contrast dye, often iodine-based, may be injected into a vein in your arm before the imaging test. This contrast dye highlights areas inside your chest and creates clearer pictures. You may feel some discomfort from the needle or, after the contrast dye is injected, you may feel warm briefly or have a temporary metallic taste in your mouth.
Wear loose-fitting, comfortable clothing for the test. Sometimes the CT scan technician (a person specially trained to do CT scans) may ask you to wear a hospital gown. You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the test. You may be asked to remove hearing aids and dentures as well. Let the technician know if you have any body piercing on your chest.
Tell your doctor whether you're pregnant or may be pregnant. If possible, you should avoid unnecessary radiation exposure during pregnancy. This is because of the concern that radiation may harm the fetus.
Chest CT scans have some risks. In rare instances, some people have an allergic reaction to the contrast dye. There is a slight risk of cancer, particularly in growing children, because the test uses radiation. Although the amount of radiation from one test is usually less than the amount of radiation you are naturally exposed to over three years, patients should not receive more CT scans than the number that clinical guidelines recommend. Another risk is that chest CT scans may detect an incidental finding, which is something that doesn’t cause symptoms but now may require more tests after being found.
Talk to your doctor and the technicians performing the test about whether you are or could be pregnant. If the test is not urgent, they may have you wait to do the test until after your pregnancy. If it is urgent, the technicians will take extra steps to protect your baby during this test. Let your doctor know if you are breastfeeding because contrast dye can pass into your breast milk. If you must have contrast dye injected, you may want to pump and save enough breast milk for one to two days after your test or you may bottle-feed your baby for that time.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-ct-scan [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003788.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Additional Materials (50)
Pleural empyema
CT chest showing large right sided hydro-pneumothorax from pleural empyema. Arrows A: air, B: fluid
Image by Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
CT with the identification of underlying lung lesion: an apical bulla.
Image by Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
Right-sided pneumothorax (right side of image) on CT scan of the chest with chest tube in place.
Image by en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
3D reconstruction of the thin multislice CT, covering human heart and lungs
Image by Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
Open-chest bypass surgery requires the surgeon to make an incision down the center of the chest, along the breastbone. The rib cage is spread open to expose the heart.
Image by TheVisualMD
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
Video by The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Researchers have found that anti-inflammatory biologic therapies used to treat moderate to severe psoriasis can significantly reduce coronary inflammation in patients with the chronic skin condition. Scientists said the findings are particularly notable because of the use of a novel imaging biomarker, the perivascular fat attenuation index (FAI), that was able to measure the effect of the therapy in reducing the inflammation.
The study published online in JAMA Cardiology, has implications not just for people with psoriasis, but for those with other chronic inflammatory diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. These conditions are known to increase the risk for heart attacks and strokes. The study was funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health.
In this image: Coronary CT angiography image of the coronary arteries depicting the perivascular fat attenuation index before and after biologic therapy at one-year follow-up for patients with excellent response to biologic therapy.
Image by Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Coronary CT
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
chest CT: diagnosis is pulmonary sequestration
Image by RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Image by Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Video by Oxford AHSN/YouTube
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
Protocoling chest CTs
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
Video by MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Video by Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
How I Read a Chest CT
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Video by Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
How to prepare for a CT scan
Video by Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
Video by UConn Health/YouTube
Cardiac CT scan
Video by UHP_NHS/YouTube
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Video by Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
Video by STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
3D visualization based on scanned human data of a healthy heart in the thorax.
Image by TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
The heart and lungs are the primary contents of the thorax. They are interconnected with very large blood vessels. The heart sends oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, which oxygenate it and return it to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary arteries arise from one large pulmonary trunk, and then begin branching exponentially once they enter the lungs in order to reach the functional respiratory units and pick up oxygen. The smallest pulmonary veins then take the oxygenated blood backwards through the lungs and empty into the back of the heart through four larger pulmonary veins. The oxygen-rich blood is then pumped by the heart out into the body through the aorta. Deoxygenated blood from body tissues returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava and the cardiac cycle repeats continuously. The pulmonary veins and arteries are the only case where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and veins carry blood that has been oxygenated.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an anterior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhale occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an inferior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhalation occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
3D visualization of a posterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
Visualization based on scanned human data of an anterior view of female breast.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
Visualization of male heart. The nerve supply of the heart is emphasized specifically the cardiac plexus. The plexus which rest around the base of the heart, mainly in the epicardium, is formed by cardiac branches from the vagus nerves and the sympathetic trunks and ganglia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. The cone-shaped lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity. Each lung is suspended in its own pleural cavity and connected to the mediastinum (which houses the heart) by its root which is made up of vascular and bronchial attachments. The anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the lung are in close contact with the ribs and form a continuously curving surface called the costal surface. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
Aneurysms that occur in the part of the aorta that is higher in the chest are called thoracic aortic aneurysms. Aortic aneurysms often grow slowly and usually without any symptoms therefore making them difficult to detect
Image by TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
subFusion processing applied to a SPECT lung ventilation-perfusion scan.
Image by KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
3D visualization of an inferior view of a transverse section of the thorax, highlighting the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The trachea, cardiac impression, and transverse sections of the thoracic aorta and esophagus are clearly illustrated. The bronchial tree is also visible. When air is inhaled into the lungs, it flows through large tubes called bronchi, branches into smaller tubes known as bronchioles, and ends up in the thousands of small pouches that are the alveoli. This is where the oxygen is transferred from the air into the bloodstream. Each alveolar sac, or air sac, is surrounded by a bed of capillaries, and the walls between the lung and the capillary are extremely thin. The walls are so delicate, in fact, that the inhaled oxygen can seep from the air sacs to bind to the hemoglobin in the blood, while the carbon dioxide and other waste gasses leave the blood and diffuse into the lungs where they can be exhaled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Angina
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Chest Pain
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
Image by TheVisualMD
CT scanner
A view of the CT scanner in the new Fort Belvoir Community Hospital. The hospital, still under construction, is a 2005 Base Realignment and Closure project, and is scheduled to open later this year.
Image by Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
Radiation can be dangerous, but it can also save lives. When you’re faced with a medical test that uses radiation, don’t let fear get in your way. Learn about the risks and benefits, and know what questions to ask.
Image by NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
CT scan.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
An NIH Clinical Center study participant receives a scan in the Photon-Counting CT scanner.
Image by NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
A computer-assisted tomographic (CAT) scanner, with a Caucasian female technician working at a screen and behind a glass wall. A patient is on a table and being tested by the CAT scanner. The lighting is very subdued. This new technology revolutionized detection of brain tumors.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
Virtual colonoscopy is a new imaging technology that uses computed tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. A computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural empyema
Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
TheVisualMD
4:22
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
1:50
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
4:59
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Oxford AHSN/YouTube
2:33
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
7:48
Protocoling chest CTs
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
1:44
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
8:27
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
5:10
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
3:29
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
17:21
How I Read a Chest CT
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
8:46
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
3:09
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
2:19
How to prepare for a CT scan
Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
2:07
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
UConn Health/YouTube
5:04
Cardiac CT scan
UHP_NHS/YouTube
6:28
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
2:52
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
TheVisualMD
CT scanner
Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
TheVisualMD
Chest X-Ray Test
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
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X rays are electromagnetic waves. They use ionizing radiation to create pictures of the inside of your body. A chest x ray takes pictures of the inside of your chest. The different tissues in your chest absorb different amounts of radiation. Your ribs and spine are bony and absorb radiation well. They normally appear light on a chest x ray. Your lungs, which are filled with air, normally appear dark.
Related conditions
A chest x ray is a painless, noninvasive test that creates pictures of the structures inside your chest, such as your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. "Noninvasive" means that no surgery is done and no instruments are inserted into your body. This test is done to find the cause of symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), and fever.
Chest x rays help doctors diagnose conditions such as pneumonia (nu-MO-ne-ah), heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, and sarcoidosis (sar-koy-DO-sis). Doctors also may use chest x rays to see how well treatments for certain conditions are working. Also, doctors often use chest x rays before surgery to look at the structures in the chest.
Chest x rays are the most common x-ray test used to diagnose health problems.
Doctors may recommend chest x rays for people who have symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), or fever. The test can help find the cause of these symptoms.
Chest x rays look for conditions such as pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis. The test also is used to check how well treatments for certain conditions are working.
Chest x rays also are used to evaluate people who test positive for tuberculosis (tu-ber-kyu-LO-sis) exposure on skin tests.
Sometimes, doctors recommend more chest x rays within hours, days, or months of an earlier chest x ray. This allows them to follow up on a condition.
People who are having certain types of surgery also may need chest x rays. Doctors often use the test before surgery to look at the structures inside the chest.
Depending on your doctor's request, you'll stand, sit, or lie for the chest x ray. The technician will help position you correctly. He or she may cover you with a heavy lead apron to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The x-ray equipment usually consists of two parts. One part, a box-like machine, holds the x-ray film or a special plate that records the picture digitally. You'll sit or stand next to this machine. The second part is the x-ray tube, which is located about 6 feet away.
Before the pictures are taken, the technician will walk behind a wall or into the next room to turn on the x-ray machine. This helps reduce his or her exposure to the radiation.
Usually, two views of the chest are taken. The first is a view from the back. The second is a view from the side.
For a view from the back, you'll sit or stand so that your chest rests against the image plate. The x-ray tube will be behind you. For the side view, you'll turn to your side and raise your arms above your head.
If you need to lie down for the test, you'll lie on a table that contains the x-ray film or plate. The x-ray tube will be over the table.
You'll need to hold very still while the pictures are taken. The technician may ask you to hold your breath for a few seconds. These steps help prevent a blurry picture.
Although the test is painless, you may feel some discomfort from the coolness of the exam room and the x-ray plate. If you have arthritis or injuries to the chest wall, shoulders, or arms, you may feel discomfort holding a position during the test. The technician may be able to help you find a more comfortable position.
When the test is done, you'll need to wait while the technician checks the quality of the x-ray pictures. He or she needs to make sure that the pictures are good enough for the doctor to use.
You don't have to do anything special to prepare for a chest x ray. However, you may want to wear a shirt that's easy to take off. Before the test, you'll be asked to undress from the waist up and wear a gown.
You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the x-ray picture. Let the x-ray technician (a person specially trained to do x-ray tests) know if you have any body piercings on your chest.
Let your doctor know if you're pregnant or may be pregnant. In general, women should avoid all x-ray tests during pregnancy. Sometimes, though, having an x ray is important to the health of the mother and fetus. If an x ray is needed, the technician will take extra steps to protect the fetus from radiation.
Chest x rays have few risks. The amount of radiation used in a chest x ray is very small. A lead apron may be used to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The test gives out a radiation dose similar to the amount of radiation you're naturally exposed to over 10 days.
Chest x rays show the structures in and around the chest. The test is used to look for and track conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity. For example, chest x-ray pictures may show signs of pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis.
Chest x rays do have limits. They only show conditions that change the size of tissues in the chest or how the tissues absorb radiation. Also, chest x rays create two-dimensional pictures. This means that denser structures, like bone or the heart, may hide some signs of disease. Very small areas of cancer and blood clots in the lungs usually don't show up on chest x rays.
For these reasons, your doctor may recommend other tests to confirm a diagnosis.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-x-ray [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003804.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/chestrad [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.emedicinehealth.com/chest_x-ray/article_em.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (50)
Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min
Video by Nick Smith/YouTube
How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Tuberculosis X-ray
An anteroposterior X-ray of a patient diagnosed with advanced bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis. This AP X-ray of the chest reveals the presence of bilateral pulmonary infiltrate (white triangles), and caving forma.
Image by CDC / Der Lange
Respiratory Syncytial Virus
This highly-magnified, 1981 transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image, reveals some of the morphologic traits exhibited by a human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The virion is variable in shape, and size, with an average diameter between 120-300nm. RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children, under 1-year of age.
Image by CDC/ E. L. Palmer
Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray
Combination of two x-rays (A) normal chest x-ray (B) x-ray documenting Q fever pneumonia.
Image by US Gov
Chest X Ray
A Lateral Chest X-Ray with the heart shadow outlined.
Image by US Army
Projectional radiography
Image relating focal spot size to geometric unsharpness in projectional radiography.
Image by Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
X-ray of Healthy Lung
This image shows an x-ray of healthy lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cancer screening
Cancer Imaging: X-Rays : Chest X-rays can be used to show the presence of tumors, as for lung cancer, but they may also indicate problems associated with cancer. An X-ray may produce images suggestive of fluid accumulation, masses, or enlarged lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lung Cancer
Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute
Chest X Ray
Mediastinal structures on a chest radiograph.
Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators
CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion
CT scan of chest showing loculated pleural effusion in left side. Some thickening of pleura is also noted. From my personal collection. Permission obtained from patient.
Image by Drriad
Chest X-ray (Cancer)
This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer
This browser does not support the video element.
CT Scans (VIDEO)
This video shows how modern science of scanning can expose the health condition of the patient. The video starts with a patient undergoing CT scanning, an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Visible are the heart, lungs, and arteries of a patient.
Video by TheVisualMD
Chest X-Ray
Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings
Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Gallstones
Gallstones as seen on plain x-ray.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hemoptysis x-ray
Hemoptysis can be discovered with the help of radiology.
Image by Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.
X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema
Within the lungs, the main airways (bronchi) branch off into smaller passageways, the smallest of which are called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs (alveoli). Pulmonary edema is a condition caused when excess fluid collects in these air sacs, making it difficult to breathe. Fluid in the lungs can be caused by pneumonia, acute respiratory distress and other conditions, but in most cases, the cause of pulmonary edema is heart problems (when a damaged heart can't pump enough blood and fluid leaks into the lungs).
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery
A normal chest X-ray after placement of an ICD, showing the ICD generator in the upper left chest and the ICD lead in the right ventricle of the heart. Note the 2 opaque coils along the ICD lead.
Image by Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC
This browser does not support the video element.
Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]
NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a Chest X-ray. This video is silent.
Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view
Most aneurysms are detected in the course of an exam, such as a physical exam or a chest X-ray, being performed for a different reason.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural Effusion: Tests
Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.
Image by CDC InvictaHOG
Coccidioidomycosis
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed pulmonary changes indicative of pulmonary fibrosis in a case of coccidioidomycosis, caused by fungal organisms of the genus, Coccidioides. Because these changes also resemble those seen in other lung infections including tuberculosis, the findings uncovered with a chest x-ray needs to be coupled with serologic testing, as well as possible tissue biopsy. The degree of fibrotic changes, indicative of scarring found on x-ray, can be directly correlated to the severity of the fungal infection.
Image by CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg
How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?
Chest X-Ray: Acute respiratory distress syndrome on plain Xray
Image by James Heilman, MD
How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?
Early Asbestosis in a Retired Pipe Fitter : Chest X-ray in asbestosis shows plaques above diaphragm
Image by Clinical Cases
Aspergillosis
This was a photomicrograph of a lung tissue specimen, harvested from a caged, sulfur-crested cockatoo, that depicted some of the histopathologic changes that had been caused by the fungal organism, Aspergillus fumigatus, in a case of avian pulmonary aspergillosis. Here, you are able see how the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, revealed A. fumigatus ultrastructural morphology including conidial heads and mycelium.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
Pleural Effusion - Defined
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by Drriad
Pleural Effusion: Tests
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by James Heilman MD
Breast implants
Chest X-ray showing breast implants
Image by James Heilman
Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
No cure is available for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) yet. Your symptoms may get worse over time. As your symptoms worsen, you may not be able to do many of the things that you did before you had IPF.
However, lifestyle changes and ongoing care can help you manage the disease.
If you're still smoking, the most important thing you can do is quit. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. Ask family members and friends not to smoke in front of you or in your home, car, or workplace.
Image by Drriad
Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)
A chest x-ray showing increased opacity in both lungs, indicative of pneumonia, in a patient with SARS.
Image by CDC
Chilaiditi syndrome
Chest X-ray showing obvious Chilaiditi's sign, or presence of gas in the right colic angle between the liver and right hemidiaphragm (left side of the image).
Piper's Sign: In days gone by the lateral chest x-ray (demonstrating greater opacity in the aortic arch and descending aorta than the thoracic spine) gave an indication to the degree of calcified plaque burden a patient had. This has been known as Piper's sign and can often be seen in elderly persons particularly those with concomitant osteoporosis.
Image by U4077905
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Image by Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Image by Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
(a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on skin; (b) Trichophyton violaceum, shown in this bright field light micrograph, causes superficial mycoses on the scalp; (c) Histoplasma capsulatum is an ascomycete that infects airways and causes symptoms similar to influenza. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit b: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit c: modification of work by M. Renz, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
Pneumocystis jirovecii is the causative agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), one of the most frequent and severe opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis organisms represent a large group of species of atypical fungi with universal distribution and pulmonary tropism, and each species has a strong specificity for a given mammalian host species.
Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Image by Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
PA view Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child. Released per permission of mother.
Image by Samir (talk)
Chest X Ray
Structures shown: Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings. Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Thoracic diaphragm
X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.
Image by OpenStax College
Chest X Ray
Roentgenogram or Medical X-ray image. May not be to scale.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.
7:02
Reading a chest X-ray
Osmosis/YouTube
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Lung Function Tests
Lung Function Tests
Also called: Pulmonary Function Tests, PFTs, Respiratory Function Tests
Lung function tests are a group of tests that check to see if your lungs are working right. For most tests, you will breathe into a mouthpiece while a machine measures how well your lungs are working.
Lung Function Tests
Also called: Pulmonary Function Tests, PFTs, Respiratory Function Tests
Lung function tests are a group of tests that check to see if your lungs are working right. For most tests, you will breathe into a mouthpiece while a machine measures how well your lungs are working.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
On a spirogram, the breath flow is usually shown on the X axis and expressed in liters per second, while the breath volume is shown on the Y axis and expressed in liters. A normal spirogram reveals a healthy curve that shows a jump right after the start of the expiration, then a steady and quick raise to a sharp peak, and finally a smooth and slow fall.
Related conditions
{"label":"Lung diffusion capacity reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"S","long":"Severe","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":40},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen.","conditions":["Airway blockage","Asthma","COPD with emphysema","Cystic fibrosis","Interstitial lung diseases","Lung tissue loss","Pulmonary embolism","Pulmonary fibrosis","Pulmonary hypertension","Sarcoidosis"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen. ","conditions":["Airway blockage","Asthma","COPD with emphysema","Cystic fibrosis","Interstitial lung diseases","Lung tissue loss","Pulmonary embolism","Pulmonary fibrosis","Pulmonary hypertension","Sarcoidosis"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"M","long":"Mild","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":75},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen. Smoking can also cause a decrease in DLCO.","conditions":["Anemia","Post-exercise","Smoking"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":75,"max":140},"text":"A normal DLCO indicates a normal lung function. DLCO is a calculated, derived value that indirectly assesses the ability of the lungs to \"transfer\" oxygen to blood through the use of a test gas (namely, CO) that has a greater affinity for blood hemoglobin. A normal result does not completely rule out lung disease.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"Increased DLCO can be caused by exercise or pregnancy. High DLCO is seen in conditions like obesity, asthma, which are characterized by large lung volumes.","conditions":["Asthma","Atrial septal defect","Bleeding in the lungs","Cardiac shunt","Chronic bronchitis","Exercise","Heart failure","High altitude","Obesity","Polycythemia vera","Pregnancy"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":107.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
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%
40
60
75
140
Your result is Normal.
A normal DLCO indicates a normal lung function. DLCO is a calculated, derived value that indirectly assesses the ability of the lungs to "transfer" oxygen to blood through the use of a test gas (namely, CO) that has a greater affinity for blood hemoglobin. A normal result does not completely rule out lung disease.
Related conditions
{"label":"Six-minute walk reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":400},"text":"A low score correlates with lower lung function. If your score declines, compared to previous results, it may suggest that your condition is progressing.","conditions":["Alzheimer\u2019s disease","Heart diseases","Huntington disease","Lung diseases","Multiple sclerosis","Parkinson disease","Spinal cord injury","Stroke"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":400,"max":700},"text":"The score range for healthy adults is 400\u2013700 m. However, factors such as age, sex, and underlying health conditions can alter this value. The higher your score, the better is your exercise tolerance. A substantial increase in your score, compared to previous results, may indicate that your treatment is effective.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"m","code":"m","name":"meter"}],"value":550}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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m
400
Your result is Normal.
The score range for healthy adults is 400–700 m. However, factors such as age, sex, and underlying health conditions can alter this value. The higher your score, the better is your exercise tolerance. A substantial increase in your score, compared to previous results, may indicate that your treatment is effective.
Related conditions
Lung function tests are a group of tests that check how well your lungs are working. These tests are also called pulmonary function tests, or PFTs. They may be used with other tests and information to help diagnose and monitor certain lung diseases.
There are many types of lung function tests. Most of them involve breathing through a mouthpiece. The mouthpiece is connected to a device that makes different types of measurements, such as:
How much air your lungs can hold
How well you move air in and out of your lungs when you breathe
How well your lungs absorb oxygen from the air you breathe and move it into your blood
Lung function tests also help check the health of your airways. Your airways are the parts of your body that carry air to your lungs, including your nose, throat, trachea (windpipe), and bronchial tubes that connect your windpipe to each lung.
Common lung function tests include:
Spirometry. This lung function test is used the most. A spirometry test measures how much air you breathe out and how fast you can blow air out of your lungs.
Lung volume test, also called as body plethysmography. This test is the most accurate way to measure the amount of air your lungs can hold. It also measures the amount of air that remains in your lungs after you exhale as much as you can.
Lung diffusion capacity test. This test measures how well your lungs deliver oxygen to your blood from the air you breathe.
Exercise tests. There are different types of tests that measure how well your lungs work when you are active, including:
Six minute walk test
Cardiopulmonary (heart and lung) exercise test (CPET)
Your health care provider may order one or more lung function tests, depending on the reason you need to be tested.
Other names: pulmonary function tests, PFTs
Lung function tests are often used to:
Help diagnose and monitor lung diseases, including:
Asthma
COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
Emphysema
Pulmonary fibrosis
Pulmonary hypertension
Guide decisions about treating certain lung diseases with medicine
Help diagnose and monitor certain diseases that can affect the lungs, such as scleroderma or sarcoidosis
Check lung function before surgery
Check for lung damage from exposure to chemicals or other substances at home or work
Lung function tests are done for many different reasons. You may need testing if you:
Have signs and/or symptoms of a breathing problem such as:
Shortness of breath
Wheezing
Coughing
A tight feeling in your chest or trouble breathing deeply
An abnormal chest x-ray
Have a lung condition or another type of condition that could damage your lungs
Have been exposed to substances that can cause lung damage, such as asbestos, radiation, or certain medicines
Are going to have surgery
Your provider may also order a lung function test as part of your routine exam.
There are different ways to do each type of lung function test. But the basic steps are about the same.
For a spirometry test:
You'll sit on a chair with a soft clip on your nose. The clip makes sure you breathe only through your mouth.
You'll place your lips tightly around a mouthpiece that's connected to a device called a spirometer.
You'll be told to take a deep breath in and then blow it out into the mouthpiece as hard as you can. The spirometer will measure how much air you breathe out and how fast you blow it out.
You may be given medicine to inhale (breath in) that opens your airways. Then you'll blow into the tube again to see if the medicine helps you blow out more air faster.
For a lung volume (body plethysmography) test:
You'll sit in a small, airtight room with clear walls. It looks like a telephone booth.
You'll wear a soft clip on your nose to make sure you breathe only through your mouth.
You'll place your lips tightly around a mouthpiece.
You'll be told how to breathe in and out through the mouthpiece.
Air pressure changes inside the room will show how much air your lungs can hold and how much air stays in your lungs after you breath out.
A lung volume test may be done by breathing a special mixture of gases for a few minutes while wearing a clip on your nose. For this test, you do not need to sit in an airtight room.
For a gas diffusion test:
You'll sit on a chair with a soft clip on your nose. The clip makes sure you breathe only through your mouth.
You'll place your lips tightly around a mouthpiece that's connected to a spirometer.
You will be asked to breathe in a very small, safe amount of carbon monoxide gas. Then you'll hold your breath for about 10 seconds.
Next, you'll breathe out through the mouthpiece. The spirometer will measure the amount of carbon dioxide you exhale. This shows how much of the gas your lungs were able to absorb and move into your blood.
For exercise tests:
Six minute walk test:
Your blood pressure will be measured, and you'll be asked to rate any shortness of breath and fatigue that you feel.
You'll walk as far as possible in six minutes, usually in a hallway.
Your heart rate and the amount of oxygen in your blood will be checked as you walk.
After six minutes, your blood pressure will be measured again, and you'll rate your shortness of breath and fatigue.
If you normally use portable oxygen for a lung condition, you'll be able to use it during this test.
Cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET):
You'll be attached to monitors and machines that will measure your breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and blood oxygen levels while you exercise.
You'll breathe through a face mask or mouthpiece connected to a monitor. It measures how much oxygen you breath in and how much carbon dioxide you breath out.
You'll exercise on a stationary bicycle or treadmill for a total of 10 to 20 minutes:
You'll begin exercising with the bike or treadmill set to the easiest level.
You'll slowly increase your effort until you feel you can't continue. On a bicycle, the resistance will increase, so it's harder to pedal. On a treadmill, the speed will increase, and the platform may tilt so you feel like you're walking uphill.
As you exercise, you'll be asked to rate how you're feeling. If you have serious symptoms, the test will stop.
The bike or treadmill will return to the easiest level while you keep pedaling or walking to cool down.
Your provider will let you know how to prepare for your lung function test. To make sure your test results are accurate, follow the instructions you're give. In general:
Wear loose, comfortable clothing.
Don't eat a large meal within at least two hours of the test.
You may need to avoid certain activities or foods and beverages before your test. Your provider will tell you for how long. These include:
Heavy exercise
Smoking
Drinking alcohol
Drinking or eating products with caffeine, such as coffee, colas, and chocolate
If you use inhaler medicines (bronchodilators), you may need to stop for a period of time before testing. Your provider will tell you when to stop. But never stop taking any medicine without talking with your provider first.
If you wear dentures, wear them for the test. They'll help you close your lips tightly around the mouthpiece.
There is very little risk to having a lung function test. Some people may feel lightheaded, dizzy, or tired from breathing hard. It's also common to cough. Some people may feel nervous being in a small space for a lung volume test. If you have concerns about your test, talk with your provider.
A normal lung function test result for you depends on the size of your lungs. Your lung size is based on your height, sex, and age. So, your provider will compare your test results to results from healthy people who are the same height, age, and sex as you.
If your results aren't normal, it may mean you have a lung condition. Lung function tests can't diagnose which specific lung disease you have. But your test results can tell which of the two main types you have:
Obstructive lung conditions cause your airways to become narrow, making it hard for air to flow out of your lungs. Examples of obstructive lung diseases include asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema.
Restrictive lung conditions decrease the amount of air your lungs can hold. This may happen if your lungs or your chest muscles can't expand fully when you breath in. Examples of restrictive lung conditions include scleroderma, sarcoidosis, pulmonary fibrosis, and interstitial lung diseases.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
If you need one or more lung function tests, your provider may also order a blood oxygen level test called an arterial blood gas (ABG) test. This blood test measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in your blood.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/lung-function-tests/ [accessed on May 31, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003853.htm [accessed on May 31, 2019]
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/pulmonary-function-tests [accessed on May 31, 2019]
Spirometry Test
Spirometry Test
Also called: Breathing Test, Lung Capacity, Pulmonary Function Testing
Spirometry is a pulmonary function test that is used to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions such as asthma or COPD. During this test, you will make maximum breathing efforts several times, and a special machine called spirometer will be used to calculate and graph your results.
Spirometry Test
Also called: Breathing Test, Lung Capacity, Pulmonary Function Testing
Spirometry is a pulmonary function test that is used to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions such as asthma or COPD. During this test, you will make maximum breathing efforts several times, and a special machine called spirometer will be used to calculate and graph your results.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
On a spirogram, the breath flow is usually shown on the X axis and expressed in liters per second, while the breath volume is shown on the Y axis and expressed in liters. A normal spirogram reveals a healthy curve that shows a jump right after the start of the expiration, then a steady and quick raise to a sharp peak, and finally a smooth and slow fall.
Related conditions
{"label":"FVC reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":80},"text":"A low FVC result could be due to restrictive or obstructive lung disease. Other spirometry measurements are required to determine the type of lung disease.\u00a0","conditions":["Asthma","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Lung disorders","Obstructive lung disease","Pulmonary fibrosis","Restrictive lung disease"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":100},"text":"FEV values greater than 80% of the predicted average value are considered to be normal. Age and gender are the major factors that affect the average values of FEV in healthy individuals. Height, weight, and ethnicity are some of the other influencing factors.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"% predicted","code":"%{predicted}","name":"percent predicted"}],"value":90}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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% predicted
80
Your result is Normal.
FEV values greater than 80% of the predicted average value are considered to be normal. Age and gender are the major factors that affect the average values of FEV in healthy individuals. Height, weight, and ethnicity are some of the other influencing factors.
Related conditions
{"label":"FEV1 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VSA","long":"Very severely abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":35},"text":"A very severely abnormal FEV1 indicates a very severe airway obstruction, a lung condition that narrows your airways. This means that the air flows out of your lungs more slowly than it should (low FEV1) with less than 50% of the total amount in the first second. At this stage, quality of life is considerably impaired and disease exacerbations may be life-threatening.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Obstructive lung disease"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"SA","long":"Severely abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":50},"text":"A severely abnormal FEV1 indicates a severe airway obstruction, a lung condition that narrows your airways. This means that the air flows out of your lungs more slowly than it should (low FEV1) with less than 50% of the total amount in the first second. At this stage, you may experience greater shortness of breath, reduced exercise capacity, and repeated exacerbations which have an impact on quality of life. ","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Obstructive lung disease"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"MTSA","long":"Moderate to severely abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":60},"text":"A moderate to severely abnormal FEV1 indicates a moderate to severe airway obstruction, a lung condition that narrows your airways. This means that the air flows out of your lungs more slowly than it should (low FEV1) with less than 60% of the total amount in the first second. At this stage, you may experience chronic respiratory symptoms or an exacerbation of the disease.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Obstructive lung disease"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"MA","long":"Moderately abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":70},"text":"A moderately abnormal FEV1 indicates a moderate airway obstruction, a lung condition that narrows your airways. This means that the air flows out of your lungs more slowly than it should (low FEV1) with less than 70% of the total amount in the first second. At this stage, you may experience chronic respiratory symptoms or an exacerbation of the disease.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Obstructive lung disease"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"MA","long":"Mildly abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":70,"max":80},"text":"A mildly abnormal FEV1 indicates a mild airway obstruction, a lung condition that narrows your airways. This means that the air flows out of your lungs more slowly than it should (low FEV1) with less than 80% of the total amount in the first second. At this stage, you may not be aware that your lung function is abnormal. ","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Obstructive lung disease"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":100},"text":"A normal FEV1 indicates the absence of airway obstruction. The normal range is calculated by the spirometer based on your height, age, sex and ethnicity. If your lungs and airways are healthy, you can blow out most of your breath in the first second. This pattern tells your doctor that your spirometry test is normal when compared to the expected results for you.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"% predicted","code":"%{predicted}","name":"percent predicted"}],"value":90}[{"abnormal":2},{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":1},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
% predicted
35
50
60
70
80
Your result is Normal.
A normal FEV1 indicates the absence of airway obstruction. The normal range is calculated by the spirometer based on your height, age, sex and ethnicity. If your lungs and airways are healthy, you can blow out most of your breath in the first second. This pattern tells your doctor that your spirometry test is normal when compared to the expected results for you.
Related conditions
{"label":"FEV1\/FVC ratio reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"S","long":"Severe","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":50},"text":"A reduced FEV1\/FVC ratio means you can breath out less than 70% of the inhaled air in the lungs in one second. A low value indicates airflow limitation with an obstructive pattern.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asbestosis","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","Bronchitis (chronic)","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Emphysema","Epiglottitis (acute)","Lung cancer","Pulmonary fibrosis"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":60},"text":"A reduced FEV1\/FVC ratio means you can breath out less than 70% of the inhaled air in the lungs in one second. A low value indicates airflow limitation with an obstructive pattern.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asbestosis","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","Bronchitis (chronic)","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Emphysema","Epiglottitis (acute)","Lung cancer","Pulmonary fibrosis"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"M","long":"Mild","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":70},"text":"A reduced FEV1\/FVC ratio means you can breath out less than 70% of the inhaled air in the lungs in one second. A low value indicates airflow limitation with an obstructive pattern.","conditions":["Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency","Asbestosis","Asthma","Bronchiectasis","Bronchiolitis","Bronchitis (chronic)","COPD","Cystic fibrosis","Emphysema","Epiglottitis (acute)","Lung cancer","Pulmonary fibrosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":70,"max":100},"text":"A normal FEV1\/FVC ratio is 70% to 80% or higher in adults, 65% or higher in adults older than 65 and 85% or higher in children. In healthy people, a normal value indicates healthy lungs. In people with lung disease, a normal (or even elevated) value indicates restrictive disease.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":85}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
50
60
70
Your result is Normal.
A normal FEV1/FVC ratio is 70% to 80% or higher in adults, 65% or higher in adults older than 65 and 85% or higher in children. In healthy people, a normal value indicates healthy lungs. In people with lung disease, a normal (or even elevated) value indicates restrictive disease.
Related conditions
Spirometry is a pulmonary function test that is used to estimate the size of the lungs and measure the rate of air flow into and out of them. This helps determine how well your lungs are functioning.
Your doctor may want to order this test to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions, such as:
Asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Restrictive lung disease, such as pulmonary fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis
Other disorders affecting lung function
Spirometry let doctors diagnose lung diseases at early stages when treatment is most effective. Then, routine spirometry tests can help monitor treatment effectiveness by assessing changes in lung functions.
A spirometry test can be performed in your doctor’s office.
During the test, your healthcare provider will place a clip on your nose to keep your nostrils closed. Then, you will be asked to sit, take a deep breath in, hold your breath for one or two seconds, and then exhale as hard as you can into a small machine called a spirometer until your lungs feel entirely empty.
You will be asked to repeat this procedure at least three times to ensure consistent results.
If at this point, your results show evidence of a breathing disorder, your doctor might give you an inhaled drug known as a bronchodilator to open up your airways; then, you will be asked to wait for approximately 15 minutes to perform another round of sets. Both sets of tests will be compared at the end of the exam to see whether the bronchodilator helped increase your airflow.
A computer that is attached to the spirometer calculates and graphs your results.
You will be asked to refrain from taking alcohol on the day of the test, and avoid smoking, eating, or exercising for at least a few hours before the test is done. Don’t wear tight clothing that could restrict your breathing.
Inform your healthcare practitioner if you are taking any over-the-counter or prescription medications since you might be asked to temporarily stop taking certain drugs that may affect your test results, especially puffer medications.
Complications are rare during or after a spirometry test. You may feel dizziness or experience shortness of breath immediately after performing the test. In very rare cases, severe breathing problems may be triggered.
Spirometry is not recommended for people who recently had eye surgery, heart surgery, or have other heart problems.
Spirometry results indicate whether your lungs are functioning normally. It does this through several breathing measurements:
Forced vital capacity (FVC): this is the total air volume that you can force out of your lungs after you take your biggest breath in.
Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1): this is the amount of air that you can blow out of your lungs within the first second. It indicates whether or not there is airway obstruction.
FEV1/FVC ratio: this is the percentage of the FVC exhaled in the first second.
Normal results vary from person to person depending on their gender, age, height, and race.
Abnormal spirometry results could be due to either restrictive lung disease (such as pulmonary fibrosis or sarcoidosis), obstructive lung disease (such as asthma or COPD), or a combination of both restrictive and obstructive lung disease.
Your doctor will take into consideration all spirometry measurements, along with the results of other tests, and your clinical findings to determine which type of lung disease is present.
Spirometry is often performed once a year or once every two years to monitor people with well-controlled breathing disorders. People who have uncontrolled or more severe breathing problems may need to have this test more frequently.
Pulmonary Function Tests | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_11_12/spirometry_procedures_manual.pdf [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
Spirometry and Bronchodilator Test [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
Spirometry | the lung association [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
Spirometry Testing | Breathing Test | Lung Capacity [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
Spirometry: Procedure, Normal Values, and Test Results [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
https://www.racgp.org.au/download/documents/AFP/2011/April/201104paraskeva.pdf [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
https://cnx.org/contents/bbaedbf4-4d78-4b7c-bc94-2a742f0f2f8c [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
https://covid19.nih.gov/news-and-stories/monitoring-lung-function [accessed on Sep 03, 2021]
Additional Materials (14)
An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.
An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.
Image by BruceBlaus
A medical illustration depicting spirometry
A medical illustration depicting spirometry
Image by BruceBlaus
Testing and Diagnosis
Your doctor will first take your medical history and ask you about your symptoms. He or she will probably listen to your lungs using a stethoscope, although there may be no abnormal chest sounds between asthma attacks. Your doctor may ask about any patterns relating to your symptoms: are they worse during allergy seasons, at work or at home, during exercise? Do you have a family history of asthma?
Image by TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosis
Your doctor will first take your medical history and ask you about your symptoms. He or she will probably listen to your lungs using a stethoscope, although there may be no abnormal chest sounds between asthma attacks. Your doctor may ask about any patterns relating to your symptoms: are they worse during allergy seasons, at work or at home, during exercise? Do you have a family history of asthma?
Image by TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma
Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma
Image by TheVisualMD
Airway during asthma symptoms
Figure A shows the location of the lungs and airways in the body. Figure B shows a cross-section of a normal airway. Figure C shows a cross-section of an airway during asthma symptoms.
Image by National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute
How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?
The image shows how spirometry is done. The patient takes a deep breath and blows as hard as possible into a tube connected to a spirometer. The spirometer measures the amount of air breathed out. It also measures how fast the air was blown out.
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)
Asthma before-after
During an asthma episode, inflamed airways react to environmental triggers such as smoke, dust, or pollen. The airways narrow and produce excess mucus, making it difficult to breathe.
Image by FDA/Renée Gordon; vectors by Mysid
How Is COPD Diagnosed?
Doing a spirometry
Image by Jmarchn
Asthma in Children
A child using a peak expiratory flow meter in a pediatric clinic.
Image by National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, a division of the National Institute of Health
Types of Lung Function Tests
A man undergoing whole body plethysmography
Image by Finchbook01 (talk)
Asthma Attacks
Constriction of the bronchioles and excess mucous production during an asthma attack.
Image by 7mike5000
Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide change as blood moves through the body.
Image by CNX Openstax
Spirometry: how to take a lung function test
Video by The European Lung Foundation/YouTube
An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.
BruceBlaus
A medical illustration depicting spirometry
BruceBlaus
Testing and Diagnosis
TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosis
TheVisualMD
Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma
TheVisualMD
Airway during asthma symptoms
National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute
How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?
National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)
Asthma before-after
FDA/Renée Gordon; vectors by Mysid
How Is COPD Diagnosed?
Jmarchn
Asthma in Children
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, a division of the National Institute of Health
Types of Lung Function Tests
Finchbook01 (talk)
Asthma Attacks
7mike5000
Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
CNX Openstax
4:00
Spirometry: how to take a lung function test
The European Lung Foundation/YouTube
Lung Diffusion Testing
Lung Diffusion Testing
Also called: Gas Diffusion Study, Diffusing Capacity of the Lung for Carbon Monoxide, DLCO
A lung diffusion test is a painless and risk-free procedure in which you will be required to inhale a small amount of carbon monoxide that will be compared with the amount of the same carbon monoxide you exhale. This is useful to assess how well your lungs are functioning.
Lung Diffusion Testing
Also called: Gas Diffusion Study, Diffusing Capacity of the Lung for Carbon Monoxide, DLCO
A lung diffusion test is a painless and risk-free procedure in which you will be required to inhale a small amount of carbon monoxide that will be compared with the amount of the same carbon monoxide you exhale. This is useful to assess how well your lungs are functioning.
{"label":"Lung diffusion capacity reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"S","long":"Severe","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":40},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen.","conditions":["Airway blockage","Asthma","COPD with emphysema","Cystic fibrosis","Interstitial lung diseases","Lung tissue loss","Pulmonary embolism","Pulmonary fibrosis","Pulmonary hypertension","Sarcoidosis"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen. ","conditions":["Airway blockage","Asthma","COPD with emphysema","Cystic fibrosis","Interstitial lung diseases","Lung tissue loss","Pulmonary embolism","Pulmonary fibrosis","Pulmonary hypertension","Sarcoidosis"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"M","long":"Mild","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":75},"text":"Low DLCO means your lungs aren\u2019t getting oxygen from the air to your blood efficiently. This might be because of issues in your heart or your lungs. For example, your heart might not be pumping well enough or your blood isn\u2019t able to effectively pick up oxygen. Smoking can also cause a decrease in DLCO.","conditions":["Anemia","Post-exercise","Smoking"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":75,"max":140},"text":"A normal DLCO indicates a normal lung function. DLCO is a calculated, derived value that indirectly assesses the ability of the lungs to \"transfer\" oxygen to blood through the use of a test gas (namely, CO) that has a greater affinity for blood hemoglobin. A normal result does not completely rule out lung disease.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"Increased DLCO can be caused by exercise or pregnancy. High DLCO is seen in conditions like obesity, asthma, which are characterized by large lung volumes.","conditions":["Asthma","Atrial septal defect","Bleeding in the lungs","Cardiac shunt","Chronic bronchitis","Exercise","Heart failure","High altitude","Obesity","Polycythemia vera","Pregnancy"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":107.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
40
60
75
140
Your result is Normal.
A normal DLCO indicates a normal lung function. DLCO is a calculated, derived value that indirectly assesses the ability of the lungs to "transfer" oxygen to blood through the use of a test gas (namely, CO) that has a greater affinity for blood hemoglobin. A normal result does not completely rule out lung disease.
Related conditions
A lung diffusion test is used to assess how well the lungs are able to allow the “diffusion” or exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out the blood.
This test helps determine how well your lungs are functioning.
Your doctor may want to order this test to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions, such as:
Asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Restrictive lung disease, such as pulmonary fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis
Other disorders affecting lung function
Your healthcare practitioner will put clips on your nose and will place a mouthpiece tightly around your mouth so you can breathe through it.
Then, you will inhale air that contains a very small, and safe, amount of carbon monoxide or another gas that can be used as a tracer, such as helium or methane. At this point, you will be required to hold your breath for 10 seconds and then quickly exhale it out of your lungs.
The exhaled air is then analyzed to determine how much of the tracer gas was absorbed in your lungs.
You will be asked to eat a light meal on the day of the test, and avoid smoking for at least a 6 hours before the test is done.
Inform your healthcare practitioner if you are taking any over-the-counter or prescription medications since you might be asked to temporarily stop taking certain drugs that may affect your test results, especially puffer medications.
There are no known risks associated with this test.
Normal results vary depending on the person’s age, sex, height, ethnicity, and health status.
Normal
If there’s significantly less exhaled carbon monoxide in your breath when compared with the amount of carbon monoxide that you inhaled, then this means that your lung function is normal because the gas was successfully absorbed into your bloodstream.
Abnormal
If the amount of inhaled and exhaled carbon monoxide in your breath is similar, it means that there is a problem in your lungs that is preventing the gas from being absorbed adequately. This can happen due to:
Asthma
Emphysema
Cystic fibrosis
Pulmonary fibrosis
Sarcoidosis (a chronic disease characterized by the development of small tumors throughout the body)
Airway blockage by a foreign body
Pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the lungs)
Lung tissue loss
Pulmonary embolism
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003854.htm [accessed on Feb 03, 2019]
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/15445-gas-diffusion-study [accessed on Feb 03, 2019]
https://www.healthline.com/health/lung-diffusion-testing [accessed on Mar 20, 2019]
https://www.verywellhealth.com/lung-diffusion-tests-914897 [accessed on Mar 20, 2019]
https://www.nationaljewish.org/treatment-programs/tests-procedures/pulmonary-physiology/pulmonary-function/lung-diffusion-capacity [accessed on Mar 20, 2019]
https://www.uclahealth.org/lungcancer/lung-diffusion [accessed on Mar 20, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Lung Plethysmography
Lung Plethysmography
Also called: Body Plethysmography, Pulmonary Plethysmography, Lung Volume Measurement
Lung plethysmography, also called pulmonary plethysmography, is a test used to calculate how much air you can hold in your lungs. This helps determine whether you have problems with your lung capacity.
Lung Plethysmography
Also called: Body Plethysmography, Pulmonary Plethysmography, Lung Volume Measurement
Lung plethysmography, also called pulmonary plethysmography, is a test used to calculate how much air you can hold in your lungs. This helps determine whether you have problems with your lung capacity.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary depending on the person’s age, sex, fitness level, and body size.
Related conditions
Plethysmography is a test that uses a special machine called plethysmograph to measure volume changes in different areas of your body.
A lung plethysmography is used to calculate how much air you can hold in your lungs. Measurements include:
Functional residual volume (FRV): this is the amount of air left in your lungs after you force out as much air as you can.
Functional residual capacity (FRC): this is the amount of air that is left in your lungs after you breathe out normally.
Total lung capacity (TLC): this is the total amount of air in your lungs after you take your biggest breath in.
Your doctor may want to order this test in the following situations:
If you have signs and symptoms of upper respiratory problems, such as pain or shortness of breath.
To measure lung function in people with chronic pulmonary diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or cystic fibrosis.
To differentiate obstructive lung disease (such as asthma or COPD) from restrictive lung disease (such as pulmonary fibrosis or sarcoidosis), especially when other pulmonary function tests have failed to do so.
To monitor your response to treatment.
To assess whether your lungs would tolerate lung cancer surgery.
You will be asked to sit in a small, airtight room, that looks very much like a telephone booth. Your healthcare practitioner will then place clips on your nose and will give you a mouthpiece so you can breathe through it.
Then, you will be guided through various breathing patterns, alternating normal breathing, panting, and deep breaths.
If you are receiving oxygen, it will be temporarily suspended during the duration of this test, which usually lasts around 15 minutes.
You will be asked to stop smoking for at least 8 hours and avoid doing exercise for a couple hours before the test. You should also eat a light meal on the day of the test.
Make sure to wear loose and comfortable clothing.
Most people don’t experience any discomfort during this test. However, in some cases, some symptoms like lightheadedness, dizziness, shortness of breath, or anxiety from being in a tight space can occur.
Normal
Normal results vary depending on the person’s age, sex, fitness level, and body size.
Abnormal
An abnormal plethysmography test result indicates a problem with your lung capacity, but it doesn’t provide a specific diagnosis. Further testing is usually required.
An abnormal result may be due to:
Emphysema
Cystic fibrosis
Pulmonary fibrosis
Sarcoidosis (a chronic disease characterized by the development of small tumors throughout the body)
Obesity
Scoliosis (abnormally curved spine)
This test is not the same as impedance plethysmography which is a test for blood clots in the legs.
Another test called spirometry is the standard way to measure lung function; however, lung plethysmography is more accurate.
This test cannot be done in people who require continuous oxygen therapy or in people with claustrophobia (a severe fear of being in small and enclosed places).
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/15467-body-plethysmography-pulmonary-function-test [accessed on Feb 03, 2019]
https://www.healthline.com/health/lung-plethysmography [accessed on Feb 03, 2019]
https://www.healthline.com/health/plethysmography#results [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003771.htm [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-plethysmography-2249161 [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://lunginstitute.com/blog/lung-plethysmography/ [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
Lung Volumes - Physiopedia [accessed on Feb 07, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Body Plethysmography Chamber
Chamber used for Body Plethysmography and other related medical tests. Photographed at Swedish Hospital Ballard Campus, Seattle, Washington.
Image by Joe Mabel/Wikimedia
Lung Volumes Measurement by Body Plethysmography
Lung Volumes Measurement by Body Plethysmography technology from COSMED (http://www.cosmed.com/en/products/pulmonary-function/q-box-body-plethysmography)
Image by Cosmed/Wikimedia
Respiratory System
The respiratory system consists of the airways, the lungs, and the respiratory muscles that mediate the movement of air into and out of the body.
Image by LadyofHats
Lung Function - Lung Volumes and Capacities
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Types of Lung Function Tests
A man undergoing whole body plethysmography
Image by Finchbook01 (talk)
Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)
Oximetry - Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)
Image by User:Sansculotte
Lung Function test for COPD
A modern USB spirometer
Image by AME
Lung Volume Testing by Plethysmography
Video by Launceston Lung Centre/YouTube
Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT): Lesson 3 - Lung Volumes
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
5 facts about DVT (Deep Vein Thrombosis)
Video by Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube
About Thrombosis: Symptoms and risk factors for deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
Video by Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube
How A Pulmonary FunctionTest Works
Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
Body Plethysmography Chamber
Joe Mabel/Wikimedia
Lung Volumes Measurement by Body Plethysmography
Cosmed/Wikimedia
Respiratory System
LadyofHats
8:31
Lung Function - Lung Volumes and Capacities
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Types of Lung Function Tests
Finchbook01 (talk)
Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)
User:Sansculotte
Lung Function test for COPD
AME
3:03
Lung Volume Testing by Plethysmography
Launceston Lung Centre/YouTube
12:11
Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT): Lesson 3 - Lung Volumes
Strong Medicine/YouTube
2:28
5 facts about DVT (Deep Vein Thrombosis)
Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube
1:27
About Thrombosis: Symptoms and risk factors for deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube
3:11
How A Pulmonary FunctionTest Works
LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
Stress Tests
Stress Tests
Also called: Cardiac Stress Test, Cardiac Diagnostic Test
Stress tests shows how well your heart works when it's pumping hard. They can find problems with blood flow to your heart muscle and other heart conditions. Reduced blood flow can be a sign of a serious heart disease.
Stress Tests
Also called: Cardiac Stress Test, Cardiac Diagnostic Test
Stress tests shows how well your heart works when it's pumping hard. They can find problems with blood flow to your heart muscle and other heart conditions. Reduced blood flow can be a sign of a serious heart disease.
Stress tests show how well your heart works when it's pumping hard. Some heart diseases are easier to find when your heart is working its hardest to pump blood through your body. So stress tests check your heart while you exercise on a treadmill or stationary bicycle. If you're not able to exercise, medicine can be used to make your heart work harder , as if you were exercising.
There are different types of stress tests. They all check:
Blood flow in your heart
Your blood pressure
The rate and rhythm of your heartbeat
The strength of the electrical signals that control your heartbeat
Some stress tests also take pictures of your heart at rest and when it's working hard. The pictures provide more detail about how your heart is working.
Stress tests are most often used to find the cause of symptoms that may be from a heart problem.
The tests can help diagnose certain heart conditions, including:
Coronary artery disease (CAD)
Angina
Arrhythmia
Heart failure
Heart valve diseases
Cardiomyopathy
Stress testing is also used:
To find out how serious a known heart condition is, including the chance that you'll have a heart attack in the future.
To help make treatment decisions for a heart condition.
You may need a stress test if you have symptoms that could be from a heart condition. Symptoms may include:
Chest pain or discomfort without a known cause
Shortness of breath
Irregular or rapid heartbeat that may feel like a fluttering in your chest
Feeling dizzy or lightheaded
You may also need a stress test to check your heart health if you:
Have a heart condition with new or worsening symptoms.
Are going to have surgery. Your health care provider may want to see if your heart is strong enough for the operation.
Are being treated for heart disease. The test can show how much treatment is helping, including heart surgery.
Have a high risk for heart disease. Your risk may be higher than normal if you have a family history of heart disease and/or certain conditions, such as diabetes, that are linked to heart disease.
Plan to start an exercise program. If you have a heart condition or a high risk for a heart condition, a stress test can show what level of exercise is safe for you. (Always talk with your provider before starting any strenuous, new exercise.)
Stress tests may be done with or without imaging (pictures of your heart). The most common type of test is an exercise stress test. It doesn't include pictures. But the main steps of an exercise stress test are part of all stress tests:
You'll have a blood pressure cuff on your arm to check your blood pressure.
Electrodes will be placed on your body for an electrocardiogram test (also called EKG or ECG). Electrodes are small sensors that stick to your skin. Wires connect the electrodes to a computer or an EKG machine that records the electrical activity in your heart during the stress test.
If you're unable to exercise: An intravenous (IV) line will be inserted into a vein in your arm. You'll get medicine through the IV. The medicine will make your heart work harder for 10 to 20 minutes while an EKG records your heart's electrical activity. Medicine can be used instead of exercise for all types of stress tests.
If you can exercise: You'll walk on a treadmill or ride a stationary bicycle. On a treadmill, the speed will slowly increase. The treadmill may also tilt so you feel like you're walking uphill. On a bicycle, the resistance will slowly increase, so it's harder to pedal.
You'll exercise for about 10 to 15 minutes until you reach a target heart rate based on your age and fitness level. But you may stop the test sooner if:
You develop chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, fatigue or other symptoms
The EKG shows a problem with your heart
After all types of stress tests, you'll be monitored for 10-15 minutes or until your heart rate returns to normal.
Stress tests with pictures include stress echocardiograms, nuclear stress tests, and cardiac (heart) MRI stress tests. These tests have extra steps:
A stress echocardiogram or "echo" takes moving pictures of your heart using doppler ultrasound. The pictures show the size and shape of your heart and blood flow through your heart. Pictures will be taken before and after your heart has worked its hardest. You'll lie on your left side on a table as a provider moves an ultrasound device on your chest. If you exercise on a bicycle, the second set of pictures may be taken while you're pedaling.
A nuclear stress test takes pictures of your heart using a small amount of a radioactive substance called a "tracer" and a special camera that scans your heart. A provider injects the tracer into your bloodstream through an IV line that's placed in a vein. Your heart and blood vessels absorb the tracer, which makes them show up more clearly in the pictures.
Pictures are taken while you lie on a table before and after your heart has worked its hardest. After the test, the tracer naturally leaves your body in your urine (pee). Drinking lots of water will help remove it faster.
A cardiac MRI stress test takes the most detailed pictures of your heart using radio waves, magnets, and a computer. It is a newer test that's mostly used for very serious heart problems. For an MRI stress test:
A provider may inject dye into your bloodstream through an IV line placed in your arm. Some cardiac MRIs, but not all, use dye to help show very small details on the pictures.
Pictures of your heart may be taken before and after your heart has worked hard. To take the pictures, you'll lie on a table that slides into a large, tunnel-like MRI machine. You'll hear loud sounds as the machine takes pictures. If you're exercising for the test, you may use a treadmill near the MRI, or you may exercise while lying in the MRI machine using special devices to move your arms or legs.
Wear comfortable shoes and clothing for exercise. Your provider will tell you what else to do before a stress test. You'll usually need to fast (not eat or drink) and stop smoking for at least a few hours before the test. You may need to avoid drinks with caffeine, such as coffee, tea, and colas, for a longer period of time.
If you take medicines or supplements, ask your provider if you should take them as usual. Don't stop taking any medicine unless your provider tells you to. If your test uses MRI, tell your provider about any metal you have in your body. An MRI can heat certain metal and cause burns.
Stress tests are usually safe. You will be closely watched during the test. If a problem develops, you'll be treated quickly. Medicines that make your heart work harder sometimes cause symptoms such as chest pain, dizziness, or nausea. An IV may bruise your arm.
The tracers and dyes used in nuclear and MRI stress tests may cause an allergic reaction, but this is rare. If you are or could become pregnant or are breastfeeding, talk with your provider before you have these tests.
A normal test result means no blood flow problems were found. Your heart is working well.
If your test result was not normal, it may mean you have heart disease. Ask your provider to explain what condition you may have. You may need more tests to find out how serious your condition is.
Stress Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 09, 2023]
Exercise Tolerance Test
Exercise Tolerance Test
Also called: Treadmill Stress Testing, Exercise Stress Test, Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test, CPX Test
Exercise tolerance testing is a form of cardiac stress testing that uses treadmill exercise with electrocardiogram (EKG) and blood pressure monitoring. The test is used to determine a patient’s functional capacity, assess the probability and extent of coronary artery disease (CAD) as well as assess risks, prognosis and effects of therapy.
Exercise Tolerance Test
Also called: Treadmill Stress Testing, Exercise Stress Test, Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test, CPX Test
Exercise tolerance testing is a form of cardiac stress testing that uses treadmill exercise with electrocardiogram (EKG) and blood pressure monitoring. The test is used to determine a patient’s functional capacity, assess the probability and extent of coronary artery disease (CAD) as well as assess risks, prognosis and effects of therapy.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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(mL/kg)/min
30
Your result is Good.
VO2 max refers to the maximum amount of oxygen that an individual can utilize during intense or maximal exercise. The greater your VO2 max, the more oxygen your body can consume and transport to your organs, muscles, and tissues, enabling you to have better endurance and performance for a given effort.
Related conditions
This test allows your doctor to learn how your heart reacts to exercise. As you walk on the treadmill, an EKG (electrocardiogram) will check your heart’s electrical activity. The EKG may show if your heart lacks blood flow or has abnormal heartbeats during exercise. The stress test also helps your doctor decide if you need further tests to evaluate your heart.
Before the test begins, your nurse or doctor will explain it to you. Feel free to ask questions and voice concerns at this time. When you understand what will happen, you will be asked to sign a consent for the test to be performed.
To monitor your heart during exercise, adhesive patches, called electrodes, will be put on your chest. Your chest will be cleansed with alcohol and shaved in some areas (if necessary) before these electrodes are placed.
You will be asked about symptoms you have had with exercise in the past. Describe, as completely as you can, any chest discomfort, breathing problems, lightheadedness or dizziness, fluttering in the chest, weakness, fatigue, or anything else you think may be relevant. Also, mention anything you feel while you are being prepared for the test.
A nurse or doctor will be with you throughout the test. Your heart rate and rhythm and your blood pressure will be checked during the test.
Generally, the treadmill’s pace and incline will increase every 3 minutes. It is important that you describe anything you feel as you exercise. If you become short of breath, the nurse may ask you to rate it as “mild,” “moderate,” or “severe.” If you have chest discomfort, you will be asked to describe it as best you can and rate it on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is very mild; 10 is very severe). There is no right or wrong number. This helps your doctor know how you are doing and gives us a better way to compare how you feel before and after the test.
Keep walking until you are told to stop or until you cannot walk any longer. Let the nurse know when you need to slow down. Keep walk-ing as the treadmill slows. Do not jump off.
While you rest, your heart will continue to be monitored.
Inform the doctor or nurse about any temporary or permanent condition that could affect your ability to move, walk, bear weight, or keep your balance. If possible, discuss this when you are first scheduled for the test. It is also important that the doctor and/or nurse conducting the test have this information.
Carefully follow your doctor’s instructions about medications. Some medications should be stopped for 48 hours before the test; others should not be stopped. If you do not have clear instructions about all your medications (including those for your heart, blood pressure, or other medications), contact your doctor or nurse a few days before the test.
Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine 8 hours before the test. Do not eat 2 hours before the test, and do not drink liquids 1 hour before the test. If your exercise test is combined with heart imaging (such as a thallium scan), follow the specific instructions for that test.
Try to be as well rested as possible. You may need to reschedule the test if you feel unwell (for example, if you have a cold). If you do not feel you can give your maximum exercise effort, contact your nurse or doctor before the test.
Wear loose, comfortable clothing with a separate top and bottom. Women should wear bras. Wear comfortable, flat shoes that will not slip off while you are walking.
After the procedure:
You can eat and drink as usual.
Depending on how you feel, you may go about your normal routine or take it easy if the test tired you.
Do not take a hot shower for at least an hour after the test. Your blood vessels expand with exercise and need time to return to normal. A hot shower may expand them more, causing low blood pressure and dizziness.
Procedures/Diagnostic Tests. Exercise tolerance test. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. [accessed on Dec 11, 2018]
Vilcant V, Zeltser R. Treadmill Stress Testing. [Updated 2018 Oct 27]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. [accessed on Dec 11, 2018]
Am Fam Physician. 2017 Sep 1;96(5):293-299. Exercise Stress Testing: Indications and Common Questions. Garner KK, Pomeroy W, Arnold JJ. [accessed on Dec 11, 2018]
Am Fam Physician. 1999 Jan 15;59(2):401-10. Ordering and understanding the exercise stress test. Darrow MD. [accessed on Dec 11, 2018]
Harvard Men's Health. Cardiac exercise stress testing: What it can and cannot tell you. [accessed on Dec 11, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Stress Echocardiography
Stress Echocardiography
Also called: Echocardiography Stress Test, Stress Echo
Stress echocardiography, or echo, is a test that uses sound waves to create moving pictures of your heart. A stress echo is done as part of a stress test. Some heart problems, such as coronary heart disease, are easier to diagnose when the heart is working hard and beating fast.
Stress Echocardiography
Also called: Echocardiography Stress Test, Stress Echo
Stress echocardiography, or echo, is a test that uses sound waves to create moving pictures of your heart. A stress echo is done as part of a stress test. Some heart problems, such as coronary heart disease, are easier to diagnose when the heart is working hard and beating fast.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that blood flow through the coronary arteries is probably normal.
Related conditions
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007150.htm [accessed on Feb 23, 2022]
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/stress-tests/ [accessed on Feb 23, 2022]
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/echocardiography [accessed on Feb 23, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Treatment
Oxygen therapy
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)
Oxygen therapy
The image shows how a nasal cannula and portable oxygen container are attached to a patient.
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)
What Are the Treatments for Chronic Bronchitis?
There is no cure for chronic bronchitis. However, treatments can help with symptoms, slow the progress of the disease, and improve your ability to stay active. There are also treatments to prevent or treat complications of the disease. Treatments include
Lifestyle changes, such as
Quitting smoking if you are a smoker. This is the most important step you can take to treat chronic bronchitis.
Avoiding secondhand smoke and places where you might breathe in other lung irritants
Ask your health care provider for an eating plan that will meet your nutritional needs. Also ask about how much physical activity you can do. Physical activity can strengthen the muscles that help you breathe and improve your overall wellness.
Medicines, such as
Bronchodilators, which relax the muscles around your airways. This helps open your airways and makes breathing easier. Most bronchodilators are taken through an inhaler. In more severe cases, the inhaler may also contain steroids to reduce inflammation.
Vaccines for the flu and pneumococcal pneumonia, since people with chronic bronchitis are at higher risk for serious problems from these diseases.
Antibiotics if you get a bacterial or viral lung infection
Oxygen therapy, if you have severe chronic bronchitis and low levels of oxygen in your blood. Oxygen therapy can help you breathe better. You may need extra oxygen all the time or only at certain times.
Pulmonary rehabilitation, which is a program that helps improve the well-being of people who have chronic breathing problems. It may include
An exercise program
Disease management training
Nutritional counseling
Psychological counseling
A lung transplant, as a last resort for people who have severe symptoms that have not gotten better with medicines
If you have chronic bronchitis, it's important to know when and where to get help for your symptoms. You should get emergency care if you have severe symptoms, such as trouble catching your breath or talking. Call your health care provider if your symptoms are getting worse or if you have signs of an infection, such as a fever.
Source: National Library of Medicine (NLM)
Additional Materials (2)
Chronic bronchitis treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Lung transplantation, pulmonary transplantation
The illustration shows the process of a lung transplant. In figure A, the airway and blood vessels between a recipient's diseased right lung and heart are cut. The inset image shows the location of the lungs and heart in the body. In figure B, a healthy donor lung is stitched to the recipient's blood vessels and airway.
Image by NHLBI, NIH
11:10
Chronic bronchitis treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Lung transplantation, pulmonary transplantation
NHLBI, NIH
Prevention
Healthy Cilia / Smoke-Damaged Cilia
Respiratory Cilia Damaged by Smoking
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Healthy Cilia / Smoke-Damaged Cilia
Respiratory Cilia Damaged by Smoking
1) A close up view of healthy respiratory cilia, the hairlike structures that line the respiratory pathway. Healthy cilia move in a regular pattern to push foreign contaminants, bound in mucus, out toward the mouth and nose to be expelled from the body.
2) A close up view of damaged respiratory cilia, the hairlike structures that line the respiratory pathway. Unhealthy cilia are worn down and some are incapable of movement. They cannot beat in unison to push contaminants out of the respiratory system, as they do when healthy.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Can Chronic Bronchitis Be Prevented?
Since smoking causes most cases of chronic bronchitis, the best way to prevent it is to not smoke. It's also important to try to avoid lung irritants such as secondhand smoke, air pollution, chemical fumes, and dusts.
Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (2)
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Quit Smoking: Countdown to Better Health
The health benefits of quitting smoking can help most of the major parts of your body: from your brain to your DNA. Learn the benefits of quitting from the first 12 hours to the next 15 years.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Cigarette smoke -The Lungs Under Attack
Bronchial tubes are lined with hairlike cilia and mucus-producing goblet cells. The mucus traps pollutants and germs, and the cilia wave the trapped invaders back toward the exit. The system was not designed to manage the toxins in cigarette smoke, which cause inflammation. The results: cilia stop working, mucus is overproduced, and the damaged lining of your respiratory system is vulnerable.
Send this HealthJournal to your friends or across your social medias.
Chronic Bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation and irritation of the bronchial tubes; the airways that carry air to your lungs. Learn about the risk factors for chronic bronchitis, the signs and symptoms, and possible treatments.