We all need to drink water. How much you need depends on your size, activity level, and the weather where you live.

The water you drink is a combination of surface water and groundwater. Surface water includes rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Groundwater comes from underground. The United States has one of the safest water supplies in the world, but drinking water quality can vary from place to place. It depends on the condition of the source water and the treatment it receives. Treatment may include adding fluoride to prevent cavities and chlorine to kill germs.

Your water supplier must give you annual reports on drinking water. The reports include where your water came from and what contaminants are in it.

Our drinking water originates from groundwater, wells, rivers, lakes, streams, and reservoirs. Water treatment plants help to clean the water to make it safe to drink.

Common drinking water, or tap water, contains different combinations of naturally occurring minerals, which can affect the water’s taste.

Why is Drinking Water a concern?

All water contains some level of impurities, minerals, and contaminants. In most cases, these levels are very low, and the water is still safe to drink. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets acceptable limits for more than 90 contaminants that may be in drinking water and pose a risk to human health. At low levels they may not harm you, but if the levels of certain contaminants get too high, these waer pllutants can cause short-term and long-term health effects.

Who is at risk?

People in cities usually drink water filtered through water treatment plants. This water is tested at regular intervals. But if a contaminant passes through a water treatment system, it can potentially affect many people at once.

People living in rural areas frequently drink water pumped from a private well. Wells are tested less frequently for pollutants.

What pollutants are of greatest concern?

• Arseniccan enter the water supply through natural deposits or through industrial and agricultural pollution.
• Leadpipes and connectors were commonly used in plumbing in the past. Lead pipes may corrode if the levels of certain elements in the water fall out of balance. This can cause unsafe levels of lead to build up in drinking water. Monitoring water and adding anti-corrosive agents when necessary can prevent this from happening.

Reduce your risk

Evaluate

• Do you use well water?
• Do you live in a city that uses lead pipes and connectors?

Avoid and Address

• Routinely test well water for chemical contamination.
• If your well water has high levels of chemicals, contact your local or state health agency or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for information on how to reduce your exposure to these chemicals.
• Learn more about the quality of tap water in your area by reading your Consumer Confidence Report to avoid potential dangers.
• Have your drinking water tested by contacting a laboratory certified by your state or territory.

General

Where does my drinking water come from?

The United States has one of the safest and most reliable drinking water systems in the world. Every year, millions of people living in the United States get their tap water from a public community water system.

The drinking water that is supplied to our homes comes from either a surface water or ground water source. Surface water collects in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Ground water is water located below the ground where it collects in pores and spaces within rocks and in underground aquifers. We get ground water by drilling wells and pumping it to the surface.

Water travels to your tap from a surface water or ground water source through your local water utility or through an individual water system, such as a private well.

A private well uses ground water as its water source. Owners of private wells and other individual water systems are responsible for ensuring that their water is safe from contaminants.

Public Water Systems

How is my drinking water regulated?

All public water systems in the United States are required to follow the standards and regulations set by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA regulations that protect public water systems do not apply to privately owned wells or other individual water systems. Owners of private wells are responsible for ensuring that their well water is safe from contaminants.

What type of health issues can be related to water quality?

Contaminants in our water can lead to health issues, including gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems, and neurological disorders. Infants, young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems may be at increased risk for becoming sick after drinking contaminated water. For example, elevated levels of lead can cause serious health problems, especially for pregnant women and young children. Federal law requires that systems reduce certain contaminants to set levels in order to protect human health.

How do I know that the water in my home is safe to drink?

EPA is responsible for making sure that public water supplies within the United States are safe. In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law sought to protect the nation’s public drinking water supply by giving EPA authority to set the standards for drinking water quality and oversee the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. In 1986 and 1996, the law was amended to protect drinking water and its sources, which include rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and ground water wells.

How do germs and chemicals get into my drinking water?

There can be many sources of contamination of our water systems. The most common sources of contaminants include:

Naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (e.g., arsenic, radon, uranium) Local land use practices (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides, livestock, concentrated animal feeding operations) Manufacturing processes Sewer overflows Malfunctioning wastewater treatment systems (e.g., nearby septic systems)

The parasite Cryptosporidium can survive a long time, even after the water is treated with chlorine or iodine. Cryptosporidium can be removed from water by filtering through a reverse osmosis filter, an “absolute one micron” filter, or a filter certified to remove Cryptosporidium under NSF International Standard #53 for either “cyst removal” or “cyst reduction.”  Filtering does not remove bacteria and viruses. Ultraviolet light treatment of water is not effective against Cryptosporidium at normally used levels.

How can I find out if there has been a violation in our public water standard?

When water quality standards have not been met, your public water system must alert and notify customers if there is a risk to their health. Your annual Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) is another way to find out about the water quality in your area, and find information regarding contaminants, possible health effects, and the water’s source.

EPA regulates many contaminants that pose known human health risks. EPA makes sure that water meets certain standards, so you can be sure that high levels of contaminants are not in your water.

How do I filter water at my home if I am concerned about water quality?

Different water filters have different functions. Some can make your water taste better, while others can remove harmful chemicals or germs. 

How do I remove the parasite Cryptosporidium from my drinking water?

The parasite Cryptosporidium can survive a long time, even after the water is treated with chlorine or iodine. Cryptosporidium can be removed from water by filtering through a reverse osmosis filter, an “absolute one micron” filter, or a filter certified to remove Cryptosporidium under NSF International Standard #53 for either “cyst removal” or “cyst reduction.”  Filtering does not remove bacteria and viruses. Ultraviolet light treatment of water is not effective against Cryptosporidium at normally used levels.

How can I find out if there has been a violation in our public water standard?

When water quality standards have not been met, your public water system must alert and notify customers if there is a risk to their health. Your annual Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) is another way to find out about the water quality in your area, and find information regarding contaminants, possible health effects, and the water’s source.

Getting enough water every day is important for your health. Drinking water can prevent dehydration, a condition that can cause unclear thinking, result in mood change, cause your body to overheat, and lead to constipation and kidney stones. Water has no calories, so it can also help with managing body weight and reducing calorie intake when substituted for drinks with calories, such as sweet tea or regular soda.

Water helps your body:

• Keep a normal temperature.
• Lubricate and cushion joints.
• Protect your spinal cord and other sensitive tissues.
• Get rid of wastes through urination, perspiration, and bowel movements.

Your body needs more water when you are:

• In hot climates.
• More physically active.
• Running a fever.
• Having diarrhea or vomiting.

Everyone should consume water from foods and beverages every day.

Although there is no recommendation for how much plain water everyone should drink daily, there are recommendations for how much daily total water intake should come from a variety of beverages and foods.

Daily total water intake (fluid) is defined as the amount of water consumed from foods, plain drinking water, and other beverages. Daily water intake recommendations vary by age, sex, pregnancy status, and breastfeeding status.  Most of your fluid needs are met through the water and other beverages you drink. You can get some fluids through the foods that you eat—especially foods with high water content, such as many fruits and vegetables. Drinking water is one good way of getting fluids as it has zero calories.

Tips to Drink More Water

• Carry a water bottle with you and refill it throughout the day.
• Freeze some freezer safe water bottles. Take one with you for ice-cold water all day long.
• Choose water over sugary drinks.
• Opt for water when eating out. You’ll save money and reduce calories.
• Serve water during meals.
• Add a wedge of lime or lemon to your water. This can help improve the taste.
• Make sure your kids are getting enough water too.

Plain water consumption varies by age, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.

• During 2015–2018, US children and adolescents drank an average of 23 ounces of plain water daily, and US adults drank an average of 44 ounces.
• Among US children and adolescents, plain water intake is significantly lower in younger children, non-Hispanic Black children or Hispanic children (compared to non-Hispanic White children), those living in lower-income households, youth whose head of household had less than a high school education (compared to college or higher), and those who are underweight or normal weight (compared to those with obesity) (Table 1).
• Among US adults, plain water intake is significantly lower in older adults, non-Hispanic Black adults (compared to non-Hispanic White adults), adults with lower income and lower education, and adults without obesity (Table 2).

Table 1

Mean Daily Plain Water^a Intakes Among US Children and Adolescents Aged 2 to 19 Years, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015–2018^b

* Significantly different from the reference group (P 0.05).
a Plain water included plain tap water, water from a drinking fountain, water from a water cooler, bottled water, and spring water.
b Data were from a single 24-hour dietary recall and estimates were weighed.
c Weight status was based on calculated body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) from measured weight and height data: underweight/healthy weight (BMI 85th percentile), overweight (BMI 85th to 95th percentile), obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile), in relation to the 2000 CDC growth charts age- and sex-specific percentiles.

Table 2

Mean Daily Plain Water^a Intakes Among US Adults Aged 20 Years and Older, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015–2018^b

GED: General Educational Development.
^* Significantly different from the reference group (P 0.05).
^a Plain water included plain tap water, water from a drinking fountain, water from a water cooler, bottled water, and spring water.
^b Data were from a single 24-hour dietary recall and estimates were weighed.
^c Weight status was based on calculated body mass index (BMI) (kg/m²): underweight/healthy weight, BMI 25; overweight, BMI 25 to 30; obesity, BMI ≥30.

The United States is fortunate to have one of the safest public drinking water supplies in the world.

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), public drinking water systems consist of community and non-community systems.

• A community water system (CWS) supplies water to the same population year-round. It serves at least 25 people at their primary residences or at least 15 residences that are primary residences (for example, municipalities, mobile home park, sub-divisions).
• Non-community water systems are composed of transient and non-transient water systems.
  • Transient non-community water systems (TNCWS) provide water to 25 or more people for at least 60 days/year, but not to the same people and not on a regular basis (for example, gas stations, campgrounds).
  • Non-transient non-community water systems (NTNCWS) regularly supply water to at least 25 of the same people at least six month per year, but not year-round (for example, schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals which have their own water systems).

Public Water Systems Fast Facts

• Of the approximately 155,693 public water systems in the United States, 52,110 (33.5%) are community systems and 103,583 (66.5%) are noncommunity systems, including 84,744 transient systems and 18,839 nontransient systems.
• Over 286 million Americans get their tap water from a community water system.
• 8% of U.S. community water systems provide water to 82% of the U.S. population through large municipal water systems.
• Although the majority of community water systems (78%) are supplied by ground water, more people (68%) are supplied year-round by community water systems that use surface water.

Some chemicals can make you sick if they are in your tap water at unsafe levels. Find information below about the chemicals that most often contaminate tap water and cause disease, and how to remove them.

Arsenic

• Common sources: Natural deposits in the earth or industrial and agricultural pollution
• Removing it from drinking water: Treat water using reverse osmosis, ultra-filtration, distillation, or ion exchange. 
• Illness: Symptoms can include nausea and vomiting, decreased production of red and white blood cells, abnormal heart rhythm, damage to blood vessels, and a sensation of “pins and needles” in hands and feet. 

Copper

• Common sources: Copper pipes or mining, farming, or industrial pollution
• Removing it from drinking water:
  • Treat water using reverse osmosis, ultra-filtration, distillation, or ion exchange. 
  • If copper pipes are contaminating your water, another option is to flush faucets that have not been used for 6 or more hours. Flush faucets by running the water for at least 15 seconds before drinking or using it. Avoid cooking with or drinking water from hot water taps because hot water dissolves copper more easily than cold water does.
• Illness: Symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. 

Lead

• Common sources: Lead pipes are the most common source. Other sources include brass fixtures, “packer” elements in private wells that are 20 years old or older, or leaded-brass parts in older submersible pumps used in private wells.
• Removing it from drinking water:
  • Remove the lead source, if possible. If you have a private well, check both the well and the pump for potential lead sources. A licensed well-water contractor can help you determine if any of the well’s parts are a source of lead.
  • Use a filter certified to remove lead from water.
  • Flush your water before using it.

Nitrate

• Common sources: Fertilizers, septic systems, animal feedlots, industrial waste, or food processing waste
• Removing it from drinking water: Treat water using ion exchange, distillation, or reverse osmosis. 
• Illness: High levels of nitrate or nitrite can decrease the ability of your blood to carry oxygen to your tissues. Infants younger than 6 months may be particularly at risk. Related symptoms can include decreases in blood pressure, increased heart rate, headaches, stomach cramps, and vomiting.

Radon

• Common sources: Radon forms naturally in ground water when naturally occurring uranium, radium, and thorium break down. Showering, washing dishes, and doing laundry can disturb the water and release radon gas into the air you breathe.
• Removing it from drinking water: Treat water using aeration or GAC treatment where the water enters your home (point-of-entry device) so that it will all be treated. Point-of-use devices, such as those installed on a tap or under the sink, will only treat a small portion of your water and will not reduce radon in your water.
  • Aeration treatment—spraying water or mixing it with air and then venting the air from the water before use
  • GAC treatment—filtering water through granular activated carbon. Radon attaches to the carbon and leaves the water free of radon. Disposing of the carbon may require special handling if it is used at a high radon level or if it has been used for a long time.
• Illness: Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after cigarette smoking. 

Find out if your tap water is contaminated

If you suspect your tap water has harmful germs or chemicals in it, contact your drinking water utility. If you have a private well, contact your local health department for help with water testing. Consider using bottled water for drinking and cooking until the problem is resolved.

Some germs can make you sick if they are in your tap water. Find information below about the germs that most often contaminate tap water and cause disease, and how to remove or control them.

Cryptosporidium (Crypto)

• Common sources: Feces (poop) from infected people or animals that gets into the water through sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes), use a filter certified to remove Crypto, or treat water using reverse osmosis, UV light, or ozone.
• Illness: The most common symptom is watery diarrhea. Learn more.

Campylobacter

• Common sources: Poop from infected people or animals that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Specially designed filters and other water treatment technologies might also be effective.
• Illness: Common symptoms include diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps. Learn more.

E. coli O157

• Common sources: Cattle farms, where E. coli O157 can live in the intestines of healthy cattle; less commonly, poop from an infected person or animal that gets into the water through sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Specially designed filters and other water treatment technologies might also be effective.
• Illness: Common symptoms include severe stomach cramps, diarrhea (often bloody), and vomiting. Learn more.

Enterovirus

• Common sources: Poop from infected people that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, or polluted storm water runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes). Disinfectants don’t work well to kill enteroviruses and enteroviruses are too small to be removed by home or camping water filters.
• Illness: Symptoms are often mild and commonly include fever, runny nose, sneezing, cough, skin rash, mouth blisters, or body and muscle aches. Learn more.

Giardia

• Common sources: Poop from infected people or animals that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes), use a filter certified to remove Giardia or Cryptosporidium cysts, or treat water using reverse osmosis, UV light, or ozone.
• Illness: Common symptoms include diarrhea, gas, greasy stools (poop), stomach cramps or pain, upset stomach, nausea, vomiting, or dehydration (loss of fluids). Learn more.

Hepatitis A virus

• Common sources: Poop from infected people that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Hepatitis A virus is too small to be removed by home or camping water filters.
• Illness: Symptoms can include yellow skin or eyes, loss of appetite, upset stomach, throwing up, stomach pain, fever, dark urine or light-colored stools (poop), diarrhea, joint pain, or feeling tired. Learn more.

Legionella

• Common sources: Legionella bacteria are found naturally in freshwater environments, like lakes and streams. The bacteria can become a health concern when they grow and spread in building water systems, such as faucets or hot water heaters, and devices that create small droplets of water, such as cooling towers, hot tubs, or decorative fountains. Most identified outbreaks are in buildings with large, complex water systems, such as hotels, long-term care facilities, and hospitals.
• Removing it from drinking water: To control the growth and spread of Legionella in building water systems, owners and managers should maintain water systems and implement a water management program with Legionella control measures. You can also take steps at home to reduce the growth and spread of Legionella and other germs in your faucets, showerheads, hot water heater, and other water devices like hot tubs [PDF – 1 page].
• Illness: Symptoms can include cough, shortness of breath, fever, muscle aches, or headaches. Learn more.

Norovirus

• Common sources: Poop from infected people that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, or polluted storm water runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes). Noroviruses are moderately resistant to chlorination, so check with your health department about disinfection. Noroviruses are too small to be removed by home or camping water filters.
• Illness: Common symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, or stomach pain. Learn more.

Rotavirus

• Common sources: Poop from infected people that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, or polluted storm water runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Rotavirus is too small to be removed by home or camping water filters.
• Illness: Common symptoms include severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, fever, or abdominal pain. Learn more.

Salmonella

• Common sources: Poop from infected people or animals that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, polluted storm water runoff, or agricultural runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Specially designed filters and other water treatment technologies might also be effective.
• Illness: Common symptoms include diarrhea (that can be bloody), fever, and stomach cramps. Learn more.

Shigella

• Common sources: Poop from infected people that gets into the water from sewage overflows, sewage systems that are not working properly, or polluted storm water runoff
• Removing it from drinking water: Boil your water for 1 minute (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes) or disinfect it using chemicals. Specially designed filters and other water treatment technologies might also be effective.
• Illness: Common symptoms include diarrhea (that can be bloody), fever, stomach pain, or feeling the need to poop even when bowels are empty. Learn more.

Report Waterborne Illnesses

If you think you or someone you know got sick from water, please report it to your local health department. Report it even if you don’t know what made you sick. Reporting an illness can help public health officials identify a waterborne disease outbreak and keep others from getting sick.

Follow these steps to make sure you and your family have enough safe food and water (for drinking, cooking, bathing, etc.) available in the event of a disaster or emergency.

Prepare an Emergency Food Supply

A disaster can easily disrupt the food supply at any time, so plan to have at least a 3-day supply of food on hand.

Keep foods that:

• Have a long storage life
• Require little or no cooking, water, or refrigeration, in case utilities are disrupted
• Meet the needs of babies or other family members who are on special diets
• Meet pets’ needs
• Are not very salty or spicy, as these foods increase the need for drinking water, which may be in short supply

How To Store Emergency Food

When storing food, it is not necessary to buy dehydrated or other types of emergency food.

• Check the expiration dates on canned foods and dry mixes. Home-canned food usually needs to be thrown out after a year.
• Use and replace food before its expiration date.

Certain storage conditions can enhance the shelf life of canned or dried foods. The ideal location is a cool, dry, dark place. The best temperature is 40° to 70°F.

• Store foods away from ranges or refrigerator exhausts. Heat causes many foods to spoil more quickly.
• Store food away from petroleum products, such as gasoline, oil, paints, and solvents. Some food products absorb their smell.
• Protect food from rodents and insects. Items stored in boxes or in paper cartons will keep longer if they are heavily wrapped or stored in waterproof, airtight containers.

Preparing Food

Preparing food after a disaster or emergency may be difficult due to damage to your home and loss of electricity, gas, and water. Having the following items available will help you to prepare meals safely:

• Cooking utensils
• Knives, forks, and spoons
• Paper plates, cups, and towels
• A manual can- and bottle-opener
• Heavy-duty aluminum foil
• Propane gas or charcoal grill; camp stove
• Fuel for cooking, such as charcoal. (CAUTION: Only use charcoal grills or camp stoves outside of your home to avoid smoke inhalation and carbon monoxide poisoning.)

Prepare an Emergency Water Supply

• Store at least 1 gallon of water per day for each person and each pet. Consider storing more water than this for hot climates, for pregnant women, and for people who are sick.
• Store at least a 3-day supply of water for each person and each pet. Try to store a 2-week supply if possible.
• Observe the expiration date for store-bought water; replace other stored water every 6 months.
• Store a bottle of unscented liquid household chlorine bleach to disinfect your water and to use for general cleaning and sanitizing. Try to store bleach in an area where the average temperature stays around 70°F (21°C). Because the amount of active chlorine in bleach decreases over time due to normal decay, consider replacing the bottle each year.

Note: Alcohol dehydrate the body, which increases the need for drinking water.

Water Containers (Cleaning and Storage)

Unopened commercially bottled water is the safest and most reliable emergency water supply.

Use of food-grade water storage containers, such as those found at surplus or camping supply stores, is recommended if you prepare stored water yourself.

Before filling with safe water, use these steps to clean and sanitize storage containers:

• Wash the storage container with dishwashing soap and water and rinse completely with clean water.
• Sanitize the container by adding a solution made by mixing 1 teaspoon of unscented liquid household chlorine bleach in one quart of water.
• Cover the container and shake it well so that the sanitizing bleach solution touches all inside surfaces of the container.
• Wait at least 30 seconds and then pour the sanitizing solution out of the container.
• Let the empty sanitized container air-dry before use OR rinse the empty container with clean, safe water that already is available.

Avoid using the following containers to store safe water:

• Containers that cannot be sealed tightly
• Containers that can break, such as glass bottles
• Containers that have ever held toxic solid or liquid chemicals, such as bleach or pesticides
• Plastic or cardboard bottles, jugs, and containers used for milk or fruit juices

For proper water storage:

• Label container as “drinking water” and include storage date.
• Replace stored water that is not commercially bottled every six months.
• Keep stored water in a place with a fairly constant cool temperature.
• Do not store water containers in direct sunlight.
• Do not store water containers in areas where toxic substances such as gasoline or pesticides are present.

In an emergency situation where regular water service has been interrupted – like a hurricane, flood, or water pipe breakage – local authorities may recommend using only bottled water, boiled water, or disinfected water until regular water service is restored. The instructions below show you how to boil and disinfect water to kill most disease-causing microorganisms that may be present in the water. However, boiling or disinfection will not destroy other contaminants, such as heavy metals, salts, and most other chemicals. 

ONLY USE WATER THAT HAS BEEN PROPERLY DISINFECTED FOR DRINKING, COOKING, MAKING ANY PREPARED DRINK, WASHING DISHES AND FOR BRUSHING TEETH.

• Use bottled water or water you have properly prepared and stored as an emergency water supply.
• Boil water, if you do not have bottled water. Boiling is sufficient to kill pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa (WHO, 2015).
  • If water is cloudy, let it settle and filter it through a clean cloth, paperboiling water towel, or coffee filter.
  • Bring water to a rolling boil for at least one minute. At altitudes above 5,000 feet (1,000 meters), boil water for three minutes.
  • Let water cool naturally and store it in clean containers with covers.       
  • To improve the flat taste of boiled water, add one pinch of salt to each quart or liter of water, or pour the water from one clean container to another several times.
• Disinfect water using household bleach, if you can’t boil water. Only use regular, unscented chlorine bleach products that are suitable for disinfection and sanitization as indicated on the label. The label may say that the active ingredient contains 6 or 8.25% of sodium hypochlorite. Do not use scented, color safe, or bleaches with added cleaners. If water is cloudy, let it settle and filter it through a clean cloth, paper towel, or coffee filter.
  • Locate a clean dropper from your medicine cabinet or emergency supply kit.
  • Locate a fresh liquid chlorine bleach or liquid chlorine bleach that is stored at room temperatures for less than one year.
  • Use the table below as a guide to decide the amount of bleach you should add to the water, for example, 8 drops of 6% bleach, or 6 drops of 8.25% bleach, to each gallon of water. Double the amount of bleach if the water is cloudy, colored, or very cold.
  • Stir and let stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor. If it doesn’t, repeat the dosage and let stand for another 15 minutes before use.
  • If the chlorine taste is too strong, pour the water from one clean container to another and let it stand for a few hours before use.

*Bleach may contain 6 or 8.25% sodium hypochlorite.

• Prepare and store an emergency water supply. Visit the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Website for additional guidance on preparing and storing an emergency water supply.
• Look for other sources of water in and around your home. Although bottled water is your best choice, you may be able to find other sources of water by melting ice cubes or draining your hot water tank or pipes. You can also use river or lake water. It is generally better to use flowing water than still, stagnant water. However, do not use water with floating material in it or water that has a dark color or questionable odor. Regardless of the source, treat the water by following the instructions on the main page above. If you have a well on your property that has been flooded, make sure to disinfect and test the well water after the flood. Contact your state or local health department for advice or review our "What to do With Your Private Well After a Flood" document.
• Consider how the water looks and how to filter it if needed. Disinfection does not work as well when water is cloudy or colored. If water is cloudy, let it settle. Then filter the water through a clean cloth, paper towel, or coffee filter. Store the settled and filtered water in clean containers with covers.

Seems like almost everyone is carrying a bottle of water these days.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates bottled water products, working to ensure that they’re safe to drink.

The FDA protects consumers of bottled water through the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act), which makes manufacturers responsible for producing safe, wholesome, and truthfully labeled food products.

There are regulations that focus specifically on bottled water, including:

• “standard of identity” regulations that define different types of bottled water
• “standard of quality” regulations that set maximum levels of contaminants—including chemical, physical, microbial, and radiological contaminants—allowed in bottled water
• “current good manufacturing practice” (CGMP) regulations that require bottled water to be safe and produced under sanitary conditions

Types of Bottled Water

The FDA describes bottled water as water that’s intended for human consumption and sealed in bottles or other containers with no added ingredients, except that it may contain safe and suitable antimicrobial agents. Fluoride may also be added within the limits set by the FDA.

The agency classifies some bottled water by its origin. Here are four of those classifications:

• Artesian well water. This water is collected from a well that taps an aquifer—layers of porous rock, sand, and earth that contain water—which is under pressure from surrounding upper layers of rock or clay. When tapped, the pressure in the aquifer, commonly called artesian pressure, pushes the water above the level of the aquifer, sometimes to the surface. Other means may be used to help bring the water to the surface.
• Mineral water. This water comes from an underground source and contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids. Minerals and trace elements must come from the source of the underground water. They cannot be added later.
• Spring water. Derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface, this water must be collected only at the spring or through a borehole that taps the underground formation feeding the spring. If some external force is used to collect the water through a borehole, the water must have the same composition and quality as the water that naturally flows to the surface.
• Well water. This is water from a hole bored or drilled into the ground, which taps into an aquifer.

Bottled water may be used as an ingredient in beverages, such as diluted juices or flavored bottled waters. However, beverages labeled as containing “sparkling water,” “seltzer water,” “soda water,” “tonic water,” or “club soda” aren’t included as bottled water under the FDA’s regulations. These beverages are instead considered to be soft drinks.

It May Be Tap Water

Some bottled water also comes from municipal sources—in other words, public drinking water or tap water. Municipal water is usually treated before it is bottled. Examples of water treatments include:

• Distillation. Water is turned into a vapor, leaving minerals behind. Vapors are then condensed into water again.
• Reverse osmosis. Water is forced through membranes to remove minerals.
• Absolute 1 micron filtration. Water flows through filters that remove particles larger than one micron—.00004 inches—in size. These particles include Cryptosporidium, a parasitic pathogen that can cause gastrointestinal illness.
• Ozonation. Bottlers of all types of waters typically use ozone gas, an antimicrobial agent, instead of chlorine to disinfect the water. (Chlorine can add residual taste and odor to the water.)

Bottled water that has been treated by distillation, reverse osmosis, or another suitable process may meet standards that allow it to be labeled as “purified water.”

Ensuring Quality and Safety

Federal quality standards for bottled water were first adopted in 1973. They were based on U.S. Public Health Service standards for drinking water set in 1962.

The 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act gave regulatory oversight of public drinking water to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The FDA subsequently took responsibility, under the FD&C Act, for ensuring that the quality standards for bottled water are compatible with EPA standards for public drinking water.

Each time EPA establishes a standard for a contaminant, the FDA either adopts it for bottled water or finds that the standard isn’t necessary for bottled water.

In some cases, standards for bottled water and public drinking water differ. For example, because lead can leach from pipes as water travels from water utilities to home faucets, EPA has set its limit for lead in public drinking water water at 15 parts per billion (ppb). For bottled water, for which lead pipes aren’t used, the lead limit is set at 5 ppb.

For bottled water production, bottlers must follow the CGMP regulations that are specific to processing and bottling drinking water, put in place and enforced by the FDA. Water must be sampled, analyzed, and found to be safe and sanitary. These regulations also require proper plant and equipment design, bottling procedures, and record keeping.

In addition, bottled water processors are generally required to register with the FDA as food facilities. Domestic and foreign facilities that are required to register as food facilities must comply with the requirements for risk-based preventive controls mandated by the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) as well as the modernized Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs) of this rule that cover all human food facilities (unless an exemption applies). 

Furthermore, the FDA oversees inspections of bottling plants. The agency inspects bottled water plants under its general food safety program and has states perform some plant inspections under contract. (Some states also require bottled water firms to be licensed annually.)

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are both responsible for the safety of drinking water. EPA regulates public drinking water (tap water), while FDA regulates bottled drinking water.

FDA has set Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs) specifically for bottled water. They require bottled water producers to:

• Process, bottle, hold and transport bottled water under sanitary conditions;
• Protect water sources from bacteria, chemicals and other contaminants;
• Use quality control processes to ensure the bacteriological and chemical safety of the water;
• Sample and test both source water and the final product for contaminants.

FDA monitors and inspects bottled water products and processing plants under its food safety program. When FDA inspects plants, the Agency verifies that the plant's product water and operational water supply are obtained from an approved source; inspects washing and sanitizing procedures; inspects bottling operations; and determines whether the companies analyze their source water and product water for contaminants.

Americans like bottled water. According to the International Bottled Water Association, bottled water was the second most popular beverage in the U.S. in 2005, with Americans consuming more than 7.5 million gallons of bottled water - an average of 26 gallons per person. Today, only carbonated soft drinks out-sell bottled water.

Defining "Bottled Water"

Under FDA labeling rules, bottled water includes products labeled:

• Bottled water
• Drinking water
• Artesian water
• Mineral water
• Sparkling bottled water
• Spring water
• Purified water
  • distilled
  • demineralized
  • deionized
  • reverse osmosis water

Waters with added carbonation, soda water (or club soda), tonic water and seltzer historically are regulated by FDA as soft drinks.

Flavored Water and Nutrient-Added Water Beverages

New types of flavored and/or nutrient-added water beverages have begun to appear in stores and on food service menus. Some are simply bottled water with flavoring, others may also contain added nutrients such as vitamins, electrolytes like sodium and potassium, and amino acids. The bottled water ingredients of these flavored and nutrient-added water beverages must meet the bottled water requirements if the term "water" is highlighted on the label as in, for example, a product named Berry Flavored Spring Water Beverage. In addition, the flavorings and nutrients added to these beverages must comply with all applicable FDA safety requirements and they must be identified in the ingredient list on the label.

Text Version of the Sample of a Flavored Spring Water Beverage Label:
Nutrition Facts
Serving Size 8 fl oz (240g)
Servings Per Container about 2

Not a significant source of calories from fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium or iron.
* Amount Per Serving
** Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet.

Americans spend billions of dollars every year on commercially bottled water. People choose bottled water for a variety of reasons including taste, convenience, as a substitute for other beverages, or because of perceived health benefits.

Bottled Water Regulation

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the safety of bottled water and bases its standards on the EPA standards for tap water. If these standards are met, water is considered safe for most healthy individuals. The bottled water industry must also follow FDA’s good manufacturing practices for processing and bottling drinking water.

Read the label on your bottled water to learn where the water comes from and how it has been treated to make it safe for drinking.

While there is currently no standardized label for bottled water, labels may tell you about the way the water is treated. Check the label for a toll-free number or web page address of the company that bottled the water to learn more.

Bottled Water and People with Weakened Immune Systems

People with weakened immune systems, such as people with HIV, diabetes, organ transplants or going through chemotherapy, should take special precautions with the water they drink. The parasite Cryptosporidium can cause chronic or severe illness and even life-threatening symptoms in people with weakened immune systems. Healthy people would be more likely to develop a mild illness from this parasite.

Look for the following types of treatments for bottled water that protect against Cryptosporidium:

• Reverse osmosis
• Distillation
• Filtration with an absolute 1micron filter

Bottled Water and Outbreaks

Although illness outbreaks associated with bottled water are rarely reported, they do occur. It is important for bottled water manufacturers, distributors, and consumers to do these things:

• Protect and properly treat water before bottling
• Maintain good manufacturing processes
• Protect bottled water during shipping and storage
• Prevent contamination after consumers purchase bottled water

If you suspect an illness resulting from drinking bottled water, contact your local public health department.

Contaminated bottled water can harm your health, including causing gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems, and neurological disorders. Infants, young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems may be more likely to get sick from some contaminants.

What are PFAS?

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals that have been used in consumer products around the world since about the 1950s. Because they resist grease, water, and oil, PFAS have been used to make nonstick cookware, firefighting foams, water-repellent clothing, stain-resistant fabrics, and much more.

Why are PFAS harmful?

Experts around the world have linked PFAS to serious health risks. These include increased cholesterol levels, changes in liver enzymes, decreased vaccine response in children, impacts on infant birth weight, increased risk of high blood pressure or preeclampsia in pregnant people, and increased risk of kidney or testicular cancer. Over time, PFAS leak into the soil, water, and air. Since they break down slowly, if at all, people and animals are repeatedly exposed to them, and blood levels of some PFAS can build up over time. A recent Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study found that PFAS are present in the blood of 97% of Americans.

The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) funds the Superfund Research Program (SRP), which aims to understand more about PFAS exposures and health effects, among other efforts. Research funded by the SRP has linked PFAS to altered hormones, increased body fat, thyroid issues, and cholesterol issues. Most of these findings come from animal studies, but because many PFAS are thought to harm humans and animals in similar ways, their results can also be applied to people. People living in communities close to Superfund sites—which are contaminated with hazardous waste—were found to have similar exposures to PFAS as the animals in their research studies.

PFAS are found in drinking water all over the world, including throughout the United States, and are not currently removed using conventional water treatment strategies. More research is needed to find decontamination strategies for PFAS-polluted water, specifically the types and characteristics of PFAS that people are being exposed to and how to trace the sources of contaminants in the water.

NIEHS-supported technology

Another recent study has found a promising new PFAS decontamination strategy. NIEHS and SRP recently funded work with CycloPure Inc. to research how its newly developed technology could remove PFAS from water. With this technology, CycloPure quickly and effectively removed more than 95% of two common PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, as well as the other 38 types of PFAS targeted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

CycloPure’s findings led to the creation of a water filter cartridge compatible with commercial Brita pitchers. These Purefast™ cartridges, which have been available for purchase since early April 2022, are an affordable and effective option to safely decontaminate drinking water. The filters cost $45 and can filter up to 65 gallons of water. Each cartridge comes in a package with a prepaid return label to send used filters back to CycloPure, where the captured toxins can be turned into salts and be disposed of without causing any environmental harm. With the help of environmental engineering firms, CycloPure is testing its technology’s ability to treat large-scale water sources and sustainably provide PFAS-free water.

It’s not enough to just stop producing PFAS since the chemicals are already in the environment and take a long time to degrade. More ways to safely destroy PFAS and decontaminate the environment need to be further researched. With the support of NIEHS and SRP, CycloPure Inc. is piloting cutting-edge technology to decontaminate drinking water in a sustainable way.

Other NIEHS-supported research on exposure to toxic chemicals

Natural History of the Human Biological Response to Environmental Exposure and Injury

Environmental exposures such as pollution, diet, and stress can make human disease more prevalent and severe. Researchers want to better understand environmentally induced injury and inflammation to help develop treatment methods. This study—which is currently recruiting participants—will collect a range of biological samples. Participants’ household dust samples may also be collected. 

Study of Exposure to Chemicals in Consumer Products

Researchers recently completed a study to find better ways to measure people’s exposure to chemicals in household and personal care products. Because manufacturers do not always disclose the exact ingredients in their products, it can be hard to determine the extent to which consumers are exposed. Women ages 35 to 74 who use at least 15 consumer products per day were medically screened and their usage habits recorded by researchers. NIEHS and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency collaborated on this study.