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Women's Health Checkup

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Women's Health Checkup

Aerobic athletes in general, particularly lean ones, have lower LDL (or "bad" cholesterol) levels

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Baseline Your Health

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Baseline Your Health

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Women's Health Checkup

Regular health exams and tests can help find problems before they start. They also can help find problems early, when your chances for treatment are better. As a woman, you need some special exams and screenings. During your checkup, your health care provider will usually do:

A pelvic exam - an exam to check if internal female organs are normal by feeling their shape and size.
A Pap test - a test to check for cancer of the cervix, the opening to a woman's uterus. Cells from the cervix are examined under a microscope.
A clinical breast exam - to check for breast cancer by feeling and looking at your breasts.

Your health care provider may also recommend other tests, including a mammogram or a test for HPV.

Source: Women's Health Checkup: MedlinePlus

Additional Materials (5)

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Champions of Women’s Health Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

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National Women's Check-Up day

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Well-Woman Visit

Doctor examining young girl

Image by Pavel Danilyuk/Pexels

Get Your Well-Woman Visit Every Year

Schedule a well-woman visit with your doctor or nurse every year. The well-woman visit is an important way to help you stay healthy.

Well-woman visits include a full checkup, separate from any other visit for sickness or injury. These visits focus on preventive care for women, which may include:

Services, like shots, that improve your health by preventing diseases and other health problems
Screenings, which are medical tests to check for diseases early when they may be easier to treat
Education and counseling to help you make informed health decisions

What happens during a well-woman visit?

Your well-woman visit is a chance to focus on your overall health and wellness. There are 3 main goals for the visit:

Documenting your health habits and history
Getting a physical exam
Setting health goals

What to Expect

Health habits and history

Before your physical exam, the doctor or nurse will ask you to answer some questions about your overall health. These questions may cover topics like your:

Medical history and family health history
Mental health history, including depression
Sexual activity and sexual partners
Eating and physical activity habits
Use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs
Use of any medicines, vitamins, minerals, or herbs
Home life and relationships

Physical exam

The doctor or nurse will examine your body, which may include:

Measuring your height and weight
Calculating your body mass index (BMI) to see if you're at a healthy weight
Checking your blood pressure
Taking your temperature
Doing a clinical breast exam (feeling your breasts and under your arms for lumps or other changes)
Doing a pelvic exam (looking at your vagina and feeling around your pelvis)

Health goals

You and the doctor or nurse will talk about next steps for helping you stay healthy. Together, you can decide which screenings or follow-up services are right for you.

If you have health goals, like losing weight or quitting smoking, you and your doctor or nurse can also make a plan to help you meet these goals.

Get Ready

Take these steps to get the most out of your well-woman visit.

Know your family health history.

Your family's health history is an important part of your personal health record. Be prepared to tell your doctor or nurse this information during your well-woman visit. Don't forget to share any new health problems in your family since your last visit.

Make a list of questions for your doctor.

This visit is a great time to ask the doctor or nurse any questions about:

Birth control options
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
Preparing to get pregnant
Menopause
Signs of an unhealthy relationship
Anxiety, depression, or other mental health issues
Eating healthy or being more active

Some important questions include:

Do I need any important vaccines?
How can I protect myself from HIV and other STDs?
Which form of birth control is right for me?
How do I know if my relationship is healthy and safe?
Where can I get help for a mental health issue?
What changes can I make to eat healthier?
How can I be more physically active?

Take a notepad or smart phone and write down the answers so you remember them later.

Ask About Screenings

Talk with your doctor or nurse about which screenings you need.

Getting screening tests is one of the most important things you can do for your health.

At your well-woman visit, the doctor or nurse may recommend screening you for:

Certain types of cancer
HPV (human papillomavirus, which can lead to cervical cancer)
HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
High blood pressure and cholesterol
Diabetes
Osteoporosis (weak bones)

In addition to screenings, the doctor may sometimes recommend counseling for:

Depression
Relationship violence

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover at least 1 well-woman visit a year at no cost to you. Plans must also cover some screenings and types of counseling. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

If you don’t have insurance, you may still be able to get a free or low-cost well-woman visit.

Follow up with the doctor or nurse after your visit.

During your well-woman visit, the doctor or nurse may recommend that you see a specialist or get certain screenings. Try to schedule these follow-up appointments before you leave the doctor’s office.

If that’s not possible, make a note on your calendar to schedule your follow-up appointments. You can ask the doctor's office to write down the phone number and address for you.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

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Heart Examination

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Seeing a Gynecologist

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

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Why See a Gynecologist?

Going to see a gynecologist — a doctor who focuses on women’s reproductive health — means you’re taking responsibility for your body in new ways. It can be very exciting to know you’re making sure all is going well with puberty, your reproductive system, and more.

Keep in mind that other doctors also can help with gynecological issues. For example, an adolescent medicine specialist, family doctor, or pediatrician can answer questions and may be able to examine your vagina, too.

Of course, it can be stressful to deal with a whole new type of doctor’s visit, but learning more can help you know what to expect.

Why see a gynecologist?

Seeing a gynecologist can:

Help you understand your body and how to care for it
Give you and the doctor a sense of what is normal for you so you can notice any problem changes, like signs of a vaginal infection
Let the doctor find problems early so they can be treated
Explain what a normal vaginal discharge should look like and what could be a sign of a problem
Teach you how to protect yourself if you have sex

Your gynecologist can answer any questions you have about the many changes that may be happening to your body. It’s great to build a relationship with your gynecologist over the years so he or she understands your health and what matters to you.

When do I need to go?

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that teenage girls start seeing a gynecologist between the ages of 13 and 15.

If you don’t go at that time, you should make sure to visit a gynecologist, adolescent health specialist, or other health professional who can take care of women’s reproductive health if:

You have ever had sex (vaginal, oral, or anal) or intimate sexual contact
It has been three months or more since your last period and you haven’t gotten it again
You have stomach pain, fever, and fluid coming from your vagina that is yellow, gray, or green with a strong smell — all of which are possible signs of a serious condition called pelvic inflammatory disease(PID) that needs immediate treatment
You are having problems with your period, like a lot of pain, bleeding heavily, or bleeding for longer than usual, or it has stopped coming regularly
You have not gotten your period by the age of 15 or within three years of when your breasts started to grow
You’ve had your period for two years and it’s still not regular or comes more than once a month
You are having sex and missed your period

What will happen at the visit?

It’s understandable if you’re nervous about your first visit. Keep in mind that part of the time will be spent just talking. Your doctor may ask questions about you and your family to learn if you have a history of illnesses. And you can ask the doctor any questions you might have. Don’t worry — your doctor probably has already heard every question imaginable! You can talk about any concerns you have, including:

Cramps and questions about periods
Acne
Weight issues
Feeling depressed
Sexually transmitted diseases or STDs (also known as sexually transmitted infections or STIs)
Drinking, using drugs, or smoking

If you are sexually active, tell your doctor. You likely will need to be tested for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) like HIV and chlamydia. STDs (also called STIs or sexually transmitted infections) are common among young people. Plus, you can have an STD without having any symptoms. Don’t let any possible embarrassment put your health — or your life — at risk.

During your visit, your doctor will probably go through some of the usual items on a doctor’s checkup checklist, like weighing you and measuring your blood pressure. He or she also may check the outside of your genitals and do a breast exam. It’s common for young women to have some lumpiness in their breasts, but your doctor may want to make sure you don’t have problem lumps or pain.

You may have heard of Pap tests and pelvic exams and wonder if you need them. Most likely you won’t need either of these until you’re 21. If you are sexually active or have symptoms like an unusual vaginal fluid or a history of problems, there’s a chance your doctor may choose to do one or both of these. It’s helpful, then, to know what to expect.

A pelvic exam usually involves the doctor examining the outside of your genital area (the vulva). It may also involve the doctor using a tool called a speculum to look inside your vagina and check to make sure your cervix is healthy. Frequently, he or she also will feel inside to make sure organs like your ovaries and uterus feel okay. You probably will feel pressure, but it shouldn’t hurt. Try to relax — breathing deeply can help.

A Pap test is done by gently taking some cells from your cervix. These cells are checked for changes that could be cancer or that could turn into cancer.

If you haven’t already had the HPV vaccine, ask your doctor about it. It helps guard against the human papillomavirus, which can cause genital warts and is the major cause of cervical cancer.

You have options to make your visit more comfortable:

During the exam, if the doctor is a man, a female nurse or assistant should also be in the room. You can also ask if you can see a female doctor.
You can ask to have your mom, sister, or a friend stay in the room with you during the visit if that would help.
You can ask questions about what’s going to happen so you know what to expect.
You can ask the doctor about keeping things you discuss private.

Taking care of your health is a huge sign that you are growing up. Be proud of yourself for learning information that can protect your health.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (1)

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What to expect at your first OB/GYN visit - Katie Sekpe, MD - CHI Health

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Vital Signs

Vital Signs Test

Also called: Vitals, Vital Signs Profile

Your vital signs show how well your body is functioning and include blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and temperature. This information helps your health care provider monitor your health and any medical problems you may have.

Vital Signs Test

Also called: Vitals, Vital Signs Profile

Your vital signs show how well your body is functioning and include blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and temperature. This information helps your health care provider monitor your health and any medical problems you may have.

Your vital signs show how well your body is functioning. They are usually measured at doctor's offices, often as part of a health checkup, or during an emergency room visit. They include:
- Blood pressure, which measures the force of your blood pushing against the walls of your arteries. Blood pressure that is too high or too low can cause problems. Your blood pressure has two numbers. The first number is the pressure when your heart beats and is pumping the blood. The second is from when your heart is at rest, between beats. A normal blood pressure reading for adults is lower than 120/80 and higher than 90/60.
- Heart rate, or pulse, which measures how fast your heart is beating. A problem with your heart rate may be an arrhythmia. Your normal heart rate depends on factors such as your age, how much you exercise, whether you are sitting or standing, which medicines you take, and your weight.
- Respiratory rate, which measures your breathing. Mild breathing changes can be from causes such as a stuffy nose or hard exercise. But slow or fast breathing can also be a sign of a serious breathing problem.
- Temperature, which measures how hot your body is. A body temperature that is higher than normal (over 98.6 °F, or 37 °C) is called a fever.
1. Vital Signs: MedlinePlus [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
2. Vital signs: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
3. Aging changes in vital signs: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
4. A Practical Guide to Clinical Medicine [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
5. https://www.hl7.org/fhir/us/core/us-core-vitalsigns.html [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Additional Materials (14)

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Vital Signs

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Image by U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Erika N. Jones

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Vital signs displayed on a monitor

A patient’s vital signs are displayed on a piece of medical equipment during an aeromedical evacuation flight Nov. 30, 2012, over Afghanistan. The 451st Expeditionary Aeromedical Evacuation Flight critical care air transport team's mission is to operate an intensive care unit in an aircraft during flight, which helps save the lives of critically wounded warriors. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Jonathan Snyder)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Jonathan Snyder

Telehealth Start-Up and Resource Guide

Telehealth Start-Up and Resource Guide

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Pulse, Hand, Health Care Providers

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Pulse

The pulse is most readily measured at the radial artery, but can be measured at any of the pulse points shown.

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Pulse Ox, Oximetry, Oxygenation

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Cardiovascular System

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Noninvasive

Changes in blood and pulse pressure along the arterial pathway. Continuous noninvasive arterial pressure

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Pulse Oximetry Foot of preemie baby

Pulse Oximetry Foot of Preemie Baby

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Doctor Examination

Doctors may find evidence of atherosclerosis in the course of a physical exam. Signs of atherosclerosis include whooshing sounds (bruits) heard through a stethoscope; weak pulse, decreased blood pressure, or poor wound healing in affected areas; or signs of an aneurysm. A physical examination together with a medical history is used by doctor to assist in the diagnosis process. Physical examinations are not only reserved for patients experiencing symptoms but is also recommended as a way of ensuring general health is good- you won't always notice symptoms when something is wrong.

Image by TheVisualMD

An illustration depicting someone checking their pulse via their wrist.

An illustration depicting someone checking their pulse via their wrist.

Image by BruceBlaus

A medical illustration depicting an oral glass thermometer

A medical illustration depicting an oral glass thermometer.

Image by BruceBlaus

Conventional (mechanical) sphygmomanometer with aneroid manometer and stethoscope, used to measure blood pressure

Conventional (mechanical) sphygmomanometer with aneroid manometer and stethoscope, used to measure blood pressure

Image by CDC by Rsabbatini

Timing is Key for Acute Flaccid Myelitis (AFM)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Vital Signs

U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Erika N. Jones

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Vital signs displayed on a monitor

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Jonathan Snyder

Telehealth Start-Up and Resource Guide

Health IT Gov

Pulse, Hand, Health Care Providers

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Pulse

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Cardiovascular System

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Noninvasive

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Doctor Examination

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Conventional (mechanical) sphygmomanometer with aneroid manometer and stethoscope, used to measure blood pressure

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Breast Exam

Breast Exam

Also called: Clinical Breast Exam, CBE

A clinical breast exam (CBE) is a physical exam of the breast performed by a health care provider to check for lumps or other changes. It’s often done during your regular medical check-up. If a CBE is not offered at your check-up and you would like one, ask your health care provider to perform one (or refer you to someone who can).

Breast Exam

Also called: Clinical Breast Exam, CBE

A clinical breast exam (CBE) is a physical exam of the breast performed by a health care provider to check for lumps or other changes. It’s often done during your regular medical check-up. If a CBE is not offered at your check-up and you would like one, ask your health care provider to perform one (or refer you to someone who can).

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that the nipples, breast tissue, and areas around the breast look normal and are normal in size and shape. A normal result does not mean that breast cancer is not present. Depending on your age and your personal and family history of breast cancer, your health care provider may do other tests, such as a mammogram.
Related conditions
1. PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board. PDQ Breast Cancer Screening. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]
2. Breast Exam | Michigan Medicine [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining her. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining her. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hand examining. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up with a doctors hands examining. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

This is a series of 16 photos demonstrating the 16 steps of a clinical breast examination. The image shows a female nude from the waist up. The steps are as follows: 1) arms in normal position 2) arms on hips 3) pressed forward elbows 4) pressed forward 5) arms overhead 6) arms overhead 7) arms raised and pressing down 8) exam of cervical nodes 9) exam of supraclavicular 10) infraclavicular 11) axilla 12) exam of breast 13) axilla 14) breast exam 15) exam of nipple 16) exam of nipple for discharge.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

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Breast Exam (Series of 16)

National Cancer Institute / Photogroup (Photographer)

Pelvic Exam

Pelvic Exam

Also called: Pelvic Examination, Gynecological Exam

A pelvic exam is a doctor's visual and physical examination of a woman's reproductive organs. The exam may be performed as part of a regular checkup or can be done to investigate symptoms such as abnormal bleeding, unusual vaginal discharge, or pain. Pelvic exams are also done during pregnancy check-ups.

Pelvic Exam

Also called: Pelvic Examination, Gynecological Exam

A pelvic exam is a doctor's visual and physical examination of a woman's reproductive organs. The exam may be performed as part of a regular checkup or can be done to investigate symptoms such as abnormal bleeding, unusual vaginal discharge, or pain. Pelvic exams are also done during pregnancy check-ups.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that the uterus and ovaries are normal in size and location. The uterus can be moved slightly without causing pain. The vulva, vagina, and cervix look normal with no signs of infection, inflammation, or other abnormalities.
Related conditions
1. Pelvic Exam. NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Oct 03, 2021]
2. Pelvic Exam: Preparation, Process, and More. Healthline. [accessed on Oct 03, 2021]
3. What Is a Pelvic Exam? | Questions About Gynecology Exams. Planned Parenthood. [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]
4. Pelvic Exam | Michigan Medicine [accessed on Jan 15, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (10)

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Pelvic Exam Illustration

Line drawing showing pelvic exam procedure.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Pelvic Exam

Leopold maneuvers

Image by Christian Gerhard Leopold

Screening for Cancer

Common Screening Tests and American Cancer Society Recommendations Breast cancer Mammography: Women 40 and older should have a mammogram every year. Clinical breast exam (breast exam performed by a medical professional): Women age 20-40 should have one every 3 years. Women 40 and older should have one every year. Breast self-exam: Women age 20 and older should perform one each month (considered optional). If you have a family history of breast cancer, talk to your healthcare professional about what type of screening you should have, and how often.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Healthy Cervix

The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus where it joins with the top of the vagina. The opening of the the cervix into the vagina is called the external os, and can vary in appearance from a small, circular opening in women who have not given birth, to a wider, more slit-like opening in women who have had children. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Women should be screened for cellular changes of the cervix with a pap smear as part of a regular pelvic exam. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted. Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. In 2006, the FDA approved an HPV vaccine (Gardisil) that protects against viral types that cause most cases of cervical cancer as well as genital warts. Public health experts recommend routine vaccination for girls ages 11-12 to ensure vaccine effectiveness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest of gynecologic cancers. More than 21,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed each year, with more than 15,000 deaths; less than 20% of cases are found at an early stage, when treatment is most effective. When ovarian cancer is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a pelvic exam to check for masses or growths on the ovaries. Other diagnostic tests include a transvaginal ultrasound, which produce detailed images of the ovaries and other reproductive organs.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer as well as a number of different types of infections. The test involves collecting cells from the cervix. A speculum is inserted into the vagina, and samples of cervical cells are collected and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives women a greater chance of being cured. A Pap smear can also detect changes in cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women over 30, the Pap smear may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted infection that may cause cervical cancer in some women.

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Women's Health Checkup

Doctors Examining Pregnant Woman

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A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

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How can I deal with the fear of getting a pelvic exam in the doctor's office?

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Dr. Doe's Pelvic Exam

sexplanations/YouTube

Pelvic Exam Illustration

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Pelvic Exam

Christian Gerhard Leopold

Screening for Cancer

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Healthy Cervix

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Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

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Women's Health Checkup

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Blood Pressure

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What is Blood Pressure?

Video by TheVisualMD

Get Your Blood Pressure Checked

One in 3 American adults have high blood pressure. High blood pressure increases your risk for serious health problems, including stroke and heart attack.

Get your blood pressure checked regularly starting at age 18 – and do your best to keep track of your blood pressure numbers.

How often do I need to get my blood pressure checked?

If you’re age 40 or older, or if you’re at higher risk for high blood pressure, get your blood pressure checked once a year
If you’re age 18 to 39 and you aren’t at increased risk for high blood pressure, get your blood pressure checked every 3 to 5 years

What puts me at higher risk for high blood pressure?

Your risk for high blood pressure goes up as you get older. You’re also at increased risk for high blood pressure if you:

Are African American
Are overweight or have obesity
Don’t get enough physical activity
Drink too much alcohol
Smoke
Don’t eat a healthy diet
Have kidney failure, diabetes, or some types of heart disease

What is blood pressure?

Blood pressure is how hard your blood pushes against the walls of your arteries when your heart pumps blood. Arteries are the tubes that carry blood away from your heart. Every time your heart beats, it pumps blood through your arteries to the rest of your body.

What is hypertension?

Hypertension is the medical term for high blood pressure. High blood pressure usually has no symptoms, so it’s sometimes called a “silent killer.” The only way to know if you have high blood pressure is to get tested.

What do blood pressure numbers mean?

A blood pressure test measures how hard your heart’s working to pump blood through your body.

Blood pressure is measured with 2 numbers. The first number is the pressure in your arteries when your heart beats. The second number is the pressure in your arteries when your heart relaxes between beats.

Compare your blood pressure to these numbers:

Normal blood pressure is lower than 120/80 (said “120 over 80”)
High blood pressure is 130/80 or higher
Blood pressure that’s between normal and high (for example, 125/80) is called elevated blood pressure or prehypertension

How can I get my blood pressure checked?

To test your blood pressure, a nurse or doctor will put a cuff around your upper arm. The nurse or doctor will pump the cuff with air until it feels tight, then slowly let it out. This takes just a few minutes.

You can find out what your blood pressure numbers are right after the test is over. If the test shows that your blood pressure is high, ask the doctor what to do next.

Blood pressure can go up and down, so it’s a good idea to get it checked more than once.

Can I check my blood pressure by myself?

Yes. Many shopping malls, pharmacies, and grocery stores have blood pressure machines you can use in the store. You can also buy a home blood pressure monitor at a drug store. If the test shows that your blood pressure is high, talk to your doctor.

How can high blood pressure affect pregnancy?

If you’re pregnant, high blood pressure can be dangerous for you and your baby. If you have high blood pressure and you want to get pregnant, it’s important to take steps to lower your blood pressure first.

Sometimes women get high blood pressure for the first time during pregnancy. This is called gestational hypertension. This type of high blood pressure usually goes away after the baby is born — but you may have a higher risk of getting high blood pressure in the future.

If you have high blood pressure while you’re pregnant, be sure to visit your doctor regularly.

What if I have high blood pressure?

If you have high blood pressure, you may need medicine to control it.

Take these steps to lower your blood pressure:

Eat healthy, including foods that are low in saturated fat and sodium (salt).
Get active — aim for 150 minutes a week of moderate aerobic activity.
Watch your weight by eating healthy and getting active.
Remember to take medicines as prescribed (ordered) by your doctor.

Small changes can add up. For example, losing just 10 pounds can help lower your blood pressure.

Get It Checked

To prevent or lower high blood pressure, start by getting your blood pressure checked as soon as possible.

Check your blood pressure regularly.

Make sure a doctor or nurse checks your blood pressure at your next visit. Write down your blood pressure numbers so you'll remember them.

You can also find blood pressure machines at many shopping malls, pharmacies, and grocery stores. Most of these machines are free to use.

If you want to check your blood pressure at home, you can buy a home blood pressure monitor at a drug store.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover blood pressure testing. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get your blood pressure checked by a doctor or nurse at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare also covers blood pressure testing at no cost as part of your yearly wellness visit.

If you don’t have insurance, you may still be able to get free or low-cost blood pressure tests.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (7)

Blood pressure chart

Elevated Blood Pressure monitor, over an artery with flowing blood

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How to Take Your Blood Pressure at Home

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

When Blood Pressure is High, When Blood Pressure is Low

When Blood Pressure is High, When Blood Pressure is Low : To lower or raise your blood pressure, your heart can pump less forcefully or rapidly, fluid can be removed from your bloodstream or added to it, and your blood vessels can dilate or constrict. These functions are controlled by your body in many ways. Baroreceptors, specialized nerve endings embedded in your heart and certain arteries, signal the brain to dilate or constrict blood vessels and to decrease or increase heart rate and force of contraction. The kidneys can release an enzyme that causes blood vessels to constrict. They can also release a hormone that increases blood volume and so raises blood pressure. The heart can pump more forcefully or rapidly to pump more blood per minute.

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Blood Pressure Measurement

Ava Navin (right), of the former National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID), was shown having her blood pressure taken by Regan Hall, of the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP) ), during a 2005 CDC blood pressure screening event. Campuses included, were Century Center, Chamblee, Corporate Square, Executive Park, Koger, and Roybal. The service was provided by the Office of Women’s Health (OWH), Office of Health and Safety (OHS), NCCDPHP’s Cardiovascular Health Branch (CVH), as well as volunteers from various other centers, institutes, and offices (CIOs). This annual event was held in observance of National High Blood Pressure Education Month, National Nurses Week, and National Women’s Health Week.

Image by CDC/ CDC Connects; Photo credit: James Gathany

Blood Pressure Monitors

This 2005 photograph, taken at a CDC blood pressure screening event, showed Regan Hall (right), of the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP), reviewing patient information with a fellow CDC employee, who was about to undergo a blood pressure diagnostic test, using the sphygmomanometer, or blood pressure cuff, seen in the lower right. The CDC campuses included in the screening event were Century Center, Chamblee, Corporate Square, Executive Park, Koger, and Roybal, and was provided by the Office of Women’s Health (OWH), Office of Health and Safety (OHS), NCCDPHP’s Cardiovascular Health Branch (CVH), as well as volunteers from various other centers, institutes, and offices (CIOs). This annual event was held in observance of National High Blood Pressure Education Month, National Nurses Week, and National Women’s Health Week.

Image by CDC/ CDC Connects; Photo credit: James Gathany

Drawing of a garden hose with the thumb of a person's hand partially covering the opening causing the water to spray out at a high pressure

A smaller opening makes the water pressure higher. In the same way, clogged blood vessels lead to high blood pressure.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Learn About the Effects of High Blood Pressure

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Blood pressure chart

TheVisualMD

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How to Take Your Blood Pressure at Home

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When Blood Pressure is High, When Blood Pressure is Low

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Blood Pressure Measurement

CDC/ CDC Connects; Photo credit: James Gathany

Blood Pressure Monitors

CDC/ CDC Connects; Photo credit: James Gathany

Drawing of a garden hose with the thumb of a person's hand partially covering the opening causing the water to spray out at a high pressure

NIDDK Image Library

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Learn About the Effects of High Blood Pressure

NHLBI/YouTube

Blood Pressure Test

Blood Pressure Test

Also called: Blood pressure reading, Blood pressure screening, Systolic (maximum) pressure over diastolic (minimum) pressure

A blood pressure measurement is a test most often used to check for high blood pressure, a common condition that increases the risk for heart disease and stroke. The test can diagnose high blood pressure early, so it can be treated before it causes serious complications.

Blood Pressure Test

Also called: Blood pressure reading, Blood pressure screening, Systolic (maximum) pressure over diastolic (minimum) pressure

A blood pressure measurement is a test most often used to check for high blood pressure, a common condition that increases the risk for heart disease and stroke. The test can diagnose high blood pressure early, so it can be treated before it causes serious complications.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
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90
121
130
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Your result is Normal.
Systolic blood pressure is the pressure inside the body's arteries as the heart beats while pumping blood. It is the upper (higher) number of the two measuring blood pressure.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
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81
90
Your result is Normal.
Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest between beats. It is the lower number of the two measuring blood pressure.
Related conditions
Each time your heart beats, it pumps blood into your arteries. A blood pressure measurement is a test that measures the force (pressure) in your arteries as your heart pumps. Blood pressure is measured as two numbers:
- Systolic blood pressure (the first and higher number) measures pressure inside your arteries when the heart beats.
- Diastolic blood pressure (the second and lower number) measures the pressure inside the artery when the heart rests between beats.
High blood pressure, also known as hypertension, affects tens of millions of adults in the United States. It increases the risk of life-threatening conditions including heart attack and stroke. But high blood pressure rarely causes symptoms. A blood pressure measurement helps diagnose high blood pressure early, so it may be treated before it leads to serious complications.
A blood pressure measurement is most often used to diagnose high blood pressure.
Blood pressure that's too low, known as hypotension, is much less common. But you may get tested for low blood pressure if you have certain symptoms. Unlike high blood pressure, low blood pressure usually causes symptoms. These include:
- Dizziness or lightheadedness
- Nausea
- Cold, sweaty skin
- Pale skin
- Fainting
- Weakness
A blood pressure measurement is often included as part of a regular checkup. Adults 18 years and older should have their blood pressure measured at least once every two to five years. You should get tested every year if you have certain risk factors. You may be at higher risk if you:
- Are 40 years old or older
- Are overweight or have obesity
- Have a family history of heart disease or diabetes
- Take birth control pills
- Are Black/African American. Black/African Americans have a higher rate of high blood pressure than other racial and ethnic groups
You may need this test if you have symptoms of low blood pressure.
A blood pressure test includes the following steps:
- You will sit in a chair with your feet flat on the floor.
- You will rest your arm on a table or other surface, so your arm is level with your heart. You may be asked to roll up your sleeve.
- Your provider will wrap a blood pressure cuff around your arm. A blood pressure cuff is a strap-like device. It should fit snugly around your upper arm, with the bottom edge placed just above your elbow.
- Your provider will inflate the blood pressure cuff using a small hand pump or by pressing a button on an automated device.
- Your provider will measure the pressure manually (by hand) or with an automated device.
  If manually, he or she will place a stethoscope over the major artery in your upper arm to listen to the blood flow and pulse as the cuff inflates and deflates.
  If using an automated device, the blood pressure cuff automatically inflates, deflates, and measures pressure.
- As the blood pressure cuff inflates, you'll feel it tighten around your arm.
- Your provider will then open a valve on the cuff to slowly release air from it. As the cuff deflates, blood pressure will fall.
- As the pressure falls, a measurement is taken when the sound of blood pulsing is first heard. This is the systolic pressure.
- As the air continues to be let out, the blood pulsing sound will start to go away. When it completely stops, another measurement is taken. This is the diastolic pressure.
This test only takes about one minute to complete.

Your results, also known as a blood pressure reading, will contain two numbers. The top or first number is the systolic pressure. The bottom or second number is the diastolic pressure. High blood pressure readings are also labeled by categories, ranging from normal to crisis. Your reading may show your blood pressure is:

Blood Pressure Category	Systolic Blood Pressure		Diastolic Blood Pressure
Normal	Less than 120	and	Less than 80
High Blood Pressure (no other heart risk factors)	140 or higher	or	90 or higher
High Blood Pressure (with other heart risk factors, according to some providers)	130 or higher	or	80 or higher
Dangerously high blood pressure - seek medical care right away	180 or higher	and	120 or higher

If you've been diagnosed with high blood pressure, your provider may recommend lifestyle changes and/or medicines to control your blood pressure. Your provider may also recommend that you regularly check your blood pressure at home with an automated blood pressure monitor. An at-home blood pressure monitor usually includes a blood pressure cuff and a digital device to record and display blood pressure readings.

Home monitoring is not a replacement for regular visits to your provider. But it can provide important information, such as whether treatment is working or your condition may have worsened. Also, home monitoring may make the test less stressful. Many people get nervous about getting their blood pressure taken at a provider's office. This is called "white coat syndrome." It can cause a temporary rise in blood pressure, making the results less accurate. For more information about home monitoring of blood pressure, talk to your provider.

If you were tested for low blood pressure, a blood pressure reading of 90 systolic, 60 diastolic (90/60) or lower is considered abnormal. Treatments for low blood pressure may include medicines and making certain changes to your diet.

If you were diagnosed with high blood pressure, your provider may recommend one or more of the following lifestyle changes.
- Exercise regularly. Staying active can help lower your blood pressure and also help manage your weight. Most adults should aim for 150 minutes of physical activity per week. Check with your provider before beginning an exercise program.
- Keep a healthy weight. If you are overweight, losing as little as 5 pounds can lower your blood pressure.
- Eat a healthy diet that includes fruits, vegetable, and whole grains. Limit foods high in saturated fat and total fat.
- Reduce salt in your diet. Most adults should have less than 1500 mg of salt per day.
- Limit alcohol use. If you choose to drink, limit yourself to one drink a day if you are a woman; two drinks a day if you're a man.
- Don't smoke.
1. https://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/measure.htm [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
2. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/high-blood-pressure [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
3. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/node/80139 [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
4. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/high-blood-pressure [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
5. https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2018/01/experts-lower-high-blood-pressure-numbers [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
6. https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2016/01/blood-pressure-matters [accessed on Mar 24, 2019]
7. https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2017/11/09/11/41/2017-guideline-for-high-blood-pressure-in-adults [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
8. https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2017/11/14/14/42/the-2017-high-blood-pressure-guideline-risk-reduction-through-better-management [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]

Additional Materials (50)

This browser does not support the video element.

What is Blood Pressure?

Blood pressure is stated as two numbers that represent the highest and lowest pressure your heart attains during a single beat. The first or top number represents the pressure when your heart contracts: the systolic pressure. The second or bottom number represents the pressure when your heart rests between beats: the diastolic pressure.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

What is Hypertension?

Go deep inside the human body to understand how your blood pressure works, as you travel into the vessels to see the damage that high blood pressure leaves in its wake. Listen to some of the world's top doctors, including renowned cardiologist Mehmet Oz, talk about why hypertension is "the silent killer" and how you can defend yourself against it.

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SPRINT Participant Has Blood Pressure Measured

In this image: Mr. Curtis Minor, 58 year old AA Male who is taking part in the SPRINT study at Downtown Health Plaza with Miriam Baird, RN. A major NIH-funded clinical trial has discovered nuanced evidence linking brain and vascular health.

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Man getting Blood Pressure Reading

Some risk factors for prostate cancer are controllable, some aren't. Knowing what the risk factors are can help you to lower your chances of getting prostate cancer and to make decisions about beginning screening.

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Doctor Taking Woman's Blood Pressure

This image shows a female patient having blood pressure read by a male doctor and by using a blood pressure cuff in a clinical setting. Hypertension is often referred to as the \"silent killer,\" because it can cause no symptoms and go undetected for years. And as hypertension goes undiagnosed, the delicate linings of your blood vessels are being damaged, particularly those of the heart, the kidneys, and the eyes. Hypertension is another word for high blood pressure; it has nothing to do with whether a person is considered tense or high-strung. Blood pressure is the measurement of the force the blood exerts as it pushes against the walls of your arteries. Your blood pressure is measured by a blood pressure cuff that is wrapped around your upper arm. Originally the readings referred to the height of a displaced column of mercury, but as in thermometers, the mercury yardstick is giving way to digital technologies. The \"top\" or first number-systolic pressure-represents the blood's pressure as the heart is contracted. The \"bottom\" or second number-diastolic pressure-represents the blood's pressure in the vessels when the heart is relaxed. Normal blood pressure is in the range of 120 (systolic) over 70 (diastolic).

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Blood Pressure

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Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is stated as two numbers that represent the highest and lowest pressure your heart attains during a single beat. The first or top number represents the pressure when your heart contracts: the systolic pressure. The second or bottom number represents the pressure when your heart rests between beats: the diastolic pressure.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Pressure Ranges

High blood pressure, or hypertension, is an important risk factor for strokes and heart attacks. A physician uses a sphygomomanometer to measure a patient's blood pressure by inflating a rubber cuff around his or her arm. The reading is shown on the scale represented in this image. Systolic pressure refers to the pressure in an artery when the heart beats, or contracts. This number is higher than the diastolic pressure, which is occuring when the heart is at rest, between beats. Average blood pressure for adults is 120/80, with the systolic pressure denoted over the diastolic pressure.

Image by TheVisualMD

Man with Visible Brain and Heart

The most obvious way in which your body manages blood flow and pressure is to change the heart rate. When the pulse rate goes up, in general, the pressure in the system goes up, which in turns drives the blood around the body more quickly. The blood vessels themselves also play an important role in pressure-management. Blood vessels are \"living pipes\". They're elastic and flexible and have special sensors called baroreceptors that monitor the ebb and flow of blood. Baroreceptors are actually nerve bundles that provide immediate feedback to the brain. With this information and depending on the needs of the moment, the arteries dilate and contract to help propel blood through the system. Blood can be diverted to muscles during exercise, for example, or away from the skin during cold weather to avoid heat loss. The arteries can contract to prevent blood loss due to injury or dilate to flood the face for that telling blush.

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This diagram represents the number of individuals affected with hypertension. The American Heart Association estimates that nearly one-third of Americans have hypertension.

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Keeping Blood Pressure Healthy

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Medicating High Blood Pressure

If lifestyle changes don’t reduce blood pressure to an acceptable level, doctors will generally prescribe antihypertensive medications. There are a number of different types of antihypertensives available. The most commonly prescribed include: Thiazide diuretics. Often the first drug prescribed, diuretics dilate blood vessels and also decrease fluid volume in the body by helping the kidneys to eliminate salt and water. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. ACE inhibitors reduce hypertension by dilating arterioles (the smallest divisions of the arteries, linking the arteries and the capillaries). They do this by blocking the production of ACE, a naturally occurring substance that constricts blood vessels. Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). Like ACE inhibitors, ARBs dilate arterioles, but they accomplish this by preventing ACE from having any effect on the heart and blood vessels. ARBs are often prescribed for people who experience adverse side effects from ACE inhibitors.

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Blood Pressure

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Blood Pressure

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Blood Pressure Ranges

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Medicating High Blood Pressure

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Breast Cancer

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Breast Self-Exam (BSE)

Image by TheVisualMD

Get Tested for Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common kinds of cancer in women. About 1 in 8 women in the United States will get breast cancer during her lifetime.

The good news is that mammograms can help find breast cancer early — before it spreads to other parts of the body. Most women can survive breast cancer if it’s found and treated early.

How often should I get mammograms?

If you’re age 40 to 49, talk with your doctor about when to start getting mammograms and how often to get them
If you’re age 50 to 74, get mammograms every 2 years

What is a mammogram?

A mammogram is an x-ray picture of the breast. Mammograms use a very low level of x-rays, which are a type of radiation. The risk of harm from this radiation is very low.

Mammograms can be used to screen (test) for breast cancer in women with no signs or symptoms. They can also help doctors figure out if cancer is causing a particular symptom — like a lump or another change in the breast.

When you get a mammogram, a technician will place your breast on a platform and a plastic plate will press it flat to get a clear picture. This part of a mammogram can be uncomfortable, but it usually only lasts 15 to 20 seconds.

It takes about 20 minutes total to get mammograms. Learn more about mammograms.

What is breast cancer?

Breast cancer is cancer that forms in breast tissue. Like all cancers, breast cancer can spread to other parts of the body.

Talk with your doctor or nurse if you notice any of these changes:

A lump or an area that feels very firm in the breast or armpit
A change in the size, shape, or feel of the breast
Fluid (called discharge) coming out of a nipple
Skin on the breast that is itchy, red, flaky, or dimpled

Learn more about breast cancer.

What if the doctor finds something in my breast?

Mammograms let the doctor or nurse look for lumps or other changes inside your breasts that you can’t feel from the outside. If your doctor finds a lump or another change in your breast tissue, you may need other tests to find out if it’s cancer or not.

The doctor or nurse may take a small bit of tissue from the breast for testing. This procedure is called a biopsy.

See Your Doctor

Talk with your doctor about when and how often to get mammograms.

Get support.

Use these tips to get support when you get mammograms.

Ask other women who have had mammograms about what to expect
Ask a family member or friend to go with you when you get mammograms

Make sure to ask when you’ll get your mammogram results. When you get the results, ask the doctor or nurse to explain what the results mean. Learn more about mammogram results.

Get active.

Being active increases your chances of living longer. Physical activity helps prevent several types of cancer, including breast cancer. Learn more about how to get active.

Get your well-woman visit.

Get a well-woman visit every year. Use this visit to talk with your doctor or nurse about important screenings and services to help you stay healthy. Learn more about well-woman visits.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (9)

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Breast Self Exam

Many breast cancers are detected by the patient herself. Dr. Gillian Newstead of The University of Chicago medical Center's breast clinic discusses breast lumps and the importance of seeing your doctor if you feel one.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Diagnosing Breast Cancer

Breast imaging and early detection of breast cancer have evolved immensely over the last 25 years, leading to increased survival rates and improved quality of life for millions of women with breast cancer. This video takes you through the process of screening and diagnosis using various imaging modalities, including mammogram, ultrasound and MRI.

Video by TheVisualMD

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PET/CT in Breast Cancer Treatment

National Cancer Institute radiologist Dr. Peter Choyke explains the role that PET scans can play in the treatment of breast cancer.

Video by TheVisualMD

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What Is Breast Cancer?

Breast imaging and early detection of breast cancer have evolved immensely over the last 25 years, leading to increased survival rates and improved quality of life for millions of women with breast cancer. This video takes you through the process of screening and diagnosis using various imaging modalities, including mammogram, ultrasound and MRI.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Breast Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women in the U.S., with about 1 in 8 women developing the disease within her lifetime. Breast cancer is an uncontrolled growth of breast cells that has the potential to spread into the breast and possibly to other parts of the body. Early detection through screening saves the lives of thousands of women every year. If there is a history of breast cancer in the family, women should consider the BReast CAncer susceptibility test (or BRCA) to identify a gene that may indicate an increased risk of developing the disease. Women forty and over should be screened for abnormalities yearly to detect and evaluate changes in breast tissue. If an abnormality is found, a biopsy and pathological exam are necessary for a definitive diagnosis and prognosis. After diagnosis, your doctor may want to learn more about your specific cancer through immunohistochemistry (IHC) and HER2 protein tests. IHC testing can help determine if a specific abnormality is present in the cancer cells. HER2 tests can tell your physician if the breast cancer is turned on by the HER2 gene, and can help determine the best course of treatment. Knowing what type of breast cancer is involved, what stage the cancer is, and the characteristics of that specific cancer, allows a woman's physician to determine best possible therapy for her individual case.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Breast Cancer Biopsy

If a woman has symptoms of breast cancer (such as a lump), or if a suspicious area is found in an imaging exam, the next step is to physically examine the breasts by noting any changes in their appearance and palpating the breast and the underarm region. A complete physical exam may be done as well. If symptoms or results of these exams suggest cancer might be present, then further tests will be done. (Note: The following diagnostic procedures are common to the US; procedures may vary in other countries.)

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Getting Screened for Breast Cancer

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Genetic Testing for Breast Cancer - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

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Breast Self Exam

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Diagnosing Breast Cancer

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What Is Breast Cancer?

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Mammogram

Mammogram

Also called: Breast Cancer Screening - Mammography, Screening Mammography, Diagnostic Mammography

A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast. A mammogram is used to look for early signs of breast cancer. Regular mammograms are the best tests doctors have to find breast cancer early, sometimes up to three years before it can be felt.

Mammogram

Also called: Breast Cancer Screening - Mammography, Screening Mammography, Diagnostic Mammography

A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast. A mammogram is used to look for early signs of breast cancer. Regular mammograms are the best tests doctors have to find breast cancer early, sometimes up to three years before it can be felt.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
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Your result is Negative.
This score confirms that your mammogram results are negative, indicating that the breast tissue shows no signs of a mass or calcifications. However, it’s important to continue regular screening mammograms.
Related conditions
- Screening mammograms are done for women who have no symptoms of breast cancer. It usually involves two x-rays of each breast. Screening mammograms can detect lumps or tumors that cannot be felt. They can also find microcalcifications or tiny deposits of calcium in the breast, which sometimes mean that breast cancer is present.
- Diagnostic mammograms are used to check for breast cancer after a lump or other symptom or sign of breast cancer has been found. Signs of breast cancer may include pain, thickened skin on the breast, nipple discharge, or a change in breast size or shape. This type of mammogram also can be used to find out more about breast changes found on a screening mammogram, or to view breast tissue that is hard to see on a screening mammogram. A diagnostic mammogram takes longer than a screening mammogram because it involves more x-rays in order to obtain views of the breast from several angles. The technician can magnify a problem area to make a more detailed picture, which helps the doctor make a correct diagnosis.
A digital mammogram also uses x-rays to produce an image of the breast, but instead of storing the image directly on film, the image is stored directly on a computer. This allows the recorded image to be magnified for the doctor to take a closer look. Current research has not shown that digital images are better at showing cancer than x-ray film images in general. But, women with dense breasts who are pre- or perimenopausal, or who are younger than age 50, may benefit from having a digital rather than a film mammogram. Digital mammography may offer these benefits:
- Long-distance consultations with other doctors may be easier because the images can be shared by computer.
- Slight differences between normal and abnormal tissues may be more easily noted.
- The number of follow-up tests needed may be fewer.
- Fewer repeat images may be needed, reducing exposure to radiation.
A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray exam of the breasts to look for changes that are not normal. A mammogram allows the doctor to have a closer look for changes in breast tissue that cannot be felt during a breast exam. Women ages 50 to 74 years should get a mammogram every 2 years. Women younger than age 50 should talk to a doctor about when to start and how often to have a mammogram.
Mammograms can not find all problems. So, every woman should work with her doctor to check her breasts. Call your doctor or clinic if you notice any change in your breasts like:
- a lump
- thickening
- liquid leaking from the nipple or changes in how the nipple looks
First, check with the place you are having the mammogram for any special instructions you may need to follow before you go. Here are some general guidelines to follow:
- If you are still having menstrual periods, try to avoid making your mammogram appointment during the week before your period. Your breasts will be less tender and swollen. The mammogram will hurt less and the picture will be better.
- If you have breast implants, be sure to tell your mammography facility that you have them when you make your appointment.
- Wear a shirt with shorts, pants, or a skirt. This way, you can undress from the waist up and leave your shorts, pants, or skirt on when you get your mammogram.
- Don't wear any deodorant, perfume, lotion, or powder under your arms or on your breasts on the day of your mammogram appointment. These things can make shadows show up on your mammogram.
- If you have had mammograms at another facility, have those x-ray films sent to the new facility so that they can be compared to the new films.
- Tell the clinic if you have physical disabilities that may make it hard for you to sit up, lift your arms, or hold your breath.
- Talk with the staff about how they will handle issues of modesty that you may have due to your religion.

Breast tissue that shows no signs of a mass or calcifications is considered normal. Most abnormal findings on a screening mammogram turn out to be benign (not cancer) or nothing to worry about. New findings or changes must be further evaluated.

What can mammograms show?

The radiologist will look at your x-rays for breast changes that do not look normal and for differences in each breast. He or she will compare your past mammograms with your most recent one to check for changes. The doctor will also look for lumps and calcifications.

Possible mammogram findings include:

Lumps (mass or tumor). Lumps come in different sizes and shapes. Fluid-filled cysts are usually smooth and rounded, with clear, defined edges and are not cancer. Lumps that have a jagged outline and an irregular shape are of more concern.
Calcifications. There are two types of breast calcifications, or calcium deposits:
- Macrocalcifications, which look like small white dots on a mammogram. They are often caused by aging, an old injury, or inflammation and are usually benign.
- Microcalcifications, which look like white specks on a mammogram. If found in an area of rapidly dividing cells or grouped together in a certain way, they may be a sign of DCIS or breast cancer.
Dense breast tissue: A dense breast has relatively less fat and more glandular and connective tissue. This mammogram finding is both common and normal, especially among younger women and women who use menopausal hormone therapy. Dense breast tissue can make a mammogram more difficult to interpret because both dense breast tissue and breast tumors appear as solid white areas in the image.

What happens if my mammogram is normal?

Continue to get mammograms according to recommended time intervals. Mammograms work best when they can be compared with previous ones. This allows the radiologist to compare them to look for changes in your breasts.

What happens if my mammogram is abnormal?

An abnormal mammogram does not always mean that there is cancer. But you will need to have additional mammograms, tests, or exams before the doctor can tell for sure. You may also be referred to a breast specialist or a surgeon. It does not necessarily mean you have cancer or need surgery. These doctors are experts in diagnosing breast problems. Doctors may order some of these tests:

Diagnostic mammogram, to focus on a specific area of the breast
Ultrasound, an imaging test that uses sound waves to create a picture of your breast. The pictures may show whether a lump is solid or filled with fluid. A cyst is a fluid-filled sac. Cysts are not cancer. But a solid mass may be cancer. After the test, your doctor can store the pictures on video or print them out. This exam may be used along with a mammogram.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which uses a powerful magnet linked to a computer. MRI makes detailed pictures of breast tissue. Your doctor can view these pictures on a monitor or print them on film. MRI may be used along with a mammogram.
Biopsy, a test in which fluid or tissue is removed from your breast to help find out if there is cancer. Your doctor may refer you to a surgeon or to a doctor who is an expert in breast disease for a biopsy.

What is the Breast Imaging Reporting and Database System (BI-RADS®)?

The American College of Radiology (ACR) has established a uniform way for radiologists to describe mammogram findings. The system, called BI-RADS, includes seven standardized categories, or levels. Each BI-RADS category has a follow-up plan associated with it to help radiologists and other physicians appropriately manage a patient’s care.

Breast Imaging Reporting and Database System (BI-RADS)

Category	Assessment	Follow-up
0	Need additional imaging evaluation	Additional imaging needed before a category can be assigned
1	Negative	Continue regular screening mammograms
2	Benign (noncancerous) finding	Continue regular screening mammograms
3	Probably benign	Receive a 6-month follow-up mammogram
4	Suspicious abnormality	May require biopsy
5	Highly suggestive of malignancy (cancer)	Requires biopsy
6	Known biopsy-proven malignancy (cancer)	Biopsy confirms presence of cancer before treatment begins

BI-RADS also includes four categories of breast density that may be reported. The radiologist who reads the mammogram chooses the category that best describes the level of breast density seen on the mammogram film. The categories, from the least amount of breast density to the highest, are as follows:

The breasts are almost entirely fatty
There are scattered areas of dense glandular tissue and fibrous connective tissue (together known as fibroglandular density)
The breasts are heterogeneously dense, which means they have more of these areas of fibroglandular density. This may make it hard to see small masses in the breast tissue on a mammogram.
The breasts are extremely dense, which makes it hard to see tumors in the breast tissue on a mammogram.

Many states in the U.S. have enacted laws requiring mammography providers to tell women if they have dense breasts (i.e., breasts that are heterogeneously or extremely dense on a mammogram) and to inform them of risks associated with having dense breasts. In addition to making mammograms harder to read, dense breasts are a risk factor for breast cancer.

Although they are not perfect, mammograms are the best method to find breast changes that cannot be felt. If your mammogram shows a breast change, sometimes other tests are needed to better understand it. Even if the doctor sees something on the mammogram, it does not mean it is cancer.
As with any medical test, mammograms have limits. These limits include:
- They are only part of a complete breast exam. Your doctor also should do a clinical breast exam. If your mammogram finds something abnormal, your doctor will order other tests.
- Finding cancer does not always mean saving lives. Even though mammography can detect tumors that cannot be felt, finding a small tumor does not always mean that a woman's life will be saved. Mammography may not help a woman with a fast growing cancer that has already spread to other parts of her body before being found.
- False negatives can happen. This means everything may look normal, but cancer is actually present. False negatives don't happen often. Younger women are more likely to have a false negative mammogram than are older women. The dense breasts of younger women make breast cancers harder to find in mammograms.
- False positives can happen. This is when the mammogram results look like cancer is present, even though it is not. False positives are more common in younger women, women who have had breast biopsies, women with a family history of breast cancer, and women who are taking estrogen, such as menopausal hormone therapy.
- Mammograms (as well as dental x-rays and other routine x-rays) use very small doses of radiation. The risk of any harm is very slight, but repeated x-rays could cause cancer. The benefits nearly always outweigh the risk. Talk to your doctor about the need for each x-ray. Ask about shielding to protect parts of the body that are not in the picture. You should always let your doctor and the technician know if there is any chance that you are pregnant.
1. https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/mammograms [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
2. https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/mammography [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
3. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/breast/basic_info/mammograms.htm [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
4. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/mammograms-fact-sheet [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
5. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/breast-changes#ui-id-4 [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
6. https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ByAudience/ForWomen/WomensHealthTopics/ucm117967.htm [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
7. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003380.htm [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
8. https://www.healthline.com/health/birads-score [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]
9. https://www.acr.org/-/media/ACR/Files/RADS/BI-RADS/Mammography-Reporting.pdf [accessed on Feb 16, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (48)

Mammography Fact Sheet

Mammography is an x-ray imaging method used to examine the breast for the early detection of cancer and other breast diseases. It is used as both a diagnostic and screening tool.

Document by www.nibib.nih.gov

Mammograms

Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Top Four Mammogram Myths

Knowing the truth about mammograms could help save your life, or the life of someone you love. Over 60% of breast cancer cases are diagnosed before they spread. Nearly 90% of women who find and treat their breast cancer are cancer-free at five years. Mammograms can help reduce the number of deaths from breast cancer among women ages 40 to 70.

Image by The U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Screening for Cancer

Common Screening Tests and American Cancer Society Recommendations

Image by TheVisualMD

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Mammography

A woman getting a mammogram, showing a cone in position on her right breast.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Mammography

Image by BruceBlaus

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Mammogram

An adult female is assisted in a mammogram machine by an African-American technician.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)

Woman Having Mammogram

Photograph of woman having mammogram. Mammograms are considered the gold standard for breast cancer screening. Mammography requires the breasts to be compressed between plates while the image is captured. Typically, two views are taken of the breast: cranial-caudal (top to bottom) and mediolateral oblique (angled side view).

Image by TheVisualMD

Mammography

Mammogram being conducted

Image by CDC

Woman Receives Mammogram

An African-American female technician positions a Caucasian woman at an imaging machine to receive a mammogram.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

A Caucasian female technician positions an Asian woman at an imaging machine to receive a mammogram.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

A Caucasian female technician positions a Hispanic woman at an imaging machine to receive a mammogram.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

An Asian female technician positions an African-American woman at an imaging machine to receive a mammogram.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Mammography Patient

A female technician prepares to give an older Caucasian female patient a mammogram. the patient is preparing for the exam next to machine with technician in background adjusting controls.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

A woman's breast being compressed to get the optimum mammographic image.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

A Caucasian female patient, while sitting, is receiving a mammogram with a technician is standing in the background. The conical tip is compressing the right breast and the left breast is visible. Note the older machine.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammography

A Caucasian female patient receives a lateral mammogram treatment. She is lying on her left side with the left breast compressed and she is holding her right breast out of the way so as to not block the x-ray. Note the older methods of the diagnostic procedure.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammography

A female Caucasian radiology technician preparing a 42 year old Caucasian woman for a mammogram. The technician is positioning the paddle that compresses the breast. The patient's face is turned towards the technician, away from the camera, and her right shoulder and breast are exposed.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

A female Caucasian radiology technician preparing a 42 year old Caucasian woman for a mammogram. The technician is positioning the paddle used to compress the breast. The patient's face is turned towards the technician, away from the camera, with her right shoulder and breast are exposed.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography Patient

A female Caucasian radiology technician preparing a 42 year old Caucasian woman for a mammogram. The technician is positioning the paddle used to compress the breast. The patient's face is turned towards the technician, away from the camera. Her right shoulder is raised obscuring the breast.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

Male Breast Cancer

Senior Airman Elisabeth Stone compresses a male patient's breast tissue during a baseline screening of mammogram at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska

Image by Staff Sgt. Sheila deVera

Doctor Viewing Mammogram

A doctor examines mammograms on a view box.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (photographer)

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Mammogram Showing Dense And Fatty Breasts

Title Mammogram Showing Dense And Fatty Breasts Description A side-by-side of two normal mammograms showing the difference between a dense breast (left) and a fatty breast (right). The dense breast is that of a woman aged 39, the fatty breast is that of a 59-year old woman. Abnormal lesions are easier to detect and diagnose in a fatty breast making mammography more accurate.

Image by Dr. Kathy Cho. NIH Radiology / National Cancer Institute

Abnormal Mammogram

This abnormal mammogram is not necessarily cancerous. Also seen are calcifications through ductal patterns. Patient would be avised to have follow-up at 3-month intervals.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammogram vs. MRI

A mammography on left and a Magnetic resonance image (MRI) on right. Breast imaging technology has changed over the years. Note MRI's enhancement ability to confirm diagnosis.

Image by Mitchell D. Schnall, M.D., Ph.D. University Of Pennsylvania / Unknown Photographer

Bilateral digital mammography images of the breasts

Bilateral digital mammography images of the breasts; mediolateral oblique view.

Image by © Nevit Dilmen

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Normal (left) versus cancerous (right) mammography image.

Normal (left) versus cancerous (right) mammography image.

Image by National Cancer Institute

Duct ectasia of breast

Detail of a mammography showing liponecrosis (round/oval calcifications) and plasma cell mastitis with typical rod-like calcifications

Image by Hellerhoff

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Mammogram - Normal

Breast tomosynthesis (3D Mammography) of the left craniocaudal.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

Breast tomosynthesis (3D Mammography) of the left craniocaudal projection.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

Breast tomosynthesis (3D Mammography) of the left craniocaudal reconstruction.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

Breast tomosynthesis (3D Mammography) of the left mediolateral oblique projection.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram Showing Dense And Fatty Breasts

A side-by-side of two normal mammograms showing the difference between a dense breast (left) and a fatty breast (right). The dense breast is that of a woman aged 39, the fatty breast is that of a 59-year old woman. Abnormal lesions are easier to detect and diagnose in a fatty breast making mammography more accurate.

Image by Dr. Kathy Cho. NIH Radiology / Unknown Photographer

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Thermography of breast

Image by FDA

Mammograms vs Breast Ultrasounds

Video by Lee Health/Vimeo

Breast Density: Higher Risk & New Screening Options

Video by Breast Cancer School for Patients/YouTube

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Mammography: NCI B-roll [video]

NCI B-roll of female patient (simulated) receiving a digital mammogram. This video is intentionally silent. This footage, which was filmed at Sibley Memorial Hospital (a Johns Hopkins affiliate institution), includes images of a technician setting up the equipment, a Caucasian female being positioned to receive a mammogram, and mammography images of of dense breasts and fatty breasts. Downloadable video files are 960x540 at 30 fps. This image is part of the NCI B-Roll Videos collection. View video using embedded player on this page or at youtube.com.

Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

What to Expect -- Digital Mammography

Video by Hologic, Inc./YouTube

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Mammography

Breast radiologist Dr.Gillian Newstead of the University of Chicago Medical Center explains the process of a typical mammogram screening.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Breast Density

Women with dense breast tissue often require a further look with ultrasound for screening. University of Chicago Medical Center breast radiologist Dr. Gillian Newstead and a breast cancer survivor with dense breast tissue explain.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Breast Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women in the U.S., with about 1 in 8 women developing the disease within her lifetime. Breast cancer is an uncontrolled growth of breast cells that has the potential to spread into the breast and possibly to other parts of the body. Early detection through screening saves the lives of thousands of women every year. If there is a history of breast cancer in the family, women should consider the BReast CAncer susceptibility test (or BRCA) to identify a gene that may indicate an increased risk of developing the disease. Women forty and over should be screened for abnormalities yearly to detect and evaluate changes in breast tissue. If an abnormality is found, a biopsy and pathological exam are necessary for a definitive diagnosis and prognosis. After diagnosis, your doctor may want to learn more about your specific cancer through immunohistochemistry (IHC) and HER2 protein tests. IHC testing can help determine if a specific abnormality is present in the cancer cells. HER2 tests can tell your physician if the breast cancer is turned on by the HER2 gene, and can help determine the best course of treatment. Knowing what type of breast cancer is involved, what stage the cancer is, and the characteristics of that specific cancer, allows a woman's physician to determine best possible therapy for her individual case.

Video by TheVisualMD

A closer look at modern mammography

Video by Siemens Healthineers/YouTube

Mammogram

A mammographic image is displayed on state of the art mammography monitors at the David Grant USAF Medical Center. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Liliana Moreno)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Liliana Moreno

Nipple Aspirate Test No Substitute for Mammogram

Some companies are marketing a new test—the nipple aspirate test—as the latest and greatest tool in early breast cancer screening. But FDA warns that the nipple aspirate test is no substitute for a mammogram.

Image by The U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Do More Screening Tests Lead to Better Health? Choosing Wisely

Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube

New Guidelines for Mammograms

Video by Lee Health/Vimeo

Mammogram questions | Mercy Health

Video by Bon Secours Mercy Health/Vimeo

Getting Screened for Breast Cancer

Video by Lee Health/Vimeo

Mammography Fact Sheet

www.nibib.nih.gov

Mammograms

Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Top Four Mammogram Myths

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Screening for Cancer

TheVisualMD

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Illustrator

Mammography

BruceBlaus

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Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)

Woman Having Mammogram

TheVisualMD

Mammography

CDC

Woman Receives Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Woman Receives Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)

Mammography Patient

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Mammography Patient

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

Male Breast Cancer

Staff Sgt. Sheila deVera

Doctor Viewing Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (photographer)

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Mammogram Showing Dense And Fatty Breasts

Dr. Kathy Cho. NIH Radiology / National Cancer Institute

Abnormal Mammogram

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

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Mammogram vs. MRI

Mitchell D. Schnall, M.D., Ph.D. University Of Pennsylvania / Unknown Photographer

Bilateral digital mammography images of the breasts

© Nevit Dilmen

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Normal (left) versus cancerous (right) mammography image.

National Cancer Institute

Duct ectasia of breast

Hellerhoff

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Mammogram - Normal

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram - Normal

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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Mammogram Showing Dense And Fatty Breasts

Dr. Kathy Cho. NIH Radiology / Unknown Photographer

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Thermography of breast

FDA

1:51

Mammograms vs Breast Ultrasounds

Lee Health/Vimeo

8:30

Breast Density: Higher Risk & New Screening Options

Breast Cancer School for Patients/YouTube

2:39

Mammography: NCI B-roll [video]

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

4:07

What to Expect -- Digital Mammography

Hologic, Inc./YouTube

0:37

Mammography

TheVisualMD

0:43

Breast Density

TheVisualMD

4:57

Breast Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

3:37

A closer look at modern mammography

Siemens Healthineers/YouTube

Mammogram

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Liliana Moreno

Nipple Aspirate Test No Substitute for Mammogram

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration

10:18

Do More Screening Tests Lead to Better Health? Choosing Wisely

DocMikeEvans/YouTube

1:41

New Guidelines for Mammograms

Lee Health/Vimeo

1:08

Mammogram questions | Mercy Health

Bon Secours Mercy Health/Vimeo

1:45

Getting Screened for Breast Cancer

Lee Health/Vimeo

BRCA Genetic Test

BRCA Genetic Test

Also called: BRCA Gene Mutation Analysis, BRCA1/2 Testing, BRCA Mutation Testing, BRCA Test, Breast Cancer Susceptibility Genes 1 and 2, Germline BRCA Testing

A BRCA gene test checks for certain changes (mutations) in your BRCA genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are called tumor suppressor genes. Certain BRCA mutations may put you at higher risk for getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and other cancers. Not everyone who has a harmful BRCA mutation will get cancer.

BRCA Genetic Test

Also called: BRCA Gene Mutation Analysis, BRCA1/2 Testing, BRCA Mutation Testing, BRCA Test, Breast Cancer Susceptibility Genes 1 and 2, Germline BRCA Testing

A BRCA gene test checks for certain changes (mutations) in your BRCA genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are called tumor suppressor genes. Certain BRCA mutations may put you at higher risk for getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and other cancers. Not everyone who has a harmful BRCA mutation will get cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative (normal) result means that the test didn't find any harmful changes in your BRCA genes. How this affects your cancer risk depends on whether you've already had cancer and whether a member of your family has a harmful BRCA variant.
Related conditions
A BRCA gene test uses a sample of your blood, saliva (spit), or cells from inside of your cheek to look for changes in your BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that may increase your risk of cancer. Changes in your genes are called gene variants or mutations. Not all gene variants are harmful.
Genes are parts of DNA that you inherit from your parents. They carry information that controls what you look like and how your body works. BRCA genes repair damaged DNA in your cells and protect you from getting certain types of cancer. If you have a harmful variant in your BRCA genes, they may not work properly. This increases your risk of getting cancer.
The most common cancers linked to harmful BRCA variants are:
- Breast cancer. BRCA is short for breast cancer gene. The increased risk for breast cancer mostly affects females. But the breast cancer risk for males who have a harmful BRCA variant is higher than for other males.
- Ovarian cancer. This is cancer of the female reproductive glands where eggs form.
- Prostate cancer. This is cancer of the male reproductive gland that makes fluid for semen.
- Pancreatic cancer. This is cancer of the pancreas, an organ that helps you digest food and makes important hormones.
Not everyone who has a harmful variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2 will get cancer. And if you find out you have a harmful variant, you may be able to take steps to lower your risk and protect your health.
Harmful BRCA gene variants are rare. They affect only about 0.2 percent of the U.S. population. So, BRCA testing is not recommended for most people.
You and your family members are more likely to have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 variant if either side of your family has a strong history of breast or ovarian cancer. If you're concerned that you may have a harmful variant in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, your health care provider or a genetic counselor can review your personal and family health history to see if you need this test.
In general, it's important to talk with a provider about BRCA testing if your personal or family health history includes:
- Breast cancer, especially:
  Before age 50
  In both breasts
  In a male
  Triple negative breast cancer which has limited treatment options, including chemotherapy and/or surgery
- Cancer of the ovaries, fallopian tubes (tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus), or peritoneum (tissue that covers your belly organs).
- Prostate cancer that spreads to other parts of the body (metastatic cancer).
- Pancreatic cancer.
- Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish ancestry. BRCA variants are much more common in this group compared with the general population. They are also more common in people from other parts of Europe, including Iceland, Norway, and Denmark.
- A relative already diagnosed with a harmful gene variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2.
When you think about your family health history, consider all breast, ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancers on both sides of your family. And consider the health of your grandparents, parents, aunts and uncles, siblings, half-siblings, nieces and nephews, and grandchildren.
Your provider or genetic counselor will need to explain how your results affect your risk for certain cancers. That's because the meaning of your test results depends on the exact type of variant you have and your personal and family health history.
In general, your results may be reported using these terms:
- A negative (normal) result means that the test didn't find any harmful changes in your BRCA genes. How this affects your cancer risk depends on whether you've already had cancer and whether a member of your family has a harmful BRCA variant.
- An uncertain result may also be called a "variant of uncertain significance (VUS)". It means that a variant in your BRCA genes was found, but researchers don't know whether that variant causes cancer.
- A positive result may also be called a "likely pathogenic variant." It means that you have a harmful gene variant that is known to increase the risk of certain cancers. But the test cannot tell whether you will develop cancer.
If your results show that you have a harmful variant in your BRCA genes, talk with your provider about ways to lower your cancer risk. You may discuss:
- Your schedule for cancer screening tests. Should you get tested for cancer sooner and more often than usual? These are important questions for all adults who have a harmful BRCA variant.
- Taking certain medicines and/or having surgery to reduce the risk of cancer. Surgery may include removing both breasts and/or the ovaries and fallopian tubes.
1. BRCA Genetic Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
2. BRCA Mutations: Cancer Risk and Genetic Testing Fact Sheet - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
3. BRCAssure BRCA1 and 2 Analysis [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
4. BRCA Gene Mutation Testing - Testing.com. Nov 9, 2021 [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
5. BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene testing: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]

Additional Materials (13)

Chances of Developing Breast Cancer by Age 70

Specific inherited mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancers.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Examination

Mammograms use low-dose X-rays to create images of the breast on film. Screening mammograms typically image the breast from above and from an angled side view. Yearly mammograms are recommended for women 40 and over. Women at high risk should have an MRI scan and a mammogram every year, beginning at age 30. Mammograms can also be used for diagnosis of cancer and to guide biopsy of suspicious lesions. The National Cancer Institute estimates that women with certain mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a 60% lifetime risk of breast cancer, which is five times higher than the general population. Only 0.2% of women have these specific mutations. Women who test negative for high-risk mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes still have a 12% lifetime risk of breast cancer and a 1.4% lifetime risk of ovarian cancer, which means the most of these cancers are caused by factors other than BRCA genes.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Breast Self-Exam (BSE)

When done correctly and regularly, breast self-exam (BSE) can help save lives. Women who perform BSE are more likely to be diagnosed with smaller tumors, and cancer is less likely to have spread to their underarm lymph nodes. An important part of BSE is self-awareness. Women should be aware of what their breasts normally feel and look like so that they notice any change, and they should bring that change to the attention of their doctor immediately.

Image by TheVisualMD

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BRCA: Breasts

In the 1990s, researchers discovered that certain inherited mutations of the genes increased a woman's risk of developing breast or ovarian cancer. But genes are not destiny; early detection, preventive surgery and drug therapies can also play roles.

Image by TheVisualMD

What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer

Video by JAMA Network/YouTube

BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer

Video by TheJAMAReport/YouTube

BRCA Genes and Breast Cancer

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Understanding BRCA Mutations and Risk

Video by Dr. Susan Love Foundation/YouTube

BRCA Genes

The BRCA genes are tumor suppressor genes pictured here on their respective chromosomes. BRCA 1 has the cytogenetic location 17q21 or the q arm of Chromosome 17 at position 21. BRCA 2 has the cytogenetic location 13q12.3 or the q arm of Chromosome 13 at position 12.3. Both genes produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA, keeping the genetic material of the cell stable. A damaged BRCA gene in either location can lead to increased risk of cancer, particularly breast or ovarian in women.

Image by Tessssa13/Wikimedia

BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Cancer

More than 225,000 cases of invasive breast cancer are diagnosed annually in the U.S. and 40,000 die from the disease. In recent years, however, great strides have been made in early diagnosis and treatment. Imaging techniques have been refined to spot ever-tinier tumors, biomarkers have been developed to reflect physiological changes produced by cancer, and genetic tests such as those for the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have been devised to identify increased familial risk of breast cancer. The majority of breast cancers start in the mammary ducts; most of the remainder arise in the lobules. Breast cancers are divided into in situ and invasive cancers. In situ cancers remain confined to the duct or gland where they began. Invasive cancers break through the walls of the duct or gland and penetrate into the surrounding tissue.

Image by TheVisualMD

BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern

In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person's chance of developing cancer. Although breast cancer is more common in women than in men, the mutated gene can be inherited from either the mother or the father.

Image by YassineMrabet / NIH

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.

The breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 normally help prevent cancer by repairing damaged DNA. Certain inherited mutations in these genes, however, can impair this function and result in a greatly increased risk of breast cancer or ovarian cancer (there are hundreds of different BRCA mutations, but are very rare or not linked with an increased risk of cancer). Of 200,000 women diagnosed each year with breast cancer and 20,000 diagnosed with ovarian cancer, 5-10% are due to BRCA mutations.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chances of Developing Breast Cancer by Age 70

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Examination

TheVisualMD

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Breast Self-Exam (BSE)

TheVisualMD

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BRCA: Breasts

TheVisualMD

1:28

What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

4:39

BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer

JAMA Network/YouTube

2:20

BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer

TheJAMAReport/YouTube

3:12

BRCA Genes and Breast Cancer

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

3:52

Understanding BRCA Mutations and Risk

Dr. Susan Love Foundation/YouTube

BRCA Genes

Tessssa13/Wikimedia

BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Cancer

TheVisualMD

BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern

YassineMrabet / NIH

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.

TheVisualMD

Cervical Cancer

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Pap & HPV Testing

Video by TheVisualMD

Get Screened for Cervical Cancer

Overview

Getting screened for cervical cancer means getting tested before you have any symptoms. Screening tests for cervical cancer include:

Pap tests, also called Pap smears
HPV (human papillomavirus) tests

These tests can help find cervical cells that are infected with HPV or other abnormal cells before they turn into cervical cancer.

Most cervical cancers can be prevented by regular screenings – and the right follow-up treatment when needed.

How often should I get screened (tested)?

How often you need to get screened depends on how old you are and which screening tests you get.

If you are age 21 to 29, get screened with a Pap test every 3 years.

If you are age 30 to 65, you have 3 options:

Get screened every 3 years with a Pap test
Get screened every 5 years with an HPV test.
Get screened every 5 years with both a Pap test and an HPV test.

Talk with your doctor about which option is right for you. Some women may also need to get screened more often. For example, your doctor may recommend that you get screened more often if you’ve had abnormal test results in the past.

If you are age 66 or older, ask your doctor if you need to continue getting screened for cervical cancer.

Cervical Cancer

What is cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer is cancer of the cervix, which is the low, narrow part of the uterus that connects the uterus to the vagina.

Abnormal cells in the cervix can turn into cancer if they aren't found and treated. Cervical cancer is most commonly found in women who don't get regular screenings.

What causes cervical cancer?

Almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by certain types of HPV (human papillomavirus). Some types of HPV cause genital warts, and others cause cancer. HPV is the most common infection spread through sex (vaginal, anal, and oral).

In most cases, HPV infections go away on their own. But when they last for a long time, they can cause cancer.

Cervical Cancer Screening Tests

What happens during cervical cancer screening tests?

Cervical cancer screening tests usually happen as part of a pelvic exam. During this exam, you lie on your back on an exam table, bend your knees, and put your feet into stirrups.

While you lie on the exam table, the doctor or nurse will put a medical tool (called a speculum) into your vagina and open it to see your cervix. The doctor or nurse will use a special brush to collect some cells from your cervix. These cells will be sent to a lab, where an expert will check for abnormal cells or for the types of HPV that can cause cervical cancer.

These tests take about 5 minutes. It may feel uncomfortable, but it usually doesn't hurt.

What else happens during a pelvic exam?

Cervical cancer screening is just part of a pelvic exam. During this exam, the doctor or nurse will also check your uterus, ovaries, and other organs.

Get Screened

Take these steps to help prevent cervical cancer.

Schedule your cervical cancer screening test.

Call a doctor’s office or health clinic to schedule your cervical cancer screening test and pelvic exam. Schedule the test for a time when you won’t have your period.

Get ready for your test.

Some things can cause incorrect Pap test results. Ask your doctor if you need to follow any special instructions before getting a cervical screening test.

Find out your test results.

When you get screened, ask the doctor how you will find out the results.

The kind of results you get can vary based on the type of test:

Pap test results can be "normal," "unclear," or "abnormal."
HPV test results can be “positive” or “negative.”

It can take up to 3 weeks to get your results. If you don’t hear back by then, call your doctor’s office or clinic.

If your Pap test result is "abnormal" or your HPV test result is "positive," it's important to get the follow-up care your doctor recommends.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, most insurance plans must cover screening for cervical cancer. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get tested at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover screening for cervical cancer at no cost.

Lower Your Risk

Get the HPV vaccine.

The HPV vaccine is recommended for women and men age 26 and younger. Most people get it as a pre-teen — but if you didn’t get it and you’re 26 or younger, talk with your doctor about getting it now.

If you’re age 27 to 45 and you haven’t gotten the HPV vaccine, talk to your doctor. They can help you decide if the HPV vaccine is right for you.

The vaccine protects against the types of HPV that most commonly cause cervical cancer. It may also protect against types that can cause other kinds of cancer and genital warts.

Get your child the HPV vaccine.

All girls and boys need to get the HPV vaccine – usually at age 11 or 12, although your child can get it as early as age 9. If you have kids, make sure they get the HPV vaccine.

Get your well-woman visit every year.

During your visit, talk to the doctor or nurse about other important screenings and services to help you stay healthy.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (2)

Human papillomavirus, or HPV

TheVisualMD

5:35

What happens at Cervical screening

Public Health Agency/YouTube

Pap Smear

Pap Smear

Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test

A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.

Pap Smear

Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test

A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative or normal test result is reported as "Negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy". However, a negative report may also note benign findings such as infections or inflammation.
Related conditions
In general, if you're between age 21 and 65, you should have regular Pap smears:
- If you're between ages 21 and 29 and your last Pap test result was normal, your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
- If you're between ages 30 and 65 and your last Pap smear result was normal:
  Your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
  If you also had a normal HPV test result, your provider may say that you can wait five years until your next test.
- If you're over age 65, your provider may tell you that you don't need Pap smears anymore if you:
  Have had normal Pap smears for several years.
  Have had surgery to remove your uterus and cervix because you had a condition that was not cancer, such as fibroids.
If you have a higher risk for developing cervical cancer, your provider may recommend screening more often or after age 65. You may have a higher risk if you:
- Had an abnormal Pap smear in the past
- Have HIV
- Have a weakened immune system
- Were exposed to a drug called DES (Diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between the years 1940–1971, DES was prescribed during pregnancy to prevent miscarriages. It was later linked to an increased risk of certain cancers in the female children exposed to it during the pregnancy.
If you're under age 21, cervical cancer screening is not recommended. Your risk of cervical cancer is very low. Also, any changes in cervical cells are likely to go away on their own.
If you are unsure whether you need a Pap smear, talk with your provider.
You should not have a Pap smear while you are having your period. A good time to have the test is about five days after the last day of your period. For two to three days before your test, you should not:
- Use tampons
- Use birth control foam, jelly, or cream
- Use other creams or medicines in the vagina
- Douche (rinse the vagina with water or other fluid)
- Have vaginal sex
A Pap smear test has three possible results:
- Normal Pap smear or "negative" result. No abnormal changes were found in the cells of your cervix. Your provider may tell you that you can wait three years for your next test. If you also had a normal HPV test result, you may be able to wait five years for your next test, depending on your age and medical history.
- Unclear or unsatisfactory results. The lab sample may not have had enough cells, or the cells may have been clumped together or hidden by mucus. Your provider will usually ask you to come in for another test in 2 to 4 months.
- Abnormal Pap smear or "positive" result. Abnormal changes were found in your cervical cells. Most of the time, abnormal results do not mean you have cervical cancer. Minor changes in the cells usually go back to normal on their own. But your provider may recommend a follow-up test to check. More serious cell changes may turn into cancer if they are not removed. Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cancer from developing.
Talk with your health care provider to learn what your Pap smear results mean.
1. Pap Smear: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
2. Definition of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
3. 192005: Gynecologic Pap Test, Liquid-based Preparation | LabCorp [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
4. https://www.acog.org/Patients/FAQs/Abnormal-Cervical-Cancer-Screening-Test-Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
5. Understanding Abnormal Cervical Cancer Screening Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)

Video by Med Twice/YouTube

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Pap Smear showing Chlamydia

Human pap smear showing Chlamydia in the vacuoles at 500x and stained with H&E.

Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer as well as a number of different types of infections. The test involves collecting cells from the cervix. A speculum is inserted into the vagina, and samples of cervical cells are collected and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives women a greater chance of being cured. A Pap smear can also detect changes in cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women over 30, the Pap smear may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted infection that may cause cervical cancer in some women.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact. It may cause genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually. However, only a small subset of these strains are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. HPV vaccines are available for both men and women to prevent infection by some of the more dangerous virus strains associated with the development of cervical cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

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HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests

HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests: Pap tests (ie, cervical cytology) are the most common way to screen for cervical cancer and routine Pap testing is credited with widely reducing the incidence of cervical cancer since the tests implementation. Pap tests are, however, limited by their relatively low sensitivity and specificity.Studies suggest that testing for high-risk HPV DNA is a more sensitive method of determining a woman`s risk of developing cervical cancer. Though current high-risk HPV DNA testing methods provide adequate sensitivity, specificity is lacking, which can lead to false-positive results and unnecessary invasive procedures such as colposcopy and biopsy. Its important for every woman to talk to her doctor about what tests are right for her.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Risk Factors for Cancer: Virus : Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid the virus responsible for genital HPV infection one of the most common sexually transmitted infections. Often asymptomatic genital HPV infection is spread through genital skin-to-skin contact causes genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal rectal and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV and more than 40 of these are transmitted sexually; however only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. Consistent condom use has been shown to reduce the risk of HPV infection by as much as 70% but condoms do not protect all anatomy vulnerable to the virus. Vaccines that can prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains are widely available.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap Smear

A female Caucasian scientist examining pap smears under the microscope.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Pap Smear Laser

One of the many uses for the laser in medical research is as a light source to detect premalignant and malignant cells in a Pap smear. Gynecologic cells passing in a stream through the laser beam where each cell is analyzed. Abnormal-appearing cells can be sorted from the rest of the cells and later examined by a pathologist for evidence of cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial cancer is the most commonly diagnosed gynecological cancer. Women with clear cell endometrial cancer, a rare type of endometrial cancer, generally have poorer clinical outcomes

Image by Darryl Leja, NHGRI

Advanced Cancer Cell Growth in Cervix

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of advanced cancerous cell growth of cervix. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 3 of 3.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Healthy Cervix

The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus where it joins with the top of the vagina. The opening of the the cervix into the vagina is called the external os, and can vary in appearance from a small, circular opening in women who have not given birth, to a wider, more slit-like opening in women who have had children. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Women should be screened for cellular changes of the cervix with a pap smear as part of a regular pelvic exam. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted. Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. In 2006, the FDA approved an HPV vaccine (Gardisil) that protects against viral types that cause most cases of cervical cancer as well as genital warts. Public health experts recommend routine vaccination for girls ages 11-12 to ensure vaccine effectiveness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Studying Cells

These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left. The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus (HPV). Notice that the infected cells are larger; also, two of these cells each have two nuclei instead of one, the normal number. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman, MD; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Image by CNX Openstax

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Anterior view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Cell Growth in Cervix

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of healthy cervical cells. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 3.

Image by TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

Medical visualization of a lateral cross-section of a healthy cervix, as well as the uterus and vagina. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 2.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted infections.

Image by TheVisualMD

2:13

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

6:01

Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)

Med Twice/YouTube

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Pap Smear showing Chlamydia

Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer

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Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

TheVisualMD

Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

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HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests

TheVisualMD

3:40

Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Pap Smear

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Smear Laser

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

Endometrial Cancer

Darryl Leja, NHGRI

Advanced Cancer Cell Growth in Cervix

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Healthy Cervix

TheVisualMD

Studying Cells

CNX Openstax

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Normal Cell Growth in Cervix

TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Test

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Test

Also called: HPV, HPV DNA, High-risk HPV

An HPV test looks for high-risk HPV (human papillomavirus) infections in women. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted disease. Most infections aren't serious. But some high-risk HPV infections can cause cervical and other types of cancer.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Test

Also called: HPV, HPV DNA, High-risk HPV

An HPV test looks for high-risk HPV (human papillomavirus) infections in women. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted disease. Most infections aren't serious. But some high-risk HPV infections can cause cervical and other types of cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative HPV test means that no "high-risk" HPV strains were found in the tissue sample. It is recommended that women age 30 and older have an HPV test with their pelvic exam and Pap test. If both tests are negative, they should be repeated every 5 years.
Related conditions
{"label":"HPV genotyping reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative result indicates the absence of HPV DNA of the targeted genotypes (HPV-16 and HPV-18). Women with a negative HPV-16 and HPV-18 result, negative Pap smear, but positive high-risk HPV test result should consider repeat testing by both Pap smear and HPV testing in 12 months.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"A positive result indicates the presence of HPV DNA of the targeted genotypes (HPV-16 and HPV-18). Women positive for HPV-16 and\/or HPV-18 having a negative Pap smear may be referred for colposcopy.","conditions":["High-risk HPV"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result indicates the absence of HPV DNA of the targeted genotypes (HPV-16 and HPV-18). Women with a negative HPV-16 and HPV-18 result, negative Pap smear, but positive high-risk HPV test result should consider repeat testing by both Pap smear and HPV testing in 12 months.
Related conditions
You may need an HPV test to screen for cervical cancer if you:
- Had an abnormal result on a Pap smear. An HPV test can show whether HPV caused the abnormal changes in your cervical cells.
- Are age 30 through 65. An HPV test alone or an HPV/Pap cotest is recommended every five years as long as you have had normal test results.
If you are between ages 21 and 29, you should have a Pap smear every three years. But you don't need HPV testing if your Pap smear results are normal. While HPV infections are common in this age group, they usually clear up on their own within a year or two without causing any problems. Some medical experts recommend starting HPV testing at age 25 and getting tested every 5 years if your last test was normal.
If you have a high risk for developing cervical cancer, you may need to get tested more often. Your risk may be higher if you:
- Had an abnormal HPV test, Pap smear, or cervical biopsy in the recent past
- Have HIV
- Have a weakened immune system
- Have had cervical cancer
- Were exposed to a drug called DES (Diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between 1940-1971, DES was sometimes prescribed to prevent miscarriages. It was later linked to an increased risk of certain cancers in the female children exposed to it before birth.
Ask your provider which cervical cancer screening test is right for you and how often you should be tested.
If you have been diagnosed with oropharyngeal cancer, you may also need an HPV test of your throat, tonsils, or tongue to find out which treatment you should have.
You should not have the test while you are having your period. For two days before your test, you should not:
- Use tampons
- Use birth control foam, jelly, or cream
- Use other creams or medicines in the vagina
- Douche (rinse the vagina with water or other fluid)
- Have vaginal sex
For an at-home test, be sure to read all the instructions before you collect your sample.
1. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 08, 2023]
2. HPV DNA test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 08, 2019]
3. 500306: Human Papillomavirus (HPV) High- and Low-risk... | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 08, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

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Pap & HPV Testing

HPV, the Human Papillomavirus, is a sexually transmitted virus which 8 out of 10 women get by the time they are 50 years old. Usually there are no symptoms and it often goes away on its own. However, when an undetected HPV infection lasts for years, it can cause abnormal cell growth in the cervix, which can sometimes lead to cervical cancer. Screening often involves two tests, a Pap test and an HPV test. A Pap test detects abnormal cell growth and can also tell if infections like herpes and yeast are present. An HPV test screens for high-risk HPV infections that are associated with abnormal cell growth. Co-testing refers to when Pap and HPV tests are collected at the same time and can be an important part of protecting your health.

Video by TheVisualMD

Cervical Cancer - Treatment Options by Stage

Location of cervical cancer and an example of normal and abnormal cells

Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Anterior view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Freezing of Abnormal Tissue in the Cervix

Medical visualization of an anterior view of pre-cancerous cells on the cervix being frozen via cryotherapy. During cryosurgery, probes deliver liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -50 degrees Celsius to the surface of the cervix to freeze and destroy abnormal cervical tissue. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

Medical visualization of a lateral cross-section of a healthy cervix, as well as the uterus and vagina. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 2.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cervix Infected with Cancer

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted (half of all sexually active men and women are infected with HPV at some point in their lives). Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. More than a dozen HPV types are considered \"high risk\" for cervical cancer, two of them are responsible for 70% of cervical cancers; genetic and environmental risk factors also play roles. The human papillomavirus (HPV) test is like a Pap test in that it involves the collection of cells from the cervix for analysis; the cell sample is taken with a special swab or brush during a pelvic examination. But while a Pap test is designed to spot abnormal cells, which often indicate an HPV infection, it cannot distinguish among different HPV types. An HPV test uses DNA techniques to determine whether an HPV infection has been caused by one of the viral types that lead to an increased risk of cervical cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

HPV, Cancer Cells

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that infect skin and mucous membranes; there are 30-40 types that are transmitted sexually. More than a dozen HPV types are considered high risk for cervical cancer, but just two of these types are responsible for 70% of cervical cancers. It isn't clear how HPV triggers cancer; evidence of the virus is found in nearly all cases, but most women infected with HPV never develop cervical cancer. Genetic and environmental risk factors also play roles

Image by TheVisualMD

2:41

Pap & HPV Testing

TheVisualMD

Cervical Cancer - Treatment Options by Stage

Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

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Freezing of Abnormal Tissue in the Cervix

TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

TheVisualMD

Cervix Infected with Cancer

TheVisualMD

HPV, Cancer Cells

TheVisualMD

Chlamydia & Gonorrhea

Illustration of drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria

Image by CDC/ Antibiotic Resistance Coordination and Strategy Unit; Photo credit: Medical Illustrator: Alissa Eckert

Get Tested for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea

Chlamydia and gonorrhea are sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) that you can get during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. A pregnant woman can also pass these STDs to her baby during birth.

STDs are also sometimes called STIs (sexually transmitted infections).

How do I know if I have an STD?

Getting tested is the only way to know for sure if you have an STD. Most people who have an STD don’t feel sick or have any symptoms.

It’s also important to talk with a doctor or nurse if someone you recently had sex with has an STD.

Is there a cure for chlamydia and gonorrhea?

Yes. Chlamydia and gonorrhea can both be cured with the right treatment. If these STDs aren’t treated, they can cause serious health problems, like making it difficult or impossible for a woman to get pregnant.

If you have an STD, it’s important to get treatment right away. It’s also important to tell anyone you’ve had sex with that you have an STD so they can get treated, too. This can help protect you from getting infected again.

Who needs to get tested for chlamydia and gonorrhea?

The recommendations for getting tested for chlamydia and for gonorrhea are the same.

For women:

If you are age 24 or younger and having sex, get tested once every year.
If you are age 25 or older, get tested if you have more than one sex partner, a new sex partner, or a sex partner with an STD.

For men:

Talk with a doctor to find out if you need to get tested for chlamydia, gonorrhea, or other STDs.

What are the signs of chlamydia or gonorrhea?

Many people who have chlamydia or gonorrhea don’t have any signs or symptoms. When there are symptoms, chlamydia and gonorrhea cause very similar things.

Women with symptoms may have:

Abnormal discharge (fluid) from the vagina
Burning when they urinate (pee)
Bleeding between periods

Men with symptoms may have:

Abnormal discharge from the penis
Burning when they urinate
Painful or swollen testicles (though this symptom is less common)

How do doctors test for chlamydia and gonorrhea?

A doctor or nurse can test your urine for both chlamydia and gonorrhea. Sometimes, the doctor might take a sample from the vagina, penis, rectum, or throat instead. The test is easy and painless.

Get Tested

Get tested for chlamydia and gonorrhea if you're at risk. Talk with your partner about getting tested, too.

Make an appointment at a health center or clinic.

If you think you may be at risk, talk with your doctor about getting tested for chlamydia and gonorrhea.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover some STD testing and prevention counseling. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get these services at no cost to you. Talk to your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover some STD testing and counseling at no cost for people who are at risk.

If you don’t have insurance, you may still be able to get free or low-cost STD testing.

Protect Yourself

Stay safe.

The best way to protect yourself from STDs is to not have vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Wait to have sex until you and your partner have tested negative for STDs.

Here are some other ways to protect yourself from STDs:

Use a latex condom the right way every time you have vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
Make sure you and your partner have been tested for STDs
If you know that you or your partner has an STD, get treated before having sex

If you're pregnant, talk with your doctor about STD testing.

Having chlamydia, gonorrhea, or another STD while you're pregnant can be very dangerous for you and your baby.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (7)

The Value of Chlamydia Screening

CDC

4:32

STI's and Women's Health

TheVisualMD

2:35

STIs: What you need to know

My Doctor - Kaiser Permanente/YouTube

4:36

Urine test for Gonorrhoea and Chlamydia

The Rotherham NHS Foundation Trust/YouTube

1:42

How to Test for STD (Chlamydia & Gonorrhea) DNA Rapidly?

DTAP Clinic/YouTube

6:09

Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of chlamydia | Infectious diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

7:50

What is gonorrhea? | Infectious diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Chlamydia Test

Chlamydia Test

Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria in your body, so the disease can be treated promptly. If not treated, chlamydia can cause serious complications, including infertility in women and swelling of the urethra in men.

Chlamydia Test

Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria in your body, so the disease can be treated promptly. If not treated, chlamydia can cause serious complications, including infertility in women and swelling of the urethra in men.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
No evidence of infection with chlamydia at the time of the test. Subsequent testing for new exposure or re-infection may still be warranted.
Related conditions
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that more than two and a half million Americans are infected with chlamydia every year. Chlamydia is especially common in sexually active people aged 15 to 24. Many individuals with chlamydia don't have symptoms, so the CDC and other health organizations recommend regular screening for groups at higher risk.
These recommendations include yearly chlamydia tests for:
- Sexually active women under the age of 25
- Women over the age of 25 with certain risk factors, which include:
  Having new or multiple sex partners
  Previous chlamydia infections
  Having a sex partner with an STD
  Using condoms inconsistently or incorrectly
- Men who have sex with men
In addition, chlamydia testing is recommended for:
- Pregnant women under the age of 25
- People who are HIV-positive
Some people with chlamydia will have symptoms. Your health care provider may order a test if you experience symptoms such as:
For women:
- Stomach pain
- Abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge
- Pain during sex
- Pain when urinating
- Frequent urination
For men:
- Pain or tenderness in the testicles
- Swollen scrotum
- Pus or other discharge from the penis
- Pain when urinating
- Frequent urination
If you are a woman, your health care provider will use a small brush or swab to take a sample of cells from your vagina for testing. You may also be offered the option of testing yourself at home using a test kit. Ask your provider for recommendations on which kit to use. If you do the test at home, be sure to follow all the directions carefully.
If you're a man, your health care provider may use a swab to take a sample from your urethra, but it is more likely that a urine test for chlamydia will be recommended. Urine tests can also be used for women. During a urine test, you will be instructed to provide a clean catch sample.
The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
1. Chlamydia Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (9)

Illustration of Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria

This image is an illustration of Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria.

Image by CDC

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STI's and Women's Health

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, only 14% of men and 8% of women believe they could get a sexually transmitted infection (STI), but more than half of all people in the U.S. will be infected in his or her lifetime. Sexually transmitted infections are transmissible through blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and other bodily fluids. Some STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, and trichomoniasis, are often asymptomatic and go undiagnosed. If left untreated, some infections may lead to complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility.

Video by TheVisualMD

What Is Chlamydia? | STDs

Video by Howcast/YouTube

Chlamydia Symptoms in Men vs. Women | STDs

Video by Howcast/YouTube

Understanding Chlamydia (Sex & STDs #2)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

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Chlamydia infections

Chlamydia infection : Chlamydial cervicitis in a female patient characterized by mucopurulent cervical discharge, erythema, and inflammation.

Image by GerardM

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Chlamydia infections

Male patients may develop a white, cloudy or watery discharge (shown) from the tip of the penis.

Image by SOA-AIDS Amsterdam

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Chlamydia infections

Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia.

Image by SOA-AIDS Amsterdam

What You Need to Know About Chlamydia

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Illustration of Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria

CDC

4:32

STI's and Women's Health

TheVisualMD

1:55

What Is Chlamydia? | STDs

Howcast/YouTube

1:24

Chlamydia Symptoms in Men vs. Women | STDs

Howcast/YouTube

3:01

Understanding Chlamydia (Sex & STDs #2)

Healthguru/YouTube

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Chlamydia infections

GerardM

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Chlamydia infections

SOA-AIDS Amsterdam

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Chlamydia infections

SOA-AIDS Amsterdam

2:10

What You Need to Know About Chlamydia

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Gonorrhea Testing

Gonorrhea Testing

Also called: Gonorrhea Test, GC Test

A gonorrhea test looks for the presence of gonorrhea bacteria in your body. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease that can infect both men and women. Commonly known as “the clap”, it causes infection in the genitals, rectum, and throat.

Gonorrhea Testing

Also called: Gonorrhea Test, GC Test

A gonorrhea test looks for the presence of gonorrhea bacteria in your body. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease that can infect both men and women. Commonly known as “the clap”, it causes infection in the genitals, rectum, and throat.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative (or normal) test result means that a gonorrhea infection wasn't found in your sample. But it doesn't rule out gonorrhea. After you are infected with gonorrhea, it may take weeks before you test positive. So, it's possible that the test was taken too soon after your exposure to the bacteria.
Related conditions
Gonorrhea is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It is a bacterial infection. Anyone can get gonorrhea if they have vaginal, oral, or anal sex with someone who has the infection. The bacteria often infect the genitals, but it can infect the rectum, throat, eyes, and other parts of the body.
A gonorrhea test looks for signs of gonorrhea bacteria in a sample of fluid from your body. The fluid used depends on the type of gonorrhea test and where the infection may be. Samples may include:
- Urine (pee)
- Fluid that's swabbed from the part of your body that may be infected, including the:
  Urethra (the tube that carries urine out of the body in males and females)
  Cervix (lower part of the uterus)
  Vagina
  Throat
  Rectum (the last part of your intestine that connects to the anus)
Gonorrhea often has no symptoms, so you may spread it to others without even knowing you have the infection. If a pregnant person has gonorrhea, they can give the infection to the baby during childbirth. In babies, the disease usually affects the eyes.
Gonorrhea can be cured with antibiotics. But if it's not treated, it can lead to serious health problems:
- In the female reproductive system gonorrhea can cause:
  Pelvic inflammatory disease
  Infertility or ectopic pregnancy
  Long-term pelvic pain
- In the male reproductive system gonorrhea can cause:
  Pain in the testicles
  Infertility (uncommon)
- Blood infection, which can be life-threatening
- In babies, gonorrhea can cause blindness, joint infections, or life-threatening blood infections.
A gonorrhea test can help you catch the disease early so you can get treatment before you develop lasting health problems or spread it to others.
A gonorrhea test is used to:
- Screen for a gonorrhea infection when you don't have symptoms but may have been exposed to the bacteria
- Diagnose or rule out gonorrhea when you have symptoms
Gonorrhea testing is often done with a test for chlamydia, another type of sexually transmitted disease. That's because gonorrhea and chlamydia have similar symptoms, and it's common to have both infections at the same time. You may also be tested for syphilis and/or HIV.
If you're sexually active, you may need regular testing if your risk of gonorrhea is high. Gonorrhea is a very common STD, especially in sexually active people between ages 15 and 24. But it often doesn't cause symptoms. So, medical experts recommend routine screening tests for people who are sexually active and are more likely to be exposed to gonorrhea.
You should get tested for gonorrhea at least every year if you:
- Are a woman or transgender or gender diverse person with a cervix (lower part of the uterus) who is:
  Younger than age of 25 and having sex
  Age 25 or older with a higher risk of getting gonorrhea because you:
  Have a new sex partner or more than one partner
  Have a sex partner who has sex with others
  Have a sex partner who has an STD
  Don't use condoms correctly every time
- Are a man who has sex with men (MSM)
- Are a transgender or gender diverse person with a penis who has sex with men
- Have HIV
If you are pregnant and younger than age 25, you should have a gonorrhea test early in your pregnancy. If you are older than age 25, ask your health care provider if you need to be tested.
If you are a heterosexual (straight) man with no symptoms and a low risk for infection, testing for gonorrhea isn't recommended.
Your need for testing depends on your personal risk for getting gonorrhea. Some people may need to be tested more than once a year. So, ask your provider what's best for you.
If you're sexually active and have symptoms, you need a test to diagnose or rule out gonorrhea. The symptoms of gonorrhea depend on where the infection is. Symptoms include:
- An unusual discharge (fluid) from the genitals (vagina or penis)
- Pain or burning when urinating (peeing)
- Rectal symptoms, such as:
  Anal discharge and itching
  Soreness
  Bleeding
  Painful bowel movements
- Pain in the lower abdomen (belly)
- Sore throat (uncommon)
- Vaginal bleeding between menstrual periods
- Pain, tenderness, or swelling in the testicles or scrotum
- Eye symptoms, such as:
  Pain and/or itching
  Sensitivity to light
  Pus-like fluid that drains from one or both eyes
To do a gonorrhea test, you will need to provide a sample of fluid from the part of your body that may be infected. There are two ways to gather the sample:
- A first-catch urine sample. You use a sterile cup to a collect urine from the very first part of your urine stream. To get an accurate test result, you will need to stop urinating for two hours before the test.
- A swab sample. Your provider will use a special swab or brush to gather fluid and cells, usually from the genital area (the urethra or the vagina). In certain cases, the rectum, cervix, throat, or eyes may be swabbed. Your provider may give you the option to swab yourself following special instructions.
Some types of gonorrhea tests can be done with an at-home STD test kit. The kit includes a container for collecting a urine sample to send to a lab for testing. Ask your provider if at-home testing is right for you.
- A negative (or normal) test result means that a gonorrhea infection wasn't found in your sample. But it doesn't rule out gonorrhea. After you are infected with gonorrhea, it may take weeks before you test positive. So, it's possible that the test was taken too soon after your exposure to the bacteria.
- A positive (or abnormal) test result means that you are infected with the gonorrhea bacteria. You will need treatment with antibiotics right away. You will also need to tell your sex partner or partners so that they can be tested and treated if necessary.
To make sure your infection is cured, take all your medicine following your provider's instructions. Some types of gonorrhea bacteria are becoming resistant to certain antibiotics. This means that the bacteria have "learned" how to survive those antibiotics, so the medicines no longer work.
If your symptoms don't improve after treatment, your provider may order an antibiotic "susceptibility test." This test can show which antibiotic will work best to clear up your infection.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
The best way to prevent gonorrhea and other STDs is not to have sex. If you are sexually active, you can reduce your risk of infection by:
- Having sex with one partner who has tested negative for STDs and has sex only with you
- Using condoms correctly every time you have sex
1. Gonorrhea Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 09, 2023]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (17)

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Gonorrhea

Cutaneous ecthyma caused by gonorrhea infection : This cutaneous ecthyma was caused by a systemically disseminated Neisseria gonorrhea infection. When N. gonorrhea bacteria become disseminated throughout the body, they then can cause centers of infection in all bodily regions. In this patient's case, the bacteria caused the formation of a skin infection known as a pyoderma, or ecthyma. Ecthyma is an ulcerative skin disease with pus caused by bacteria. Because ecthyma extends into the dermis, it is often referred to as a deeper form of impetigo.

Image by CDC ID 6385

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This colposcopic view of this patient’s cervix reveled an eroded ostium due to Neisseria gonorrhea infection.

A chronic Neisseria gonorrhea infection can lead to complications, which can be apparent such as this cervical inflammation, and some can be quite insipid, giving the impression that the infection has subsided, while treatment is still needed.

Image by CDC

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Gonorrhea

Vaginal discharge in gonorrhea.

Image by GerardM

Gonorrhea

Close-up of a Gonococcal lesion on the skin of a patient's arm. Gonorrhea, caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, if left untreated will enter the blood, thereby, spreading throughout the body. As is shown here, such full body dissemination may manifest itself as skin lesions in the form of gray pustules.

Image by CDC / Emory University, Dr. Thomas F. Sellers ID 2038

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Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye) in Newborns

This was a newborn with gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum caused by a maternally transmitted gonococcal infection. Unless preventative measures are taken, it is estimated that gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum will develop in 28% of infants born to women with gonorrhea. It affects the corneal epithelium causing microbial keratitis, ulceration and perforation.

Image by CDC / J. Pledger

Neisseria gonorrhoeae gram stain

This illustration depicts a urethral exudate containing Neisseria gonorrhoeae from a patient with gonococcal urethritis. Note the typical intracellular gram-negative diplococci, and pleomorphic extracellular gram-negative organisms, which is diagnostic for gonococcal urethritis. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The organism can grow easily in the warm, moist areas of the reproductive tract, including the cervix (opening to the womb), uterus (womb), and fallopian tubes (egg canals) in women, and in the urethra (urine canal) in women and men. The bacterium can also grow in the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus.

Image by CDC/ Dr. Norman Jacobs

Gonorrhea

The sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. These bacteria infect the epithelial tissue of the urethra, cervix, rectum, pharynx, or eyes. Common symptoms include tissue irritation, pain, and discharge. In some cases, the infection can move to the skin and joints, resulting in skin sores, fever, and some kinds of arthritis. Gonorrhea infection can be treated with antibiotics.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Oral Sex Performed on Man

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral view of fellatio, or oral sex performed on a man. HIV, herpes, genital warts (HPV), gonorrhea, syphilis, hepatitis A, and even yeast infections can all be acquired through oral sex. A latex barrier such as a condom or dental dam can lower the risk of transmission of HIV and other STDs.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Oral Sex Performed on Woman

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral view of cunnilingis, or oral sex performed on a woman. HIV, herpes, genital warts (HPV), gonorrhea, syphilis, hepatitis A, and even yeast infections can all be acquired through oral sex. A latex barrier such as a condom or dental dam can lower the risk of transmission of HIV and other STDs.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

STI's and Women's Health

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, only 14% of men and 8% of women believe they could get a sexually transmitted infection (STI), but more than half of all people in the U.S. will be infected in his or her lifetime. Sexually transmitted infections are transmissible through blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and other bodily fluids. Some STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, and trichomoniasis, are often asymptomatic and go undiagnosed. If left untreated, some infections may lead to complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility.

Video by TheVisualMD

Gonorrhea Myths & Facts | STDs

Video by Howcast/YouTube

Gonorrhea ¦ Treatment and Symptoms

Video by MainMD/YouTube

How to Treat Gonorrhea (The Clap) | STDs

Video by Howcast/YouTube

Understanding Gonorrhea (Sex Health Guru)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

Killer Sex Disease Now DRUG RESISTANT!

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Symptoms of Gonorrhea in Men vs. Women | STDs

Video by Howcast/YouTube

Illustration of drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria

This is a medical illustration of drug-resistant, Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria, presented in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publication entitled, Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States, 2019 (AR Threats Report). See the link below for more on the topic of antimicrobial resistance (AR).

Image by CDC/ Antibiotic Resistance Coordination and Strategy Unit; Photo credit: Medical Illustrator: Alissa Eckert

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Gonorrhea

CDC ID 6385

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This colposcopic view of this patient’s cervix reveled an eroded ostium due to Neisseria gonorrhea infection.

CDC

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Gonorrhea

GerardM

Gonorrhea

CDC / Emory University, Dr. Thomas F. Sellers ID 2038

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Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye) in Newborns

CDC / J. Pledger

Neisseria gonorrhoeae gram stain

CDC/ Dr. Norman Jacobs

Gonorrhea

TheVisualMD

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Oral Sex Performed on Man

TheVisualMD

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Oral Sex Performed on Woman

TheVisualMD

4:32

STI's and Women's Health

TheVisualMD

1:42

Gonorrhea Myths & Facts | STDs

Howcast/YouTube

3:11

Gonorrhea ¦ Treatment and Symptoms

MainMD/YouTube

1:35

How to Treat Gonorrhea (The Clap) | STDs

Howcast/YouTube

3:38

Understanding Gonorrhea (Sex Health Guru)

Healthguru/YouTube

3:24

Killer Sex Disease Now DRUG RESISTANT!

Seeker/YouTube

1:25

Symptoms of Gonorrhea in Men vs. Women | STDs

Howcast/YouTube

Illustration of drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria

CDC/ Antibiotic Resistance Coordination and Strategy Unit; Photo credit: Medical Illustrator: Alissa Eckert

Cholesterol

What Do My Cholesterol Results Mean?

Image by TheVisualMD

Get Your Cholesterol Checked

It's important to get your cholesterol (“koh-LEHS-tuh-rahl”) checked regularly. Too much cholesterol in your blood can cause a heart attack or a stroke.

The good news is that it’s easy to get your cholesterol checked. If your cholesterol is high, you can take steps to lower it – like eating healthy, getting more physical activity, and taking medicine if your doctor recommends it.

How often do I need to get my cholesterol checked?

The general recommendation is to get your cholesterol checked every 4 to 6 years. Some people may need to get their cholesterol checked more or less often depending on their risk for developing heart disease.

For example, high cholesterol can run in families. If someone in your family has high cholesterol or takes medicine to control their cholesterol, you might need to get tested more often. Talk to your doctor about what’s best for you.

What is cholesterol?

Cholesterol is a waxy material that’s found naturally in your blood. Your body makes cholesterol and uses it to do important things, like making hormones and digesting fatty foods.

If you have too much cholesterol in your body, it can build up inside your blood vessels and make it hard for blood to flow through them. Over time, this can lead to heart disease.

How can I tell if I have high cholesterol?

Most people who have high cholesterol don't have any signs or symptoms. That's why it's so important to get your cholesterol checked.

How can I get my cholesterol checked?

Your doctor will check your cholesterol levels with a blood test called a lipid profile. A nurse will take a small sample of blood from your finger or arm for this test.

There are other blood tests that can check cholesterol, but a lipid profile gives the most information.

What do the test results mean?

If you get a lipid profile test, the results will show 4 numbers. A lipid profile measures:

Total cholesterol
LDL (bad) cholesterol
HDL (good) cholesterol
Triglycerides

Total cholesterol is a measure of all the cholesterol in your blood. It's based on the LDL, HDL, and triglycerides numbers.

LDL cholesterol is the “bad” type of cholesterol that can block your arteries — so a lower level is better for you. Having a high LDL level can increase your risk for heart disease.

HDL cholesterol is the “good” type of cholesterol that helps clear LDL cholesterol out of your arteries — so a higher level is better for you. Having a low HDL cholesterol level can increase your risk for heart disease.

Triglycerides are a type of fat in your blood that can increase your risk for heart attack and stroke.

What can cause unhealthy cholesterol levels?

LDL cholesterol levels tend to increase as people get older. Other causes of high LDL (bad) cholesterol levels include:

Family history of high LDL cholesterol
High blood pressure or type 2 diabetes
Smoking
Obesity
Not getting enough physical activity
Eating too much saturated fat — and not enough fruits and vegetables
Taking certain medicines, like medicines to lower blood pressure

Causes of low HDL (good) cholesterol levels include:

Smoking
Obesity
Not getting enough physical activity
Not eating enough fruits, vegetables, and unsaturated fats (like olive oil)

What if my cholesterol levels aren't healthy?

As your LDL cholesterol gets higher, so does your risk of heart disease. Take these steps to lower your cholesterol and reduce your risk of heart disease:

Eat heart-healthy foods
Get active
Stay at a healthy weight
If you smoke, quit
If you have type 2 diabetes or high blood pressure, take steps to manage it
Ask your doctor about taking medicine (called statins) to lower your risk of heart attack and stroke

Get Tested

Find out what your cholesterol levels are. If your cholesterol is high or you're at risk for heart disease, take steps to control your cholesterol levels.

Make an appointment to get your cholesterol checked.

Call your doctor’s office or health center to schedule the test. Be sure to ask for a complete lipid profile — and find out what instructions you’ll need to follow before the test. For example, you may need to fast (not eat or drink anything except water) for 8 to 12 hours before the test.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover cholesterol testing. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get your cholesterol checked at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover cholesterol testing at no cost.

If you don't have insurance, you may still be able to get free or low-cost cholesterol testing.

Keep track of your cholesterol levels.

Remember to ask the doctor or nurse for your cholesterol levels each time you get your cholesterol checked. Write the levels down to keep track of your progress.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (3)

2:54

What is Cholesterol?

American Heart Association/YouTube

7:44

VIDEO: High Cholesterol in Women: What You Need to Know

WomenHeartTV/YouTube

Healthy blood cholesterol levels differ by age and sex

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Lipid Tests

Lipid Tests

Also called: Lipid Panel, Lipid Profile, Lipid Testing, Lipoprotein Profile

Lipid tests measure triglycerides, a type of fat found in the bloodstream, and cholesterol, a waxy, fat-like substance found in your blood and every cell of your body. High levels of triglycerides and/or a type of cholesterol, called LDL can put you at risk for heart disease.

Lipid Tests

Also called: Lipid Panel, Lipid Profile, Lipid Testing, Lipoprotein Profile

Lipid tests measure triglycerides, a type of fat found in the bloodstream, and cholesterol, a waxy, fat-like substance found in your blood and every cell of your body. High levels of triglycerides and/or a type of cholesterol, called LDL can put you at risk for heart disease.

1. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/high-blood-cholesterol [accessed on Sep 29, 2019]
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK351/ [accessed on Sep 29, 2019]

Additional Materials (12)

Lipid Panel Interpretation

Video by FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

WellnessFX Biomarker Series: Apolipoprotein B

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Cholesterol - what is it and how can you prevent high cholesterol?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Cholesterol Good and Bad

Video by The National Library of Medicine/YouTube

Cholesterol Blood Test

Video by Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

Cholesterol Isn't Quite as Bad as You've Been Told

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Cholesterol & Atherosclerosis

While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system (as used in MeSH), it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis (arterial disease). Everyone talks about high cholesterol and how bad it is for you. But why is it bad for you? Where does it come from? What's the difference between "good" and "bad" cholesterol? Take a journey inside the body and explore its vessels, as world-renowned doctors explain what cholesterol is all about and how it contributes to hardening of the arteries, a dangerous condition also known as atherosclerosis.

Video by TheVisualMD

What cholesterol is and what cholesterol blood tests show

Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube

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What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Fiber and Lowering Cholesterol

Take steps towards better health exploring why a diet rich in soluble fiber is a great way to help lower "bad" LDL cholesterol. Soluble fiber (found in oats, apples, beans, barley) acts like a cholesterol sponge, soaking up "bad" LDL cholesterol in the small intestine and lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease. It can also help regulate blood sugar and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Video by TheVisualMD

Fasting for a Blood Test | WebMD

Video by WebMD/YouTube

Fasting Plasma Glucose

Fasting Plasma Glucose - The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, also known as the fasting blood sugar test, measures blood sugar levels and is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

1:16:38

Lipid Panel Interpretation

FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

1:13

WellnessFX Biomarker Series: Apolipoprotein B

WellnessFX/YouTube

2:42

Cholesterol - what is it and how can you prevent high cholesterol?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

3:01

Cholesterol Good and Bad

The National Library of Medicine/YouTube

3:06

Cholesterol Blood Test

Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

5:09

Cholesterol Isn't Quite as Bad as You've Been Told

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

3:08

Cholesterol & Atherosclerosis

TheVisualMD

3:53

What cholesterol is and what cholesterol blood tests show

Bupa Health UK/YouTube

0:45

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

1:07

Fiber and Lowering Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

0:50

Fasting for a Blood Test | WebMD

WebMD/YouTube

Fasting Plasma Glucose

TheVisualMD

Triglycerides Test

Triglycerides Test

Also called: TRIG

A triglycerides test measures the amount of triglycerides in your blood. High triglyceride levels may put you at risk for heart disease. The test is usually part of a lipid profile.

Triglycerides Test

Also called: TRIG

A triglycerides test measures the amount of triglycerides in your blood. High triglyceride levels may put you at risk for heart disease. The test is usually part of a lipid profile.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
150
200
500
Your result is Optimal.
For adults, triglyceride levels less than 150 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) are considered optimal.
Related conditions
Healthy adults should get a lipid profile, which includes a triglycerides test, every four to six years. You may need to be tested more often if you have certain risk factors for heart disease. These include:
- Family history of heart disease
- Smoking
- Being overweight
- Unhealthy eating habits
- Lack of exercise
- Diabetes
- High blood pressure
- Age. Men 45 years or older and women 50 years or older are at a higher risk for heart disease
Triglycerides are usually measured in milligrams (mg) of triglycerides per deciliter (dL) of blood. For adults, results are usually categorized as:
- Normal/desirable triglyceride range: less than 150mg/dL
- Borderline high triglyceride range: 150 to 199 mg/dL
- High triglyceride range: 200 to 499 mg/dL
- Very high triglyceride range: 500 mg/dL and above
Higher than normal triglyceride levels may put you at risk for heart disease. To reduce your levels and lower your risk, your health care provider may recommend lifestyle changes and/or prescribe medicines.
If your results were borderline high, your provider may recommend that you:
- Lose weight
- Eat a healthier diet
- Get more exercise
- Reduce alcohol intake
- Take a cholesterol lowering medicine
If your results were high or very high, your provider may recommend the same lifestyle changes as above and also that you:
- Follow a very low-fat diet
- Lose a significant amount of weight
- Take medicine or medicines designed to lower triglycerides
Be sure to talk to your health care provider before making any major changes to your diet or exercise routine.
1. Triglycerides Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on May 17, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (39)

Triglycerides

A Triglyceride model showing the positions of Sn1, Sn2 and Sn3, fatty acids, and the glycerol backbone

Image by Roger Daniels, Bunge Oils Director of Research & Development

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

Triglycerides are a large and varied category of fats found in both plants and animals. Because fats and blood, like oil and water, do not mix, triglycerides (as well as cholesterol) circulate through the body in special parcels called lipoproteins, which are fat-and-protein packages that enable fats to move freely within the bloodstream. Proteins and other components make up the outer shell; fats, in the form of triglycerides and cholesterol, are packed together inside.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

Your blood "knows" what you eat, meaning that the cardiovascular system is a sensitive barometer of a person's health, including diet. What individuals eat is reflected in their blood chemistry and the health of their heart, arteries and vessels. Fats (also known as lipids), for example, are vital to health and wellbeing throughout our lives and yet they are mostly associated with obesity and cardiovascular disease. The problem is that not all fats (or cholesterol) are equal. They share basic chemical similarities, but they also have important differences, which, in turn, result in different roles and effects in the body. Tests that offer information on diet and heart health include total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad" cholesterol), high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good" cholesterol), and triglycerides.

Video by TheVisualMD

Thoracic Duct

The lymphatic system consists of a network of vessels and nodes that collect and carry a clear fluid called lymph that plays roles in immune function as well as the transport of nutrients. The thoracic duct, which is the largest vessel in the lymphatic system, delivers lymph into the bloodstream, including lymph from the intestinal system, called chyle, which is milky rich in fats.

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

Triglycerides are the body's primary form of stored fat. When you consume excess calories, your body converts them right away into triglycerides. In the liver, triglycerides are packaged up with cholesterol and with proteins in carriers called lipoproteins, which are transported through the blood to various sites of the body to be stored in fat cells. Luckily for anyone with a high triglyceride reading in their lipid profile, levels can often be lowered by making smart changes to the diet. Even if you are prescribed medication to lower triglyceride levels, your physician will also recommend improving food choices. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, and oxygen atoms are red.

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

Triglycerides are the body's primary form of stored fat. When you consume excess calories, your body converts them right away into triglycerides. In the liver, triglycerides are packaged up with cholesterol and with proteins in carriers called lipoproteins, which are transported through the blood to various sites of the body to be stored in fat cells. Luckily for anyone with a high triglyceride reading in their lipid profile, levels can often be lowered by making smart changes to the diet. Even if you are prescribed medication to lower triglyceride levels, your physician will also recommend improving food choices. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, and oxygen atoms are red.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lowering Triglycerides - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Tri HDL

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

Triglycerides: Liver and Intestines

The liver is the body's central chemical plant, removing toxins, storing sugars and lipids and producing a wide range of proteins that play key roles as enzymes. The liver also produces packages cholesterol and triglycerides, along with special proteins, into lipoproteins.

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglycerides: Triglyceride

Triglycerides are a large and varied category of fats found in both plants and animals. When we eat our bodies convert excess calories into triglycerides, which can be stored in fat cells and then released as needed into the bloodstream for energy between meals.

Image by TheVisualMD

LDL-Particles: Triglycerides

One factor that may contribute to a high LDL particle count is raised levels of triglycerides. Elevated triglyceride levels in the blood start a chain of biochemical reactions that eventually leads to a reduction in the size of LDL particles. The smaller LDL particles can't carry as much cholesterol as larger LDL particles, so a greater number of them is needed to carry a given amount of cholesterol.

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglycerides and HDL

Video by Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

Asian Heart Hospital - What is Triglycerides?

Video by Asian Heart Institute/YouTube

What is Plaque?

Video by CardioTabs/YouTube

Lipid Absorption

Lipid Absorption

Image by OpenStax College

lipid vesicles in these adipocytes

The preadipocyte cell line PA6 fully differentiated into adipocytes. The lipid vesicles in these adipocytes are stained using oil-red-O staining.

Image by M. Oktar Guloglu

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Breast Milk Component Pathway

The components of breast milk are brought together in the alveoli via different routes. Breast milk constituents are either absorbed from the bloodstream from nutrients in the mother's diet or synthesized in special milk-producing cells called lactocytes. These constituents are brought together in the alveoli via different routes. Some components pass through or between the lactocytes, while others are assembled within the lactocytes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Maintaining Cardiovascular Health

This series of images illustrates diet and lifestyle changes that help maintain cardiovascular health, and which may actually help improve existing damage. From left to right: 1) A woman eats an apple, with visible cardiovascular system and digestive system. 2) Fresh vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, broccoli, cauliflower and carrots, are high in fiber which helps keep blood lipid levels healthy. 3) Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are better for heart health than trans fats and saturated fats. Good sources include those shown: nuts, seeds, olive oil and omega-3 fatty acids like those found in salmon. 4) A woman takes a vigorous walk with muscles, skeletal bones and heart visible. Regular exercise in combination with a heart-healthy diet helps keep your heart and blood vessels in top condition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fat Cells Growing on the Surface of a Blood Vessel

This image shows mature fat cells growing on the surface of a blood vessel. The image is from an animation that shows how fat cells, or adipocytes, expand and contribute to obesity. Some tissue is also visible in the image.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Cell Membrane

This image shows the healthy membrane of an endothelial cell in a blood vessel wall. You can see the semi-permeable double layer of phospholipids that allows lipids to move across the membrane. The cholesterol molecules (yellow) maintain permeability by keeping the phospholipid tails from sticking together.

Image by TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease

Image by TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease - Managing Atherosclerosis Risk

Managing Atherosclerosis Risk : Certain lifestyle habits, traits, and conditions may increase the probability that you'll develop atherosclerosis. These conditions are known as risk factors. The more risk factors you have, the greater your chances of developing atherosclerosis. Fortunately, most of these risk factors are within your control.

Image by TheVisualMD

Abnormal blood lipid levels and hypertension both increase the risk of atherosclerosis

Message From The Heart : Abnormal blood lipid levels and hypertension both increase the risk of atherosclerosis. In atherosclerosis, cholesterol and other substances create hard, waxy plaques inside your arteries, narrowing them and making it more difficult for blood to get through.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fat: What Is It Good For?

Adipose tissue (fat tissue) is a type of connective tissue. The two main types of adipose tissue in humans are subcutaneous (under the skin) and visceral (inside the abdomen). Adipose tissue performs many functions in your body. Its main job is to store energy in the form of lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol). When you eat fatty foods, often there are more lipids than you need for energy at that time. The excess lipids are stored in your adipose tissue. The same holds true for proteins and carbohydrates—when you eat more of them than you need immediately, excess amounts are converted to lipids and stored in adipose tissue for future use.

Image by TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease - Risk Factors Of Atherosclerosis

Risk Factors Of Atherosclerosis : Scientists think that immune system cells may gather at injures areas of the lining of the arteries in an attempt to "heal" the damage. Lipids like cholesterol adhere as well, together with other substances in the blood like calcium and fibrin (connective tissue). Together they form the hard, fatty deposit called plaques.

Image by TheVisualMD

Getting to the Heart of Things

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood itself. Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, and nutrients such as glucose. The cardiovascular system distributes these substances throughout the body as needed and collects waste products from your cells for elimination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Child Showing Cardiovascular System and Visceral Fat

Most of the kids diagnosed with type 2 diabetes are obese. Normally, insulin in the blood binds with an insulin receptor on a cell surface to allow glucose (blood sugar) to enter the cell. In type 2 diabetes, insulin doesn't work to allow glucose into the cell. Obesity and its related conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal glucose tolerance, and high lipid levels, are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD), diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Most of us think of CVD, the leading cause of death in the US, as an adult disease. But CVD can begin early on, even in childhood, and get progressively worse. Obese children and children with abnormally high blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels can develop fatty streaks in their arteries, the first steps in the formation of plaques. Some may even develop plaques. CVD has become a pediatric disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Young Child Showing Cardiovascular System and Visceral Fat

Most of the kids diagnosed with type 2 diabetes are obese. Normally, insulin in the blood binds with an insulin receptor on a cell surface to allow glucose (blood sugar) to enter the cell. In type 2 diabetes, insulin doesn't work to allow glucose into the cell. Obesity and its related conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal glucose tolerance, and high lipid levels, are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD), diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Most of us think of CVD, the leading cause of death in the US, as an adult disease. But CVD can begin early on, even in childhood, and get progressively worse. Obese children and children with abnormally high blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels can develop fatty streaks in their arteries, the first steps in the formation of plaques. Some may even develop plaques. CVD has become a pediatric disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipoproteins

Lipoproteins are protein spheres that transport lipids through your bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bile Acids

Digestion of Fats : You need cholesterol in order to digest food. One of the other major uses of cholesterol is the production of bile acids (also known as bile salts) in the liver. Bile contains a number of ingredients, including water, cholesterol, and bile acids. Bile is necessary for the absorption of fats from fecal matter passing through the intestine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Statins Lowering Cholesterol

Statins lower cholesterol levels by reducing the production of cholesterol by the liver. They also increase the capacity of the liver to remove cholesterol from the blood. When less produced and more gets removed from the bloodstream, the level of cholesterol can drop significantly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cardiovascular disease

Atherosclerosis Risk Factors, Major Risk Factors You Can Control:

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

Triglycerides are the body's primary form of stored fat. When you consume excess calories, your body converts them right away into triglycerides. In the liver, triglycerides are packaged up with cholesterol and with proteins in carriers called lipoproteins, which are transported through the blood to various sites of the body to be stored in fat cells. Luckily for anyone with a high triglyceride reading in their lipid profile, levels can often be lowered by making smart changes to the diet. Even if you are prescribed medication to lower triglyceride levels, your physician will also recommend improving food choices. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, and oxygen atoms are red

Image by TheVisualMD

The ABC's of Vitamins

Image by TheVisualMD

Triglycerides

Roger Daniels, Bunge Oils Director of Research & Development

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

TheVisualMD

Lipids and Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

2:46

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

Thoracic Duct

TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

TheVisualMD

2:46

Lowering Triglycerides - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

2:17

Tri HDL

ACAP Health/YouTube

Triglycerides: Liver and Intestines

TheVisualMD

Triglycerides: Triglyceride

TheVisualMD

LDL-Particles: Triglycerides

TheVisualMD

3:25

Triglycerides and HDL

Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

3:11

Asian Heart Hospital - What is Triglycerides?

Asian Heart Institute/YouTube

2:19

What is Plaque?

CardioTabs/YouTube

Lipid Absorption

OpenStax College

lipid vesicles in these adipocytes

M. Oktar Guloglu

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Breast Milk Component Pathway

TheVisualMD

Maintaining Cardiovascular Health

TheVisualMD

Fat Cells Growing on the Surface of a Blood Vessel

TheVisualMD

Healthy Cell Membrane

TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease

TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease - Managing Atherosclerosis Risk

TheVisualMD

Abnormal blood lipid levels and hypertension both increase the risk of atherosclerosis

TheVisualMD

Fat: What Is It Good For?

TheVisualMD

Coronary Artery Disease - Risk Factors Of Atherosclerosis

TheVisualMD

Getting to the Heart of Things

TheVisualMD

Obese Child Showing Cardiovascular System and Visceral Fat

TheVisualMD

Obese Young Child Showing Cardiovascular System and Visceral Fat

TheVisualMD

Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

Bile Acids

TheVisualMD

Statins Lowering Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Cardiovascular disease

TheVisualMD

Triglyceride Molecule

TheVisualMD

The ABC's of Vitamins

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Test

Cholesterol Test

Also called: Cholesterol Levels, Blood Cholesterol, Total Cholesterol

A cholesterol test is a blood test that measures the amount of each type of cholesterol and certain fats in your blood. Cholesterol is needed to carry out functions such as hormone and vitamin production. High cholesterol can put you at risk for heart disease.

Cholesterol Test

Also called: Cholesterol Levels, Blood Cholesterol, Total Cholesterol

A cholesterol test is a blood test that measures the amount of each type of cholesterol and certain fats in your blood. Cholesterol is needed to carry out functions such as hormone and vitamin production. High cholesterol can put you at risk for heart disease.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
200
240
Your result is Desirable.
While cholesterol levels can vary widely among healthy individuals, total cholesterol levels below 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) are considered most desirable.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
40
60
Your result is Desirable.
HDL levels between 40-50 mg/dL for men, and 50-60 mg/dl for women, are associated with average risk of heart disease. The higher HDL levels, the better.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
100
130
160
190
Your result is Optimal.
The optimal level of LDL has changed over time and depends on the number of risk factors you have for heart disease and stroke. Generally, you want your LDL to be low. It's possible to have extremely low levels of LDL, but this is rare.
Related conditions
A cholesterol test is a blood test that measures the amount of cholesterol and certain fats in your blood. Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that's found in your blood and every cell of your body. You need some cholesterol to keep your cells and organs healthy.
Your liver makes all the cholesterol your body needs. But you can also get cholesterol from the foods you eat, especially meat, eggs, poultry, and dairy products. Foods that are high in dietary fat can also make your liver produce more cholesterol.
There are two main types of cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol.
Too much LDL cholesterol in your blood increases your risk for coronary artery disease and other heart diseases. High LDL levels can cause the buildup of a sticky substance called plaque in your arteries. Over time, plaque can narrow your arteries or fully block them. When this happens, parts of your body don't get enough blood:
- If the blood flow to the heart is blocked, it can cause a heart attack.
- If the blood flow to the brain is blocked, it can cause a stroke.
- If the blood flow to the arms or legs is blocked, it can cause peripheral artery disease.
Other names for a cholesterol test: Lipid profile, Lipid panel
A cholesterol test gives you and your health care provider important information about your risk of developing heart disease. If your test shows you have high cholesterol, you can take steps to lower it. This may decrease your risk of developing heart problems in the future. A cholesterol test measures:
- LDL levels. Also known as the "bad" cholesterol, LDL is the main source of blockages in the arteries.
- HDL levels. Considered the "good" cholesterol, HDL helps get rid of "bad" LDL cholesterol.
- Total cholesterol. The combined amount of LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol in your blood.
- Triglyceride levels. Triglycerides are a type of fat found in your blood. Some studies show that high levels of triglycerides may increase the risk of heart disease, especially in women.
- VLDL levels. Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) is another type of "bad" cholesterol. High VLDL levels have been linked to plaque buildup in the arteries. VLDL isn't usually included in routine cholesterol tests because it's difficult to measure. About half of VLDL is triglycerides, so your VLDL level can be estimated as a percentage of your triglyceride level.
Your provider may order a cholesterol test as part of a routine exam. You may also have a cholesterol test if you have a family history of heart disease or if your risk for heart problems is high because of:
- High blood pressure
- Type 2 diabetes
- Smoking
- Excess weight or obesity
- Lack of physical activity
- A diet high in saturated fat
Your age may also be a factor, because your risk for heart disease increases as you get older.

Cholesterol is usually measured in milligrams (mg) of cholesterol per deciliter (dL) of blood. The information below will help you understand what your test results mean. In general, low LDL levels and high HDL cholesterol levels are good for heart health.

Total cholesterol

Total Cholesterol Level	Category
Less than 200mg/dL	Desirable
200-239 mg/dL	Borderline high
240mg/dL and above	High

LDL (bad) cholesterol

LDL (Bad) Cholesterol Level	LDL Cholesterol Category
Less than 100mg/dL	Optimal (best for your health)
100-129mg/dL	Near optimal
130-159 mg/dL	Borderline high
160-189 mg/dL	High
190 mg/dL and above	Very High

HDL (good) cholesterol

HDL (Good) Cholesterol Level	HDL Cholesterol Category
60 mg/dL and higher	Considered protective against heart disease
40-59 mg/dL	The higher, the better
Less than 40 mg/dL	A major risk factor for heart disease

The LDL listed on your results may say "calculated." This means that your LDL level is an estimate based on your total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides. Your LDL level may also be measured "directly" from your blood sample. Either way, you want your LDL number to be low.

A healthy cholesterol level for you may depend on your age, family history, lifestyle, and other risk factors for heart disease, such as high triglyceride levels. Your provider can explain what's right for you.

High cholesterol can lead to heart disease, the number one cause of death in the United States. You can't change some risk factors for high cholesterol, such as age and your genes. But there are actions you can take to lower your LDL levels and reduce your risk, including:
- Eating a healthy diet. Reducing or avoiding foods high in saturated fat and cholesterol can help reduce the cholesterol levels in your blood.
- Losing weight. Being overweight can increase your cholesterol and risk for heart disease.
- Staying active. Regular exercise may help lower your LDL (bad) cholesterol levels and raise your HDL (good) cholesterol levels. It may also help you lose weight.
Talk to your provider before making any major change in your diet or exercise routine.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

Total Cholesterol: Heart

The heart beats about 100,000 times a day, pumping blood through a vast system of arteries, veins and microscopic capillaries. While many risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including cholesterol levels, are related to lifestyle, others are largely genetic.

Image by TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol: Heart and Liver

The liver produces most of the body's cholesterol in order to package fats in the form of lipoproteins. HDL is referred to as \"good\" cholesterol because it picks up excess cholesterol in the bloodstream and carries it back to the liver for disposal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol: Thrombus

Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel. If the clot is large or persistent enough, it can obstruct blood flow, which can starve tissue of oxygen-carrying blood. Most strokes are the result of thrombosis.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

Your blood "knows" what you eat, meaning that the cardiovascular system is a sensitive barometer of a person's health, including diet. What individuals eat is reflected in their blood chemistry and the health of their heart, arteries and vessels. Fats (also known as lipids), for example, are vital to health and wellbeing throughout our lives and yet they are mostly associated with obesity and cardiovascular disease. The problem is that not all fats (or cholesterol) are equal. They share basic chemical similarities, but they also have important differences, which, in turn, result in different roles and effects in the body. Tests that offer information on diet and heart health include total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad" cholesterol), high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good" cholesterol), and triglycerides.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is Atherosclerosis?

Voyage inside your body to see where cholesterol is made and how plaques form inside your arteries. Witness the inner workings of your own personal cholesterol factory: your liver. Dr. Mehmet Oz, Dr. Peter Fail, and other top experts talk about cholesterol-how it accumulates with other substances in your arteries as plaque, and what happens when plaques rupture. See exactly how tiny stents are inserted in blocked vessels, and view footage of actual bypass surgery. Discover how you can keep your arteries clear and flexible through lifestyle changes and medications.

Video by TheVisualMD

What cholesterol is and what cholesterol blood tests show

Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Cholesterol Blood Test

Video by Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

Cholesterol - what is it and how can you prevent high cholesterol?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Cholesterol Good and Bad

Video by The National Library of Medicine/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Refined Carbohydrates and Atherosclerosis

Refined Carbohydrates and Atherosclerosis : In atherosclerosis, hard, fatty deposits called plaque build up inside your arteries. For decades it was thought that eating too many fatty foods, especially foods rich in cholesterol, was to blame for plaque accumulation.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Cardiovascular Inflammation

Heart disease is the number one killer of men and women in the U.S. The most common cause of heart attack, stroke, and cardiovascular death is atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries that leads to the hardening of arterial walls and the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques, or atheromas. Although the process of inflammation can be beneficial in other parts of the body, chronic inflammation within arterial walls is problematic as it seems to promote this underlying growth of plaque. The combination of arterial inflammation and the growth of plaque can lead to the rupture of the plaque, and result in a blood clot. Blood clots can lead to dangerous conditions such as heart attack or stroke.

Video by TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol: Heart

TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol: Heart and Liver

TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol: Thrombus

TheVisualMD

2:46

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

3:10

What Is Atherosclerosis?

TheVisualMD

3:53

What cholesterol is and what cholesterol blood tests show

Bupa Health UK/YouTube

3:06

Cholesterol Blood Test

Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

2:42

Cholesterol - what is it and how can you prevent high cholesterol?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

3:01

Cholesterol Good and Bad

The National Library of Medicine/YouTube

0:45

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

2:21

Refined Carbohydrates and Atherosclerosis

TheVisualMD

4:26

Cardiovascular Inflammation

TheVisualMD

High-Density Lipoprotein Test

High-Density Lipoprotein Test

Also called: HDL, HDL-C, HDL Cholesterol, High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

HDL, or high-density lipoprotein, is the "good" cholesterol. It helps to remove bad cholesterol from your arteries, so a higher HDL level is better.

High-Density Lipoprotein Test

Also called: HDL, HDL-C, HDL Cholesterol, High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

HDL, or high-density lipoprotein, is the "good" cholesterol. It helps to remove bad cholesterol from your arteries, so a higher HDL level is better.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
40
60
Your result is Desirable.
HDL levels between 40-50 mg/dL for men, and 50-60 mg/dl for women, are associated with average risk of heart disease. The higher HDL levels, the better.
Related conditions
HDL and LDL are two types of lipoproteins.They are a combination of fat (lipid) and protein. The lipids need to be attached to the proteins so they can move through the blood. HDL and LDL have different purposes:
- HDL stands for high-density lipoproteins. It is sometimes called the "good" cholesterol because it carries cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver. Your liver then removes the cholesterol from your body.
- LDL stands for low-density lipoproteins. It is sometimes called the "bad" cholesterol because a high LDL level leads to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries.
A blood test can measure your cholesterol levels, including HDL. When and how often you should get this test depends on your age, risk factors, and family history. The general recommendations are:
For people who are age 19 or younger:
- The first test should be between ages 9 to 11
- Children should have the test again every 5 years
- Some children may have this test starting at age 2 if there is a family history of high blood cholesterol, heart attack, or stroke
For people who are age 20 or older:
- Younger adults should have the test every 5 years
- Men ages 45 to 65 and women ages 55 to 65 should have it every 1 to 2 years
If your HDL level is too low, lifestyle changes may help. These changes may also help prevent other diseases, and make you feel better overall:
- Eat a healthy diet. To raise your HDL level, you need to eat good fats instead of bad fats. This means limiting saturated fats, which include full-fat milk and cheese, high-fat meats like sausage and bacon, and foods made with butter, lard, and shortening. You should also avoid trans fats, which may be in some margarines, fried foods, and processed foods like baked goods. Instead, eat unsaturated fats, which are found in avocado, vegetable oils like olive oil, and nuts. Limit carbohydrates, especially sugar. Also try to eat more foods naturally high in fiber, such as oatmeal and beans.
- Stay at a healthy weight. You can boost your HDL level by losing weight, especially if you have lots of fat around your waist.
- Exercise. Getting regular exercise can raise your HDL level, as well as lower your LDL. You should try to do 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise on most, if not all, days.
- Avoid cigarettes. Smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke can lower your HDL level. If you are a smoker, ask your health care provider for help in finding the best way for you to quit. You should also try to avoid secondhand smoke.
- Limit alcohol. Moderate alcohol may lower your HDL level, although more studies are needed to confirm that. What we do know is that too much alcohol can make you gain weight, and that lowers your HDL level.
Some cholesterol medicines, including certain statins, can raise your HDL level, in addition to lowering your LDL level. Health care providers don't usually prescribe medicines only to raise HDL. But if you have a low HDL and high LDL level, you might need medicine.
Taking certain medicines can lower HDL levels in some people. They include
- Beta blockers, a type of blood pressure medicine
- Anabolic steroids, including testosterone, a male hormone
- Progestins, which are female hormones that are in some birth control pills and hormone replacement therapy
- Benzodiazepines, sedatives that are often used for anxiety and insomnia
If you are taking one of these and you have a very low HDL level, ask your provider if you should continue to take them.
Diabetes can also lower your HDL level, so that gives you another reason to manage your diabetes.
1. HDL: The "Good" Cholesterol: MedlinePlus [accessed on Oct 08, 2018]
2. Cholesterol Levels: What You Need to Know: MedlinePlus [accessed on Oct 08, 2018]
3. High blood cholesterol levels: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 08, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (21)

HDL and LDL Molecules Subfractionization

The standard lipid profile, which measures the quantity of LDL and HDL cholesterol in the blood stream, has proven itself to be very useful in identifying many people who are risk for heart disease. But it doesn't catch everyone at risk. A more detailed lipid profile, called lipoprotein subfraction testing, divides the basic cholesterol groups into finer categories, which makes possible more accurate risk assessment. This interactive features all of the different tests involved in a lipid panel- HDL, LDL and VLDL, and the different subclasses for each.

Image by TheVisualMD

LDL particle

LDL (low-density lipoprotein or \"bad cholesterol\") along with HDL (high-density lipoprotein or \"good cholesterol\") are the two main types of cholesterol particles in the bloodstream. LDL is referred to as \"bad\" cholesterol because it forms deposits (plaque) in the lining of blood vessels. The size and density of the lipoprotein determines whether its cholesterol is classified as \"good: or \"bad\". Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are larger, lighter, and fluffier; high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are small and dense. An LDL test is part of a lipid panel that measures total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and triglycerides. Cholesterol tests do not diagnose heart disease; instead, they are used to estimate risk. And while cholesterol levels can vary widely among healthy individuals, the evidence suggests that low levels of LDL cholesterol decrease the risk of heart disease and stroke, while high levels of LDL increase that risk.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Healthy Heart

A heart-healthy lifestyle includes a diet based on the principles of balance, variety and moderation in the consumption of fats. Fats are essential nutrients and critical building blocks. The type of fat in a diet, however, turns out to be even more important than the total amount; there are \"good\" fats and \"bad\" dietary fats, just as there are \"good\" and \"bad\" types of cholesterol in our bloodstream. Other keys to cardiovascular health and wellbeing: get aerobic exercise, don't smoke, and drink alcohol only in moderation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Aerobic athletes in general, particularly lean ones, have lower LDL (or "bad" cholesterol) levels

There are many factors that can potentially influence cholesterol levels. Exercise may be an important one, though evidence is not definitive; studies have shown that endurance athletes have higher HDL (or \"good\" cholesterol) levels, and aerobic athletes in general, particularly lean ones, have lower LDL (or \"bad\" cholesterol) levels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-Section View of HDL Lipoprotein

This image shows a cross-section of a globule of High Density-Lipoprotein (HDL). HDL has a large amount of protein, which makes it denser than other lipoproteins. The purple area shows protein content (33-57%), the off-white shell shows phospholipids (26-43%), and the yellow and red interior shows cholesterol (17-40%) and triglycerides (3-15%). HDL supplies two other lipoproteins-chylomicrons and VLDLs-with proteins that signal the liver to trap and extract their fat. HDL also sponges up excess cholesterol from blood vessel linings and carries it to the liver for removal. This reduces the risk of plaque build-up in the arteries and gives HDL its nickname \"good\" cholesterol.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Atherosclerotic Heart Disease

Atherosclerosis is a disease in which fatty deposits called plaque build up inside arteries; one of the components of plaque is LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol. Over time, plaque narrows the arteries, which limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the body; plaque in coronary arteries restricts blood supply to the heart. Plaque also makes the arterial walls stiff and less elastic, which is why a common term for artherosclerosis is \"hardening\" of the arteries. To try to clean up the mess, the endothelial cells that make up the inner lining send out chemical signals that summon inflammatory cells. These cells invade the area and engulf the fatty molecules, leaving behind the fatty streaks. If the levels of cholesterol don't drop, the buildup continues. The fats start to accumulate faster than the cleanup process can remove them and develop into noticeable deposits known as plaque. As the plaques grow, so do the problems. The bulging plaque reduces the diameter of the arteries, which decreases blood flow and increases blood pressure. As a defense, the arteries start shoring up, making more support cells to cope with the rising blood pressure. The arteries become less flexible; hence the description of the condition as hardening of the arteries.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol pathway

Cholesterol is essential for the maintenance of cell membranes, production of sex hormones, and absorption of key vitamins. We get cholesterol from the foods we eat (particularly red meat, dairy and eggs), but our livers produce most of it in a multi-step process (drugs like statins interrupt this process). Cholesterol is carried in the bloodstream in specialized packages called lipoproteins.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Traveling Through Cell Membrane to HDL

This image shows the healthy membrane of an endothelial cell in a blood vessel wall. You can see the semi-permeable double layer of phospholipids that allows lipids to move across the membrane. The cholesterol molecules (yellow) maintain permeability by keeping the phospholipid tails from sticking together. Excess cholesterol molecules are passing through the phospholipid bilayer through passive, aqueous diffusion to a mature high-denisty lipoprotein (HDL) molecule. HDL is considered \"good\" cholesterol. The cell membrane benefits from this interaction with HDL and now has less cholesterol in the membrane. The HDL molecule carries the cholesterol away and back to the liver for recycling or degradation.

Image by TheVisualMD

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Molecule

High-density lipoproteins, abbreviated HDL, are small and dense protein spheres that transport cholesterol, triglyceride, and other lipids through the bloodstream. Because the density of a protein bundle is associated with its ability to gather cholesterol from cells and transport it to the liver for eventual elimination, high-density lipoproteins are commonly referred to as the \"good\" cholesterol. A heart-healthy diet is rich in HDL sources. Wholesome foods that deliver Omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and soluble fibers can raise HDL levels and provide numerous health benefits, including the warding off of life-threatening diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Cardiovascular Inflammation

Heart disease is the number one killer of men and women in the U.S. The most common cause of heart attack, stroke, and cardiovascular death is atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries that leads to the hardening of arterial walls and the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques, or atheromas. Although the process of inflammation can be beneficial in other parts of the body, chronic inflammation within arterial walls is problematic as it seems to promote this underlying growth of plaque. The combination of arterial inflammation and the growth of plaque can lead to the rupture of the plaque, and result in a blood clot. Blood clots can lead to dangerous conditions such as heart attack or stroke.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

Your blood "knows" what you eat, meaning that the cardiovascular system is a sensitive barometer of a person's health, including diet. What individuals eat is reflected in their blood chemistry and the health of their heart, arteries and vessels. Fats (also known as lipids), for example, are vital to health and wellbeing throughout our lives and yet they are mostly associated with obesity and cardiovascular disease. The problem is that not all fats (or cholesterol) are equal. They share basic chemical similarities, but they also have important differences, which, in turn, result in different roles and effects in the body. Tests that offer information on diet and heart health include total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad" cholesterol), high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good" cholesterol), and triglycerides.

Video by TheVisualMD

The 5 Most Important Molecules in Your Body

Video by SciShow/YouTube

Cholesterol Blood Test

Video by Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

High Cholesterol Medical Animation (Hyperlipidemia)

Video by Silverback Video/YouTube

British Heart Foundation - Cholesterol and heart disease

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

HDL: When Good Cholesterol Goes Bad

Video by UW Video/YouTube

Lipid Panel Interpretation

Video by FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

Triglycerides and HDL

Video by Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

Tri HDL

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

HDL Molecule

HDL Molecule

Image by TheVisualMD

HDL and LDL Molecules Subfractionization

TheVisualMD

LDL particle

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Healthy Heart

TheVisualMD

Aerobic athletes in general, particularly lean ones, have lower LDL (or "bad" cholesterol) levels

TheVisualMD

Cross-Section View of HDL Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Atherosclerotic Heart Disease

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol pathway

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Traveling Through Cell Membrane to HDL

TheVisualMD

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Molecule

TheVisualMD

0:45

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

4:26

Cardiovascular Inflammation

TheVisualMD

2:46

Lipids, Heart Health and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

7:55

The 5 Most Important Molecules in Your Body

SciShow/YouTube

3:06

Cholesterol Blood Test

Baptist Health Physician Partners/YouTube

1:19

High Cholesterol Medical Animation (Hyperlipidemia)

Silverback Video/YouTube

6:23

British Heart Foundation - Cholesterol and heart disease

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

54:59

HDL: When Good Cholesterol Goes Bad

UW Video/YouTube

1:16:38

Lipid Panel Interpretation

FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

3:25

Triglycerides and HDL

Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

2:17

Tri HDL

ACAP Health/YouTube

HDL Molecule

TheVisualMD

Low Density Lipoprotein Test

Low Density Lipoprotein Test

Also called: LDL, LDL-C, LDL Cholesterol, Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

LDL, or low-density lipoprotein, is the "bad" cholesterol. A high LDL level can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries. Too much LDL is linked to heart disease and stroke.

Low Density Lipoprotein Test

Also called: LDL, LDL-C, LDL Cholesterol, Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

LDL, or low-density lipoprotein, is the "bad" cholesterol. A high LDL level can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries. Too much LDL is linked to heart disease and stroke.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
100
130
160
190
Your result is Optimal.
The optimal level of LDL has changed over time and depends on the number of risk factors you have for heart disease and stroke. Generally, you want your LDL to be low. It's possible to have extremely low levels of LDL, but this is rare.
Related conditions
LDL and HDL are two types of lipoproteins. They are a combination of fat (lipid) and protein. The lipids need to be attached to the proteins so they can move through the blood. LDL and HDL have different purposes:
- LDL stands for low-density lipoproteins. It is sometimes called the "bad" cholesterol because a high LDL level leads to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries.
- HDL stands for high-density lipoproteins. It is sometimes called the "good" cholesterol because it carries cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver. Your liver then removes the cholesterol from your body.
A blood test can measure your cholesterol levels, including LDL. When and how often you should get this test depends on your age, risk factors, and family history. The general recommendations are:
For people who are age 19 or younger:
- The first test should be between ages 9 to 11
- Children should have the test again every 5 years
- Some children may have this test starting at age 2 if there is a family history of high blood cholesterol, heart attack, or stroke
For people who are age 20 or older:
- Younger adults should have the test every 5 years
- Men ages 45 to 65 and women ages 55 to 65 should have it every 1 to 2 years
Things that can affect your LDL level include
- Diet. Saturated fat and cholesterol in the food you eat make your blood cholesterol level rise
- Weight. Being overweight tends to raise your LDL level, lower your HDL level, and increase your total cholesterol level
- Physical Activity. A lack of physical activity can lead to weight gain, which can raise your LDL level
- Smoking. Cigarette smoking lowers your HDL cholesterol. Since HDL helps to remove LDL from your arteries, if you have less HDL, that can contribute to you having a higher LDL level.
- Age and Gender. As women and men get older, their cholesterol levels rise. Before the age of menopause, women have lower total cholesterol levels than men of the same age. After the age of menopause, women's LDL levels tend to rise.
- Genetics. Your genes partly determine how much cholesterol your body makes. High cholesterol can run in families. For example, familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an inherited form of high blood cholesterol.
- Medicines. Certain medicines, including steroids, some blood pressure medicines, and HIV/AIDS medicines, can raise your LDL level.
- Other medical conditions. Diseases such as chronic kidney disease, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS can cause a higher LDL level.
- Race. Certain races may have an increased risk of high blood cholesterol. For example, African Americans typically have higher HDL and LDL cholesterol levels than whites.
There are two main ways to lower your LDL cholesterol:
- Therapeutic lifestyle changes (TLC). TLC includes three parts:
  Heart-healthy eating. A heart-healthy eating plan limits the amount of saturated and trans fats that you eat. Examples of eating plans that can lower your cholesterol include the Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes diet and the DASH eating plan.
  Weight Management. If you are overweight, losing weight can help lower your LDL cholesterol.
  Physical Activity. Everyone should get regular physical activity (30 minutes on most, if not all, days).
- Drug Treatment. If lifestyle changes alone do not lower your cholesterol enough, you may also need to take medicines. There are several types of cholesterol-lowering drugs available, including statins. The medicines work in different ways and can have different side effects. Talk to your health care provider about which one is right for you. While you are taking medicines to lower your cholesterol, you still should continue with the lifestyle changes.
Some people with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) may receive a treatment called lipoprotein apheresis. This treatment uses a filtering machine to remove LDL cholesterol from the blood. Then the machine returns the rest of the blood back to the person.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ldlthebadcholesterol.html [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000386.htm [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
3. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/ldl-cholesterol [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]
4. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/11920-cholesterol-numbers-what-do-they-mean [accessed on Mar 01, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipid Absorption

Lipid Absorption

Image by OpenStax College

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a soft, waxy, fatty substance that's found naturally in every cell in your body. It's categorized as a lipid-that is, a fat, oil, or wax that won't dissolve in water. Cholesterol is necessary for your body's health because it helps to make cell membranes, digest fats, and produce vitamin D and various steroid hormones. Your bloodstream transports cholesterol throughout your body bound to water-soluble particles called lipoproteins.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipids & Fats

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipids & Fats

Lipids & Fats

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Dr. Tara Dall discusses LDL, LDL Cholesterol (LDL-C) & LDL Particles (LDL-P)

Video by AdvLip/YouTube

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

The New Marker for Heart Disease that is BETTER than LDL Cholesterol

Video by Dr. Adrian Chavez/YouTube

% Small Dense LDL Cholesterol

The predominance of small, dense low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is now recognized as a serious cardiovascular risk factor by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel. Research showed that the predominance of small, dense LDL is associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD).

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

HDL and LDL Cholesterol Sub-fraction, Heart Disease

The standard lipid profile, which measures the quantity of LDL (\"bad\") and HDL (\"good\") cholesterol in the bloodstream, has proven itself to be useful in identifying many people who are at risk for heart disease. But it doesn't catch everyone at risk. A more detailed lipid profile, called lipoprotein sub-fraction testing, categorizes cholesterol particles according to their size and density. Such testing is more sensitive and is especially useful for people who have a strong family history of heart disease. Heart attack (myocardial infarction) is a condition when blood flow to the heart is reduced or blocked. Heart cells die when the blood supply is cut off; the longer the blood supply is cut off, the greater the area of heart damage.

Image by TheVisualMD

Low Density Lipoprotein: Arterial Wall

It's estimated that there are nearly 100,000 miles of arteries in an adult body. The walls of these arteries are composed of fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, elastica interna, and an endothelial cell layer.

Image by TheVisualMD

Constantly High Levels Of Insulin Causes Weight Gain

Tap each number for a closer look at the process of fat storage and usage.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Low Density Lipoprotein: Clogged Arteries (Atherosclerosis) / Plaque in Coronary Artery, close up

Plaque in Coronary Artery / Leading to a Heart Attack

1) Plaque in Coronary Artery - In this image, a tiny coronary artery has been cross-sectioned to reveal a stenosis, or narrowing, caused by fatty deposits in the blood stream. Plaque in a coronary artery may break apart, and the resulting release of platelet adhesion-enhancing substances encourages clots to form on the plaque surface. The clot may then block the flow of blood through the already narrowed artery. Having this condition present in the coronary arteries is particularly dangerous because these are the arteries that wrap around the surface of the heart and supply the organ itself with oxygen and nutrients needed to pump blood to the entire body. 2) Leading to a Heart Attack - In this image, a tiny coronary artery has been cross-sectioned to reveal a stenosis, or narrowing, caused by fatty deposits in the blood stream. It is evident that this stenosis has advanced such that tissue necrosis, or death, has occurred in the area upstream from the blockage. Plaque in a coronary artery may break apart, and the resulting release of platelet adhesion-enhancing substances encourages clots to form on the plaque surface. The clot may then block the flow of blood through the already narrowed artery. Having this condition present in the coronary arteries is particularly dangerous because these are the arteries that wrap around the surface of the heart and supply the organ itself with oxygen and nutrients needed to pump blood to the entire body. This heart has been severely injured and the individual is at a high risk for heart attack.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) Molecule

Lp-PLA2 (or lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2) is an enzyme produced by specialized immune cells called macrophages that engulf and destroy pathogens, foreign particles, aging cells and biological debris. Most of the Lp-PLA2 in the body is bound to LDL (or `bad` cholesterol) and the enzyme, like LDL, is linked to inflammation and the formation of plaques on blood vessel walls. Because Lp-PLA2 is very specifically linked to inflammation of blood vessels rather than inflammation that is systemic (throughout the body), it is a particularly good biomarker for vessel health.

Image by TheVisualMD

Oleic Acid Molecule

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated Omega-9 fatty acid found in animal and vegetable fats. Monounsaturated fats have one double bond between carbon atoms in the chain and polyunsaturated fats have more than one double bond. These fats lower the risk of heart disease by reducing levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or "bad" cholesterol) in the blood. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, and oxygen atoms are red. Interactive also available on white background.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein(a) Molecule

The test for Lipoprotein(a) is used to help assess an individual's risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Unlike other risk factors for heart disease, however, Lp(a) levels are largely genetically determined and remain fairly stable over a person's life; they are also relatively resistant to treatment by either lifestyle changes or drugs. So why test for it? Because it is additional risk factor that can flag patients and their doctors to take an aggressive approach towards other, more treatable risk factors.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipids and Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

Lipid Absorption

OpenStax College

Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Lipids & Fats

TheVisualMD

Lipids & Fats

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

8:37

Dr. Tara Dall discusses LDL, LDL Cholesterol (LDL-C) & LDL Particles (LDL-P)

AdvLip/YouTube

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

5:19

The New Marker for Heart Disease that is BETTER than LDL Cholesterol

Dr. Adrian Chavez/YouTube

% Small Dense LDL Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

0:45

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

HDL and LDL Cholesterol Sub-fraction, Heart Disease

TheVisualMD

Low Density Lipoprotein: Arterial Wall

TheVisualMD

Constantly High Levels Of Insulin Causes Weight Gain

TheVisualMD

Plaque in Coronary Artery / Leading to a Heart Attack

TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) Molecule

TheVisualMD

Oleic Acid Molecule

TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein(a) Molecule

TheVisualMD

VLDL Cholesterol Test

VLDL Cholesterol Test

Also called: VLDL-C, VLDL, Very Low Density Lipoprotein

VLDL stands for very low-density lipoprotein. Lipoproteins are particles that carry fat in the bloodstream. Like LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol is considered a type of "bad" cholesterol. Testing for VLDL cholesterol can be used to assess a person's cardiovascular risk.

VLDL Cholesterol Test

Also called: VLDL-C, VLDL, Very Low Density Lipoprotein

VLDL stands for very low-density lipoprotein. Lipoproteins are particles that carry fat in the bloodstream. Like LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol is considered a type of "bad" cholesterol. Testing for VLDL cholesterol can be used to assess a person's cardiovascular risk.

{"label":"VLDL Cholesterol Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":30},"text":"Normal results may vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":30,"max":60},"text":"A high VLDL result indicates that you have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Talk to your doctor to know what this result means in your specific case.","conditions":["Coronary heart disease","Stroke","Myocardial infarction","Heart attack"]}],"value":15}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
30
Your result is Normal.
Normal results may vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Lipoproteins are the particles that transport fat and lipids (cholesterol and triglycerides) in the bloodstream.VLDL-cholesterol is produced in the liver, and from there it gets released into the blood to provide the body tissues with triglycerides.
Since about half of VLDL particles consist of triglycerides, this kind of structure makes VLDL particles very easy to anchor to the walls of arteries and eventually block the blood flow. These blockages may lead to atherosclerosis and heart disease. Therefore, VLDL-cholesterol is considered to be “bad” cholesterol.
The VLDL-cholesterol (very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) test is part of a lipid (fats) profile to assess a person's risk for heart disease.
The values of VLDL cholesterol are usually estimated based on the triglyceride values. The calculation to estimate the values are as follows:
- Divide the triglyceride value by 5 in case the result is given in mg/dL
- Divide the triglyceride value by 2.2 in case the result is given in mmol/L.
1. VLDL Cholesterol. MedlinePlus. [accessed on Oct 31, 2018]
2. VLDL Cholesterol - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 31, 2018]
3. VLDL Cholesterol. Lab Tests Online. [accessed on Oct 31, 2018]
4. VLDL cholesterol: Is it harmful? Mayo Clinic. [accessed on Oct 31, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (17)

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Cholesterol & Atherosclerosis

While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system (as used in MeSH), it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis (arterial disease). Everyone talks about high cholesterol and how bad it is for you. But why is it bad for you? Where does it come from? What's the difference between "good" and "bad" cholesterol? Take a journey inside the body and explore its vessels, as world-renowned doctors explain what cholesterol is all about and how it contributes to hardening of the arteries, a dangerous condition also known as atherosclerosis.

Video by TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein in the Blood Stream

Lipoprotein in the Blood Stream

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipids

Cross section of the different structures that phospholipids can take in a aqueous solution. The circles are the hydrophilic heads and the wavy lines are the fatty acyl side chains.

Image by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal , LadyofHats

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Lipids and Lipoproteins

Image by TheVisualMD

Chylomicron structure - ApoA, ApoB, ApoC, ApoE (apolipoproteins); T (triacylglycerol); C (cholesterol); green (phospholipids)

Chylomicron structure - ApoA, ApoB, ApoC, ApoE (apolipoproteins); T (triacylglycerol); C (cholesterol); green (phospholipids)

Image by Xvazquez

Total Cholesterol Rotation (HDL, LDL, and VLDL Molecules)

A test for total cholesterol is an overall measure of “good” as well as “bad” cholesterol. A lipoprotein (from the Greek lipos, for fat) is a fat-and-protein package that enables fats and cholesterol to move freely within the bloodstream (fats and blood, like oil and water, do not mix). Proteins and other components make up the outer shell of the lipoprotein; cholesterol and other fats are packed together inside. The size and density of the lipoprotein determines whether its cholesterol is classified as “good” or “bad.” This interactive features 3 lipoproteins: very high density lipoprotein (VLDL) which is the largest molecule, low-density lipoproteins (LDL) which is the medium-sized molecule, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), which are the smallest and most dense.

Image by TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

Controlling Cholesterol with Medicine

Image by TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

Controlling Cholesterol with Medicine

Image by TheVisualMD

Lipid Absorption

Lipid Absorption

Image by OpenStax College

Lipids

The membrane that surrounds a cell is made up of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane's location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being proteins. Cholesterol (green), which is not found in plant cells, is a type of lipid that helps stiffen the membrane.

Image by Judith Stoffer - NIH National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Cholesterol pathway

Cholesterol pathway

Image by TheVisualMD

Liver and Lipoproteins

Liver and Lipoproteins

Image by TheVisualMD

Liver and Lipoproteins

Liver and Lipoproteins

Image by TheVisualMD

VLDL

VLDL 1

Image by Servier Medical Art

Dimensions of lipoproteins

Dimensions of lipoproteins

Image by Peter Forster

Lipid Metabolism

Lipid logistics: transport of triglycerides and cholesterol in organisms in form of lipoproteins as chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, IDL, HDL.

Image by Peter Forster

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

3:08

Cholesterol & Atherosclerosis

TheVisualMD

Lipoprotein in the Blood Stream

TheVisualMD

Lipids

Mariana Ruiz Villarreal , LadyofHats

Lipids and Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

Chylomicron structure - ApoA, ApoB, ApoC, ApoE (apolipoproteins); T (triacylglycerol); C (cholesterol); green (phospholipids)

Xvazquez

Total Cholesterol Rotation (HDL, LDL, and VLDL Molecules)

TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Lipid Absorption

OpenStax College

Lipids

Judith Stoffer - NIH National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Cholesterol pathway

TheVisualMD

Liver and Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

Liver and Lipoproteins

TheVisualMD

VLDL

Servier Medical Art

Dimensions of lipoproteins

Peter Forster

Lipid Metabolism

Peter Forster

Non-HDL Cholesterol Test

Non-HDL Cholesterol Test

Also called: Non-HDL-C, Non-High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

Under certain conditions, the risk of developing coronary heart disease (strokes, heart attack) cannot be properly assessed only by looking at the lipids test results. In these cases, the non-HDL cholesterol can be used to assess of how high a person's cardiovascular risk is.

Non-HDL Cholesterol Test

Also called: Non-HDL-C, Non-High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol

Under certain conditions, the risk of developing coronary heart disease (strokes, heart attack) cannot be properly assessed only by looking at the lipids test results. In these cases, the non-HDL cholesterol can be used to assess of how high a person's cardiovascular risk is.

{"label":"Non-HDL Cholesterol Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"D","long":"Desirable","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":130},"text":"You have optimal levels of non-HDL cholesterol; therefore, your cardiovascular risk is considered to be low. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"AD","long":"Above desirable","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":130,"max":159},"text":"You have normal levels of non-HDL cholesterol and your cardiovascular risk is considered to be low. However, you may benefit from changing some lifestyle habits to prevent your non-HDL-C levels from getting higher. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"BH","long":"Borderline high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":159,"max":189},"text":"Your non-HDL cholesterol is considered to be dangerously close to reaching suboptimal levels. Therefore, you need to start changing some lifestyle habits to prevent it from getting higher. Ask your healthcare provider what your test results mean in your specific case.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":189,"max":219},"text":"Your non-HDL cholesterol is considered to be in suboptimal levels, which puts you at risk for developing coronary heart disease (stroke, heart attack). Therefore, you need to change some lifestyle habits to lower it. Ask your healthcare provider what your test results mean in your specific case.","conditions":["Coronary Heart Disease","Cardiovascular Risk","Heart Attack","Stroke"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VH","long":"Very high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":219,"max":400},"text":"Your non-HDL cholesterol is considered to be at very suboptimal levels, which puts you at high risk for developing coronary heart disease (stroke, heart attack). Ask your healthcare provider what your test results mean in your specific case.","conditions":["Coronary Heart Disease","Cardiovascular Risk","Heart Attack","Stroke"]}],"value":65}[{"normal":1},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
130
159
189
219
Your result is Desirable.
You have optimal levels of non-HDL cholesterol; therefore, your cardiovascular risk is considered to be low.
Related conditions
Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and triglycerides are usually part of a lipid profile test, which is used to monitor and screen for unhealthy levels of fats in the blood.
If you have borderline results or imbalanced lipid levels, your doctor may want to know what your non-HDL cholesterol is, since it can provide more information about your overall CHD risk.
Every person with no risk factors for heart disease should get tested at least every five years as part of a routine check-up. When one or more risk factors for heart disease are associated, the test should be done more frequently.
Risk factors for cardiovascular disease include:
- Unbalanced diet
- Physical inactivity (sedentarism)
- Being overweight or obese
- More than 50 years of age in women
- More than 45 years of age in men
- Cigarette smoking
- Diabetes
- High blood pressure
- Family history of early heart disease
- Previously diagnosed heart disease
1. Doc's Opinion: Non-HDL Cholesterol (Non-HDL-C) [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. URMC / Encyclopedia / Lipid Panel with Non-HDL Cholesterol [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. LPNF1 - Clinical: Lipid Panel, Non-Fasting, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
4. Non-High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol | Lab Tests Online [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
5. 344265: Non-HDL Cholesterol Profile | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

Cholesterol Numbers - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

What is Cholesterol?

Video by American Heart Association/YouTube

How to Read and Understand Your Cholesterol Levels – Dr.Berg

Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

What Does My Non HDL Score Mean

Video by PreDiabetes Centers/YouTube

Recommended Cholesterol Levels

Video by AllHealthGo/YouTube

Supersize sperm from the past

Video by nature video/YouTube

A Return to Specific LDL-Cholesterol Goals

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

At a Glance: What You Need To Know About High Blood Cholesterol

High blood cholesterol is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. In fact, the higher your blood cholesterol, the greater your risk of developing heart disease or having a heart attack. Heart disease is the #1 killer of men and women in the United States. Each year, more than a million Americans have a heart attack, and about half a million people die of heart disease.

Document by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Your Guide to A Healthy Heart

Document by www.nhlbi.nih.gov

Nutrition Facts Label: Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a nutrient to get less of.

Document by Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

High Blood Cholesterol: What you need to know

Your blood cholesterol level has a lot to do with your chances of getting heart disease.

Document by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

On the Move to Better Heart Health for African Americans

Learn how to reduce your chances of having a heart attack or stroke by reducing your sodium intake. Includes healthy food choices, cooking ideas, information on shopping and reading food labels.

Document by www.nhlbi.nih.gov

Cholesterol Conversation Starters

Cholesterol can be a confusing health topic for a lot of people, but understanding and managing high blood cholesterol is an important step in taking control of heart health.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Depression--Medicines To Help You

Do you feel depressed? Do not feel ashamed. Women are more likely than men to feel depressed. About 1 woman in 5 has depression in the U.S.

Document by FDA

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Heart and Liver

Cholesterol is essential for the maintenance of cell membranes, production of sex hormones, and absorption of key vitamins. We get cholesterol from the foods we eat, but our livers produce most of it. There are two main types of cholesterol particles found in the bloodstream: HDL (high-density lipoprotein, or \"good\" cholesterol); and LDL (low-density lipoprotein, or \"bad\" cholesterol). LDL is referred to as bad cholesterol because it leads to the formation of plaque deposits that can clog arteries and increase the risk of heart disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bile Acid Sequestrant

Bile-acid sequestrants, also known as bile-acid resins, bind in the intestines with bile acids, which are produced by converting cholesterol. Bile acids are then eliminated in the stool, stimulating the liver to convert more cholesterol into bile acids, thereby lowering LDL-cholesterol levels. This is one mechanism of action that can be effective in lowering one's cholesterol and reducing one's risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Sources with Anatomy

Cholesterol is made by your own body. It is also found in food products derived from animals. Cholesterol is used to make bile acids in the liver, necessary for fat digestion. Cholesterol is constantly transported in the bloodstream between the liver and all the body's tissues. HDL-cholesterol helps clear excess cholesterol from your body. LDL-cholesterol is ingested by cells in need of cholesterol. LDL particles of the Pattern A type are larger and less dense and may be harmless. LDL particles of the Pattern B type, however, are smaller and more dense and can penetrate through the lining of an artery and into its interior. Oxidized LDL particles (oxLDL) can cause major damage.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol and Statins Infographic

Cholesterol and Statins Infographic

Image by FDA

Vessel Plaque Caused by Cholesterol

HDL, high density lipoprotein, is known as the body's \"good cholesterol\". It is a protein secreted by the liver that travels through the blood stream, picking up up excess cholesterol in the blood and transporting it to the liver for elimination from the body. It is favorable to have a high HDL count, as these are the molecules responsible for eliminating cholesterol from the blood, thereby preventing the fat from building up and causing complications such as atherosclerosis. LDL on the other hand, is the protein that transport cholesterol TO cells. Having a high LDL signifies that too much cholesterol is being delivered to cells, and the HDL may not be able to keep up with it. In this image, a flap of an artery in the body is cut open to reveal fatty deposits of cholesterol in the artery wall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Statin's effect on Cholesterol

Statin's effect on Cholesterol

Image by TheVisualMD

Fibrate Molecule

Fibrates lower triglyceride and modestly increase HDL levels by reducing the liver's VLDL production. VLDL is a type of \"bad cholesterol\", and stands for \"very low-density lipoprotein\". These molecules transport cholesterol to body cells and are what become dangerous to the body in excess. Fibrate plays a role in production of LDL that has a higher than usual affinity for LDL-receptors, gateways into cells from the blood stream. This means that LDL's are removed from the blood stream more frequently, thereby decreasing the risk of cholesterol buildup in the walls of arteries.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Molecule

Cholesterol is a fatlike substance produced naturally by your body and is necessary for its health. Cholesterol is transported in your bloodstream throughout your system, bound to water-soluble particles called lipoproteins. LDL (low-density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol from the liver to body cells, while HDL (high-density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol from cells back to the liver. Cholesterol is used by cells to contribute to the structure of plasma membranes and is a precursor to many steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. It is important to have healthy levels of cholesterol, however, as the blood vessels through which the molecule travels around the body are suseptible to buildup of fat. This can lead to hardening of the arteries, or atherosclerosis.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol in the Bloodstream

Cholesterol is a fat-like substance that is transported through the bloodstream throughout the entire circulatory system. It is bound to water-soluble particles called liproproteins. Plaque buildup is characteristic of atherosclerosis, and can happen as a result of fatty materials such as cholesterol in the blood. As the cholesterol travels through the blood stream, it sticks to the artery walls and accumulates over time. It becomes hard and calcified, leading to detrimental results. Cholesterol builds up in the walls of the arteries around the body, often blocking blood supply to the vital areas. Seen in this image is a cut-away into an artery in the body where the hardened, fatty material has accumulated in the lumen, or opening. This plaque impedes on the necessary tube structure of the artery, preventing blood from flowing through. As a result, one can experience poor circulation or tissue death in the part of the body where that artery's destination lies.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

Lipoproteins transport cholesterol, triglycerides, or other lipids through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins are protein spheres that consist of a core of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, surrounded by a shell made up of water-soluble phospholipids with embedded proteins and cholesterol. The lipid-laden core of the lipoprotein is insoluble in aqueous (water-based) blood, so the phospholipid-protein shell is necessary to allow the lipoprotein to float freely in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cholesterol is Everywhere

The human body contains about 100-150 g of cholesterol, most of it incorporated into cell membranes. One of the other major uses of cholesterol is the production of bile acids (also known as bile salts) in the liver. Bile contains a number of ingredients, including water, cholesterol, and bile acids. Bile is necessary for the absorption of fats from fecal matter passing through the intestine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

Doctors generally recommend lifestyle changes as the first line of defense against cholesterol levels and atherosclerosis. In addition, one or more of the following drugs may be prescribed:

Image by TheVisualMD

2:16

Cholesterol Numbers - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

2:54

What is Cholesterol?

American Heart Association/YouTube

8:15

How to Read and Understand Your Cholesterol Levels – Dr.Berg

Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

0:51

What Does My Non HDL Score Mean

PreDiabetes Centers/YouTube

2:12

Recommended Cholesterol Levels

AllHealthGo/YouTube

1:58

Supersize sperm from the past

nature video/YouTube

10:36

A Return to Specific LDL-Cholesterol Goals

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

At a Glance: What You Need To Know About High Blood Cholesterol

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Your Guide to A Healthy Heart

www.nhlbi.nih.gov

Nutrition Facts Label: Cholesterol

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

High Blood Cholesterol: What you need to know

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

On the Move to Better Heart Health for African Americans

www.nhlbi.nih.gov

Cholesterol Conversation Starters

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Depression--Medicines To Help You

FDA

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol, Heart and Liver

TheVisualMD

Bile Acid Sequestrant

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Sources with Anatomy

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol and Statins Infographic

FDA

Vessel Plaque Caused by Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Statin's effect on Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Fibrate Molecule

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Molecule

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol in the Bloodstream

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Anatomy of a Lipoprotein

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol is Everywhere

TheVisualMD

Controlling Cholesterol

TheVisualMD

Total Cholesterol/HDL Ratio

Total Cholesterol/HDL Ratio

Also called: TC/HDL ratio, Cholesterol ratio

The total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol ratio is a number that is helpful in predicting atherosclerosis, the process of fatty buildup in the walls of the arteries. The number is obtained by dividing total cholesterol by HDL (good) cholesterol.

Total Cholesterol/HDL Ratio

Also called: TC/HDL ratio, Cholesterol ratio

The total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol ratio is a number that is helpful in predicting atherosclerosis, the process of fatty buildup in the walls of the arteries. The number is obtained by dividing total cholesterol by HDL (good) cholesterol.

{"label":"Total Cholesterol\/HDL Ratio Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{ratio}","code":"{ratio}","name":"ratio"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.5},"text":"The optimum ratio is 3.5.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Acceptable","long":"Acceptable","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Low total cholesterol and high HDL cholesterol lowers the ratio.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":10},"text":"The higher the ratio, the higher is the risk of developing heart disease.","conditions":[]}],"value":1.8}[{"normal":1},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{ratio}
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
The optimum ratio is 3.5.
Related conditions
Total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, and triglycerides are usually part of a lipid profile test, which is used to monitor and screen for unhealthy levels of fats in the blood.
If you have borderline results or very imbalance lipid levels, your doctor may want to know what your total cholesterol to HDL ratio is, since it can provide more information about your overall CHD risk.
Every person with no risk factors for heart disease should get tested at least every five years as part of a routine check-up. When one or more risk factors for heart disease are associated, the test should be done more frequently.
Cardiovascular disease risk factors include:
- Unbalanced diet
- Being overweight or obese
- Physical inactivity (sedentarism)
- More than 50 years of age in women
- More than 45 years of age in men
- Cigarette smoking
- Diabetes
- High blood pressure
- Family history of early heart disease
- Already diagnosed heart disease
Total cholesterol ranges in adults are:
- Normal: less than 200 mg/dL.
- Borderline high: from 200 to 239 mg/dL.
- High: equal or greater than 240 mg/dL.
HDL levels in adults are:
- Low: less than 40 mg/dL in men, and less than 50 mg/dL in women.
- Acceptable: from 40 to 50 mg/dL in men, and from 50 to 59 mg/dL in women.
- Optimal: equal or greater than 60 mg/dL.
An acceptable cholesterol ratio in adults is considered to be below 5 to 1 (5:1). While an optimal ratio is below 3.5 to 1 (3.5:1). The higher the ratio, the higher is the risk of developing CHD.
For example, if a person has a total cholesterol level of 230 mg/dL and an HDL level of 40 mg/dL (total cholesterol to HDL ratio: 230/40), the resulting ratio would be of 5.7 (or 5.7:1). This person does not have an acceptable ratio and therefore has an increased risk of developing CHD.
1. Lipid Panel with Total Cholesterol: HDL Ratio - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 08, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (9)

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

This video explains the difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol. It also reveals what may occur when there are high levels of LDL in the body.LDL may stick to an artery's inner wall causing the build up of plaque, affecting blood flow. When an artery stiffens and constricts, aneurysm, heart attack, and stroke can occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

Triglycerides and HDL

Video by Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

The 5 Most Important Molecules in Your Body

Video by SciShow/YouTube

British Heart Foundation - Cholesterol and heart disease

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

HDL: When Good Cholesterol Goes Bad

Video by UW Video/YouTube

Tri HDL

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

High Density Lipoprotein: Cholesterol pathway

We get cholesterol from foods like red meat, dairy and eggs, but our livers produce most of our cholesterol in a multi-step process (drugs like statins interrupt this process). Cholesterol is carried in the bloodstream in specialized packages called lipoproteins.

Image by TheVisualMD

High Density Lipoprotein: Arterial Wall

It's estimated that there are nearly 100,000 miles of arteries in an adult body. The walls of these arteries are composed of fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, elastica interna, and an endothelial cell layer.

Image by TheVisualMD

High Density Lipoprotein: Aerobic exercise

There are many factors that can potentially influence cholesterol levels. Exercise is an important one. Studies have shown that endurance athletes have higher HDL levels, and aerobic athletes in general, particularly lean ones, have lower LDL levels.

Image by TheVisualMD

0:45

What Is HDL and LDL Cholesterol?

TheVisualMD

3:25

Triglycerides and HDL

Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

7:55

The 5 Most Important Molecules in Your Body

SciShow/YouTube

6:23

British Heart Foundation - Cholesterol and heart disease

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

54:59

HDL: When Good Cholesterol Goes Bad

UW Video/YouTube

2:17

Tri HDL

ACAP Health/YouTube

High Density Lipoprotein: Cholesterol pathway

TheVisualMD

High Density Lipoprotein: Arterial Wall

TheVisualMD

High Density Lipoprotein: Aerobic exercise

TheVisualMD

Cholesterol Home Test

Cholesterol Home Test

Also called: At-Home Cholesterol Test

By using a home test kit, assessing your cholesterol level can be much easier and simpler. Cholesterol is a fat (lipid) in your blood. High cholesterol increases your risk of heart disease.

Cholesterol Home Test

Also called: At-Home Cholesterol Test

By using a home test kit, assessing your cholesterol level can be much easier and simpler. Cholesterol is a fat (lipid) in your blood. High cholesterol increases your risk of heart disease.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
200
240
Your result is Desirable.
While cholesterol levels can vary widely among healthy individuals, total cholesterol levels below 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) are considered most desirable.
Related conditions
1. Questions and answers about the home-use test kit to measure total cholesterol. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [accessed on Feb 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Colorectal Cancer

Screening & Diagnosis

Image by TheVisualMD

Get Screened for Colorectal Cancer

If you're between ages 45 to 75 years, get screened (tested) regularly for colorectal cancer. Screening tests can help prevent colorectal cancer or find it early, when it may be easier to treat.

You may need to get screened before age 45 years if colorectal cancer runs in your family. Your doctor may also recommend that you continue to get screened if you’re between ages 76 and 85 years, depending on certain risk factors and your overall health.

Talk with your doctor about your risk for colorectal cancer.

How often should I get screened for colorectal cancer?

How often you need to get screened will depend on:

Your risk for colorectal cancer
Which screening test you choose

How do I decide which type of screening test to get?

There are different ways to screen for colorectal cancer. Your doctor can help you decide which type of screening test is right for you.

Before you talk with your doctor about which screening to get, it can be helpful to think about your values and preferences.

What to Expect

What are the different kinds of screening tests?

There are several different kinds of screening tests for colorectal cancer. The main types are:

Stool-based tests
Tests that look directly inside the colon and rectum

Stool tests are done at home. You collect a stool (poop) sample and send it to your doctor's office or a lab for testing.

Tests that look directly at your colon and rectum — like a colonoscopy — happen in a doctor's office or hospital. For these tests, you need to take a laxative to clean out your bowels before the appointment. For a colonoscopy, you'll get anesthesia before the test, and you'll need someone to drive you home after the test.

Your doctor will tell you how to get ready for your test, including if you need to avoid certain foods or medicines beforehand. Learn more about colorectal cancer screening tests.

Does it hurt to get a colonoscopy?

Preparing for a colonoscopy can be unpleasant, but most people agree that the benefits to their health outweigh any discomfort. And getting anesthesia means you won’t have any pain or feel uncomfortable during the test.

Colorectal Cancer

What is colorectal cancer?

Colorectal cancer is a cancer that develops in the colon or the rectum. The colon is the longest part of the large intestine. The rectum is the bottom part of the large intestine.

Like all cancers, colorectal cancer can spread to other parts of your body. Find out more about colorectal cancer.

Am I at Risk?

Am I at risk for colorectal cancer?

The risk of developing colorectal cancer increases as you get older. That’s why screening is recommended for everyone ages 45 to 75 years.

Other risk factors are:

Having certain types of polyps (growths) inside the colon
Having a personal or family history of colorectal cancer
Smoking cigarettes
Being overweight or having obesity
Not getting enough physical activity
Drinking too much alcohol
Having inflammatory bowel disease, like Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, or other health conditions that cause chronic (long-term) problems with the small intestine and colon

Take control — get screened regularly.

If you get screened regularly, you have a good chance of preventing colorectal cancer or finding it when it can be treated more easily.

During a colonoscopy:

If your doctor finds polyps inside your colon, they can remove the polyps during your test — before they turn into cancer
If your doctor finds cancer during the test, you can take steps to get treatment right away

If you get an unusual result on a stool test, your doctor will do a follow-up colonoscopy to look for cancer.

Get Screened

The best way to prevent colorectal cancer — or find it early — is to get screened starting at age 45 years.

Get support.

If you're nervous about getting a colorectal cancer screening, get support:

Ask a family member or friend to go with you when you talk to the doctor
Talk with people you know who have been screened to learn what to expect

Healthy Habits

Quit smoking.

People who smoke are more likely to get colorectal cancer. If you smoke, make a plan to quit today.

Watch your weight.

Being overweight increases your chance of developing colon cancer. Find out how to control your weight.

Get active.

Regular exercise may help reduce your risk of colorectal cancer. Take steps to get moving today.

Drink alcohol only in moderation.

Drinking too much alcohol may increase your risk of colorectal cancer. If you choose to drink, have only a moderate (limited) amount. This means:

1 drink or less in a day for women
2 drinks or less in a day for men

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (4)

0:46

Screening for colorectal cancer: Don’t wait – 50s great, March 2020, Vital Signs

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Stages of Colorectal Cancer

TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

PET/CT Scans of Colorectal Cancer 1) Pet/CT scan 2) CT Scan 3) Pet Scan

TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy

Virtual Colonoscopy

Also called: Computed Tomographic Colonography, CT Colonography

Virtual colonoscopy is a non-invasive imaging method that uses computed tomographic data combined with specialized imaging software to examine the colon. It produces three-dimensional images of the colon which are examined for colorectal cancer and precancerous polyps.

Virtual Colonoscopy

Also called: Computed Tomographic Colonography, CT Colonography

Virtual colonoscopy is a non-invasive imaging method that uses computed tomographic data combined with specialized imaging software to examine the colon. It produces three-dimensional images of the colon which are examined for colorectal cancer and precancerous polyps.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
No abnormalities were detected in the colon. If you're at average risk of colon cancer, meaning you have no colon cancer risk factors other than age, your doctor may recommend repeating the exam in five years.
Related conditions
You may need a virtual colonoscopy to find the cause of unexplained symptoms such as:
- Bleeding from your anus (the opening of the rectum through which stool passes out of your body)
- Changes in your bowel activity, such as diarrhea
- Pain in your abdomen (belly)
- Unexplained weight loss
Doctors also use the procedure to screen for colon polyps and cancer. Screening is testing for diseases when you have no symptoms. It may find diseases at an early stage, when they are easier to treat. If aren't at higher risk for colorectal cancer, your health care provider will likely recommend you start getting screenings at age 45. If you at higher risk, you may need to start getting screened for colorectal cancer earlier.
There are also other tests to screen for colorectal cancer, including stool tests. Talk with your provider about which test is right for you and when and how often you should get it.
This is a type of x-ray that uses a CT scan (computed tomography) to take detailed, 3-dimensional pictures of the entire colon and rectum. It is usually done in a radiology department of a hospital or medical center. This procedure also requires bowel prep beforehand. During the test:
- You will lie on a narrow table.
- You may be asked to drink a liquid containing contrast dye. Contrast dye is a substance that makes parts of your body show up more clearly on an x-ray.
- A provider will insert a small tube into the rectum.
- Air will be pumped through the tube to make the colon bigger and easier to see.
- The table will slide into the CT machine.
- A series of images will be taken.
For a virtual colonoscopy, you will need to do a bowel prep. Your provider will give you specific instructions on how to do your bowel prep, but steps for bowel prep may include:
- Following a liquid diet for one to three days before the test.
- Drinking plenty of clear liquids one to three days before the test. Clear liquids include water, black coffee or tea, fat-free broth, and sports drinks without added color.
- Drinking a strong liquid laxative and/or using an enema on the evening before your test.
The laxative or enema will help you empty your bowels. You should prepare to spend a lot of time in the bathroom. Bowel prep can be inconvenient and uncomfortable, but if the colon is not thoroughly cleaned out, your provider may not be able to get a full picture of your colon and rectum. Polyps and other abnormal areas may not be seen.
In a virtual colonoscopy, risks include:
- Exposure to a small dose of radiation from the scan.
- Rarely, a tear in the colon or rectum can happen when it is inflated with air.
Normal findings are healthy intestinal tissues. Abnormal results may include the following:
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were seen on the CT scan.
- You will probably need a traditional colonoscopy so your provider can get a tissue sample. Sometimes this procedure can be done on the same day as your virtual colonoscopy.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 12, 2024]
2. Colonoscopy | MedlinePlus. National Library of Medicine. Dec 5, 2022 [accessed on Feb 12, 2024]
3. Virtual Colonoscopy | NIDDK [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
4. Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
5. Colorectal Cancer Screening | Cancer Trends Progress Report [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
6. CT Colonography [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
7. Virtual colonoscopy - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (14)

Virtual Colonoscopy 3D Model

With virtual colonoscopy, a computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is then created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.

Image by TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy open colon section view

After the image-taking procedure is complete, the cross-sectional pictures are processed by the computer to create animated, three-dimensional images of the large intestine. They are examined by a radiologist to identify any abnormal growths. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy will be performed so that the abnormal growths can be removed or biopsied.

Image by TheVisualMD

A Less Invasive Look

Virtual colonoscopy is a new technology that uses computed tomography (CT), or, less often, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images to look for polyps, cancer, or other diseases of the colon when an abnormality is suspected. A computer program assembles the images to create an animated, three-dimensional view of the interior of the colon. The preparation for the procedure is similar to that for a colonoscopy, but the procedure itself takes only about 10 minutes, and no sedation is required. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy will need to be performed for removal or biopsy of the growth.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colon unfurling

Virtual colonoscopy is a new technology that uses computed tomography (CT), or, less often, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images to look for polyps, cancer, or other diseases of the colon when an abnormality is suspected. A computer program assembles the images to create an animated, three-dimensional view of the interior of the colon. The preparation for the procedure is similar to that for a colonoscopy, but the procedure itself takes only about 10 minutes, and no sedation is required. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy will need to be performed for removal or biopsy of the growth.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

Video by TheVisualMD

Spectrum of Medical Imaging

This composite image was created in recognition of The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) designation of 2015 as the “International Year of Light.” Medical imaging scientists and engineers contribute to the quest for the improved human condition by providing imaging that spans the entire usable electro-magnetic spectrum (seen at bottom). From the humblest of beginnings with simple magnification of objects and focusing with lenses, to the biological observation of cells with rudimentary microscopes in the visible spectrum, medical imaging today has both extended away from the visible spectrum towards longer and shorter wavelengths (low and high energies) and exploited the hyperspectral nature of the visible which was once considered “commonplace” or rudimentary. Considering yet a different cross-section through the various imaging modalities across the spectrum, the medically useful information gained spans anatomic, physiologic, and molecular regimes. Systems and algorithms have been developed as single-modality acquisition systems, and also as multiple-modalities with conjoint reconstruction, each informing the other in the quest to optimize image quality and information content. In addition, the role of light-based technologies in enabling advanced computations in tomographic reconstructions, computer-aided diagnosis, machine learning (neural networks, deep learning, etc.) , and 3D visualizations as well as in data-enriched storage of medical images has further extended the potential knowledge “seen” through imaging. The breadth of the electromagnetic spectrum offers limitless opportunities for improvement and inquiry, in our quest to answer human life’s difficult questions. This montage was first published on the cover of the SPIE’s Journal of Medical Imaging (July-Sept. 2015, vol. 3, no. 3) and is but a small tribute to the multitude of medical imaging scientists who have contributed to the wealth of new knowledge as we interrogate the human condition. The gray-scale whole body images (from Left to Right) are acquired from longer wavelength modalities to shorter wavelength modalities spanning the (currently) usable electromagnetic spectrum. The background images include: a coronal Magnetic Resonance Image (MRI) T2 weighted image slice, a posterior surface Infra Red (IR) heat map, a coronal non-contrast Computed Tomography (CT) slice, and a coronal 18F-fluoro-deoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography (FDG-PET) slice. The selection of color inset images includes (from Top-to-Bottom, then Left to Right): [1] diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) used to image long white matter tracts within and around the human brain illustrating neuronal connectivity (coloring refers to bluish=vertical direction; green=horizontal A-P direction; red=horizontal lateral direction) (courtesy of Arthur Toga, PhD); [2] registered and superimposed coronal proton-MRI (gray-scale) and a hyper polarized 129Xe ventilation MRI scan (color scale) within the same patient’s lungs, prior to their receiving a bronchial stent (courtesy of Bastiaan Driehuys, PhD); [3] coronal slice through a microwave-based image reconstruction of the Debye parameter ε (epsilon) in a heterogeneously dense human breast phantom (courtesy of Susan Hagness, PhD); [4] juxtaposed optical image of the retina and vertical and horizontal Optical Coherence Tomograph (OCT) slices showing pigmentosa retinopathy (courtesy of Jean-Michel Muratet, MD); [5] functional 3-D photoacoustic imaging of melanoma (gray scale) in vivo, surrounded by highly optically absorptive blood vessels (red) (courtesy of Lihong Wang, PhD); [6] optical micrograph of HeLa cells stained for microtubules (blue) and co-stained with DAPI for actin visualization (red); HeLa cells are the world's first stem cell line, originally derived from the aggressive cervical cancer cells of Henrietta Lacks (courtesy Tom Deerinck/NCMIR); [7] visualization of the pelvis highlighting the colon, which is imaged with contrast x-ray computed tomography (CT), and after digital surface rendering can be used in virtual colonoscopy, thus avoiding a physical visible light-based colonoscopy; [8] registered and fused sagittal 99mTc-sestamibi dedicated molecular single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT, heat color scale) and low-dose CT slice (gray scale) of a patient’s uncompressed, pendant breast containing two surgically confirmed DCIS loci in the posterior breast (courtesy of Martin Tornai, PhD); [9] classic, early x-radiograph of Wilhelm Röntgen’s wife’s hand (adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_Photographs_that_Changed_the_World); [10] transverse pelvic CT (gray scale) with multiple superimposed simulated x-ray photon radiotherapy beams, and their cumulative 20Gy (red) deposited dose isocontours at the focus of a tumor (courtesy of Paul Read, MD, PhD); [11] false-colored scanning electron micrograph of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particles (yellow) infecting a human H9 T-cell (turquoise) (adapted from http://biosingularity.com/category/infection/); [12] transverse 18F-dopa positron emission tomography (PET) slice through a Parkinson patient’s brain showing decreased in vivo quantitative uptake in the right caudate and putamen (courtesy of Christaan Schiepers, MD, PhD); [13] registered and fused transverse head CT (gray scale) and registered superimposed PET image (color) of a patient immediately after radio-therapeutic proton irradiation showing endogenously created 15O-positron emitter (2 min half-life) within the nasopharyngeal tumor focus (courtesy of Kira Grogg, PhD). [14] transverse (long axis) cardiac 99mTc-sestamibi SPECT slice illustrating thinned myocardial apical wall in a procedure performed thousands of times daily around the world (adapted from www.medscape.com). These images are but a small sampling of the breadth of the spectrum of light that is currently being investigated the world over by passionate scientists and engineers on a quest for the betterment of the human condition. All contributors for these images used herein have given their permission for their use, and are graciously thanked.

Image by Martin Tornai

Virtual Colonoscopy: A Kinder Gentler Way to Prevent Colon Cancer

Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy Q&A | Dr. Karen Horton

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

All Views

1

2

3

4

Virtual Colonoscopy

Virtual colonoscopy is a new technology that uses computerized tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. The result is a computer-generated, animated, three-dimensional view of the interior of the colon. The preparation for the procedure is similar to that for a colonoscopy, but the procedure itself takes only about 10 minutes, and no sedation is required. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy is performed for removal or biopsy of the growth.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

UCSF Radiology: How is Virtual Colonoscopy Performed?

Video by UCSF Imaging/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy - Lexington Diagnostic Center

Video by Lexington Diagnostic Center/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy-Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

3D Visualization of Colon and Virtual Colonoscopy

3D Visualization of Colon and Virtual Colonoscopy

Image by TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy 3D Model

TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy open colon section view

TheVisualMD

A Less Invasive Look

TheVisualMD

0:13

Colon unfurling

TheVisualMD

0:49

Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

TheVisualMD

0:15

Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

TheVisualMD

Spectrum of Medical Imaging

Martin Tornai

1:26:06

Virtual Colonoscopy: A Kinder Gentler Way to Prevent Colon Cancer

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

8:26

Virtual Colonoscopy Q&A | Dr. Karen Horton

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

2:33

UCSF Radiology: How is Virtual Colonoscopy Performed?

UCSF Imaging/YouTube

2:24

Virtual Colonoscopy - Lexington Diagnostic Center

Lexington Diagnostic Center/YouTube

2:19

Virtual Colonoscopy-Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

3D Visualization of Colon and Virtual Colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

Sigmoidoscopy

Sigmoidoscopy

Also called: Flexible Sigmoidoscopy, Rigid Sigmoidoscopy, Proctoscopy, Proctosigmoidoscopy

A sigmoidoscopy is a diagnostic test used to check the sigmoid colon, which is the lower part of your colon or large intestine. It is used to help diagnose bowel problems and detect colon polyps that can become colon cancer.

Sigmoidoscopy

Also called: Flexible Sigmoidoscopy, Rigid Sigmoidoscopy, Proctoscopy, Proctosigmoidoscopy

A sigmoidoscopy is a diagnostic test used to check the sigmoid colon, which is the lower part of your colon or large intestine. It is used to help diagnose bowel problems and detect colon polyps that can become colon cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means that no abnormalities were found in the colon. If you're at average risk of colon cancer, meaning you have no colon cancer risk factors other than age, your doctor may recommend repeating the exam in five years.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The lining of the colon appears smooth and pink, with numerous folds. No abnormal growths, pouches, bleeding, or inflammation is seen.
Related conditions
Sigmoidoscopy is a test in which the rectum and sigmoid colon are examined using a sigmoidoscope, a flexible lighted tube with a lens for viewing and a tool for removing tissue. This instrument is inserted through the anus into the rectum and sigmoid colon as air is pumped into the colon to expand it so the doctor can see the colon lining more clearly.
A sigmoidoscope is of two types:
- Rigid sigmoidoscope: This sigmoidoscope is 25 cm long, and it allows examination of up to about 20 cm of the rectum and colon.
- Flexible sigmoidoscope: It is made of a flexible fiber-optic tube and can be up to 60 cm long. It allows examination of the descending colon.
During sigmoidoscopy, abnormal growths in the rectum and sigmoid colon can be removed for analysis (biopsied). The lower colon must be cleared of stool before sigmoidoscopy, but the preparation is not very extensive. People are usually not sedated for this test.
You may need a sigmoidoscopy to find the cause of unexplained symptoms such as:
- Bleeding from your anus (the opening of the rectum through which stool passes out of your body)
- Changes in your bowel activity, such as diarrhea
- Pain in your abdomen (belly)
- Unexplained weight loss
Doctors also use the procedure to screen for colon polyps and cancer. Screening is testing for diseases when you have no symptoms. It may find diseases at an early stage, when they are easier to treat. If aren't at higher risk for colorectal cancer, your health care provider will likely recommend you start getting screenings at age 45. If you at higher risk, you may need to start getting screened for colorectal cancer earlier.
There are also other tests to screen for colorectal cancer, including stool tests. Talk with your provider about which test is right for you and when and how often you should get it.
This test allows your provider to look at the lower part of the colon. During the test:
- You will lie on an exam table with your knees drawn up to your chest.
- A sigmoidoscope, a flexible, lighted tube with a camera, will be inserted into the rectum and up into the lower part of the colon.
- Air will be pumped through the sigmoidoscope to make the colon bigger and easier to see.
- The air may make you feel like you need to have a bowel movement or pass gas.
- Your provider may remove polyps or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope.
- Polyps or samples may be sent to a lab for testing.
For a sigmoidoscopy, before the test, you may need to:
- Follow a clear liquid diet one or more days before the procedure. This isn't always required, so be sure to talk to your provider before the test.
- You may be asked to fast (not eat or drink) on the morning of the procedure.
- Use an enema to empty your bowels about one hour before the procedure. A second enema is sometimes needed.
Normal findings are healthy intestinal tissues. Abnormal results may include the following:
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were found. They may or may not be removed depending on their location.
- Whether or not your polyps were removed, you will probably need a colonoscopy so your provider can view your entire colon and rectum.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
2. Colorectal Cancer Screening | Cancer Trends Progress Report [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
3. Colorectal Cancer Screening (PDQ®)—Patient Version - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
4. Rigid and Flexible Sigmoidoscopy. MedicineNet [accessed on Feb 09, 2024]
5. Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Video by Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

Testing for bowel cancer

Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Screening for Cancer

Common Screening Tests and American Cancer Society Recommendations

Image by TheVisualMD

Screening & Diagnosis

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Clip 1

Colorectal Cancer Clip 1

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Video by TheVisualMD

Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy testing

Drawing of a woman being tested for colon polyps. The woman is lying on her left side with her head on a pillow. In the background is a TV screen showing images of the colon.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Drawing of the digestive system with sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus highlighted and parts labeled: esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, duodenum, pancreas, small intestine, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus

The digestive system focusing on the sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

colonoscopy

SAN DIEGO (April 5, 2011) Hospitalman Urian D. Thompson, left, Lt. Cmdr. Eric A. Lavery and Registered Nurse Steven Cherry review the monitor while Lavery uses a colonoscope on a patient during a colonoscopy at Naval Medical Center San Diego. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Chad A. Bascom/Released)

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Chad A. Bascom

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing a colonoscopy

Diagram showing a colonoscopy.

Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

normal rectum colonoscopy

normal rectum 70y.o. Japanese / colonoscopy

Image by melvil

Familial adenomatous polyposis as seen on sigmoidoscopy

Familial adenomatous polyposis as seen on sigmoidoscopy

Image by Samir

Proctoscopy

Two proctoscopes

Image by Ralf Lotys (Sicherlich)

An anoscope, a proctoscope and a rectoscope, with approximate lengths

An anoscope, a proctoscope and a rectoscope, with approximate lengths

Image by Mikael Häggström

This browser does not support the video element.

Sigmoidoscopy: NCI B-roll [video]

NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a sigmoidoscopy. This video is silent. A version of this video with audio can be found in the video NCI Detection B-roll. Downloadable video files are 1280x720 at 30 fps. This image is part of the NCI B-Roll Videos collection. View video using embedded player on this page or at youtube.com.

Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Lower GI Series

A lower GI series, also called a barium enema, is an x-ray exam used to help diagnose problems of the large intestine. An x ray is a picture created by using radiation and recorded on film or on a computer. To make the large intestine more visible on x ray, a health care provider will fill the person’s intestine with a chalky liquid called barium.

Document by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

Drawing of the digestive system with sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus highlighted

The digestive system focusing on the sigmoid colon and stomach.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Benign Tumor

Image of en:familial adenomatous polyposis as seen on en:sigmoidoscopy.

Image by Samir at English Wikipedia

What is a flexible sigmoidoscopy?

Video by You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

Colon Cancer Screening Tests: Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

Video by American Cancer Society/YouTube

Colon cancer: Essential facts

Video by Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube

Screening for Colorectal Cancer

Video by Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

What to expect during a colonoscopy

Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

6 Reasons to Get a Colonoscopy

Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

2:42

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

1:37

Testing for bowel cancer

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Screening for Cancer

TheVisualMD

Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

0:15

Colorectal Cancer Clip 1

TheVisualMD

0:05

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

TheVisualMD

Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy testing

NIDDK Image Library

Drawing of the digestive system with sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus highlighted and parts labeled: esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, duodenum, pancreas, small intestine, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus

NIDDK Image Library

colonoscopy

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Chad A. Bascom

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing a colonoscopy

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

normal rectum colonoscopy

melvil

Familial adenomatous polyposis as seen on sigmoidoscopy

Samir

Proctoscopy

Ralf Lotys (Sicherlich)

An anoscope, a proctoscope and a rectoscope, with approximate lengths

Mikael Häggström

1:17

Sigmoidoscopy: NCI B-roll [video]

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Lower GI Series

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

Drawing of the digestive system with sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus highlighted

NIDDK Image Library

Benign Tumor

Samir at English Wikipedia

1:55

What is a flexible sigmoidoscopy?

You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

2:49

Colon Cancer Screening Tests: Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

American Cancer Society/YouTube

2:49

Colon cancer: Essential facts

Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube

4:06

Screening for Colorectal Cancer

Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

1:16

What to expect during a colonoscopy

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

3:17

6 Reasons to Get a Colonoscopy

Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Also called: FOBT, Stool Hemoccult, Hemoccult Test

A fecal occult blood test looks for blood in the stool. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool. Blood in stool may indicate hemorrhoids, colorectal cancer, or another condition.

Fecal Occult Blood Test

Also called: FOBT, Stool Hemoccult, Hemoccult Test

A fecal occult blood test looks for blood in the stool. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool. Blood in stool may indicate hemorrhoids, colorectal cancer, or another condition.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative test result means that there is no blood in the stool.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative or normal result means the test did not detect any blood in the stool. However, because cancers in the colon may not always bleed, you may need to do the test a few times to confirm that there is no blood in your stool.
Related conditions
A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) looks at a sample of your stool (poop) to check for blood. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. And fecal means that it is in your stool.
Blood in your stool means there is bleeding in the digestive tract. The bleeding may be caused by a variety of conditions, including:
- Polyps, abnormal growths on the lining of the colon or rectum
- Hemorrhoids, swollen veins in your anus or rectum
- Diverticulosis, a condition with small pouches in the inside wall of the colon
- Ulcers, sores in the lining of the digestive tract
- Colitis, a type of inflammatory bowel disease
- Colorectal cancer, a type of cancer that starts in the colon or rectum
Colorectal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in the United States. A fecal occult blood test can screen for colorectal cancer to help find the disease early when treatment may be most effective.
Other names: FOBT, stool occult blood, occult blood test, Hemoccult test, guaiac smear test, gFOBT, immunochemical FOBT, iFOBT; FIT
Your health care provider may order a fecal occult blood test if you have symptoms of a condition that could involve bleeding in your digestive tract. Or you may have the test to screen for colorectal cancer when you don't have any symptoms.
Expert medical groups strongly recommend that people get regular screening tests for colorectal cancer. Most medical groups recommend that you start screening tests at age 45 or 50 if you have an average risk of developing colorectal cancer. They recommend regular testing until at least age 75. Talk with your provider about your risk for colorectal cancer and when you should get a screening test.
A fecal occult blood test is one or several types of colorectal screening tests. Other tests include:
- A stool DNA test. This test checks your stool for blood and cells with genetic changes that may be a sign of cancer.
- Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. Both tests use a thin tube with a camera to look inside your colon. A colonoscopy allows your provider to see your entire colon. A sigmoidoscopy shows only the lower part of your colon.
- CT colonography, also called "virtual colonoscopy." For this test, you usually drink a dye before having a CT scan that uses x-rays to take detailed 3-dimensional pictures of your entire colon and rectum.
There are pros and cons of each type of test. Your provider can help you figure out which test is right for you.
Usually, your provider will give you a kit to collect samples of your stool (poop) at home. The kit will include instructions on how to do the test.
There are two main types of fecal occult blood tests:
- The guaiac fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) uses a chemical (guaiac) to find blood in stool. It usually requires stool samples from two or three separate bowel movements.
- The fecal immunochemical test (iFOBT or FIT) uses antibodies to find blood in stool. Research shows that FIT testing is better at finding colorectal cancers than gFOBT testing. A FIT test requires stool samples from one to three separate bowel movements, depending on the brand of the test.
Different test kits have different instructions, so it's very important to follow the specific instructions that come with your kit. The typical process for gathering a stool sample usually includes these general steps:
- Collecting a bowel movement. Your kit may include a special paper to place over your toilet to catch your bowel movement. Or you may use plastic wrap or a clean, dry container. If you are doing a guaiac test, be careful not to let any urine mix in with your stool.
- Taking a stool sample from the bowel movement. Your kit will include a wooden stick or applicator brush for scraping the stool sample from your bowel movement. Follow the instructions for where to gather the sample from the stool.
- Preparing the stool sample. You will either smear the stool on a special test card or insert the applicator with the stool sample into a tube that came with your kit.
- Labeling and sealing the sample as directed.
- Repeating the test on your next bowel movement as directed if more than one sample is needed.
- Returning the samples as directed. This might be mailing them or taking them to your provider's office or a lab.
You do not need any special preparations for many fecal occult blood tests. But for some guaiac fecal occult blood tests (gFOBTs), certain foods, supplements, and medicines may affect the results of the test. If you are having one of these tests, your provider will tell you what you need to avoid and for how long. For example, you might need to avoid:
- Nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and aspirin. If you take aspirin for heart problems, talk with your provider before stopping your medicine. You may be able to take acetaminophen during this time but check with your provider before taking it.
- Vitamin C in amounts over 250 mg a day. This includes vitamin C from supplements, fruit juices, or fruit.
- Red meat, such as beef, lamb, and pork. Traces of blood from these meats may show up in your stool.
- Certain raw fruits and vegetables.
1. Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
2. Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]

Additional Materials (4)

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

Surgery is the main treatment for colorectal cancer. Polyps and very early stage cancers (Stage 0 and some early Stage I tumors) can be removed during a colonoscopy, using a variety of techniques. In late Stage I and in Stage II and III cancer, the cancerous part of the colon is removed surgically. The surgeon may perform a resection, consisting of a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it) and an anastomosis (sewing the parts of the colon back together). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed and biopsied. If it isn't possible to perform a resection (for instance, if the cancer is at the outlet of the rectum), a colostomy may be performed. In a colostomy, a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body, where it empties into a special bag. The colostomy may be temporary in order to allow the colon or rectum time to heal after surgery, or it may be permanent.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Colorectal cancer includes cancer of both the colon and rectum. It is the fourth most common cancer in the United States and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths affecting both men and women equally. The CDC recommends that everyone age 50 or over be screened. When diagnosed early, patients have a 90% 5-year survival rate.

Video by TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Fecal Occult Blood Test

A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) finds blood in the stool by placing a stool sample on a chemically treated card, pad, or cloth wipe. A fecal occult blood test may be used to check for colorectal cancer, but it is never used to diagnose the condition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fecal impaction

Fecal impaction : Plain abdominal X-ray showing a huge fecal impaction extending from the pelvis upwards to the left subphrenic space and from the left towards the right flank, measuring over 40 cm in length and 33 cm in width.

Image by Di Saverio S, Tugnoli G, Orlandi PE, Casali M, Catena F, et al.

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

TheVisualMD

4:12

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Fecal Occult Blood Test

TheVisualMD

Fecal impaction

Di Saverio S, Tugnoli G, Orlandi PE, Casali M, Catena F, et al.

Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests

Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests

Also called: Colon cancer screening

Colorectal cancer screening tests check for signs of colorectal cancer. There are several types of colorectal cancer screening tests; each has different benefits and risks. Talk to your health care provider about which type of test is best for you.

Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests

Also called: Colon cancer screening

Colorectal cancer screening tests check for signs of colorectal cancer. There are several types of colorectal cancer screening tests; each has different benefits and risks. Talk to your health care provider about which type of test is best for you.

Colorectal cancer screening tests check for signs of colorectal cancer. Colorectal cancer is a type of cancer that affects the colon or rectum. The colon makes up most of the large intestine. The rectum is at the end of the large intestine and connects to the anus.
Colorectal cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States. Screening can help find colorectal cancer early, when treatment is most effective. Colorectal cancer screening can sometimes prevent cancer from even developing. That's because some types of screening tests let a health care provider find and remove abnormal growths, known as colorectal polyps. Most of these polyps are benign (not cancerous) but do have a risk of becoming cancerous if not removed.
The National Cancer Institute and other expert medical groups recommend people get regular screenings for colorectal cancer, starting at age 50. The American Cancer Society recommends that people begin screening at age 45. You should talk with your health care provider about when you should start and about the different types of screening tests.
You may need to be screened at a younger age, or more often, if you have certain risk factors including:
- A family history of colorectal cancer
- Previously had colorectal polyps
- A family history of, or having had, ovarian cancer
- Inflammatory bowel disease such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease
There are two main types of colorectal cancer screening tests: visual exams and stool tests. There are different options for both types of tests.
Visual exams are procedures that allow a provider to look inside the colon and rectum. They are done either using a thin tube with a camera attached or with a special imaging device. Types of visual exams include:
Colonoscopy. This test allows a provider to view your entire colon and rectum. It is often done in an outpatient department of a hospital or medical center. Before the test, you will need to empty out your colon (large bowel) in a procedure called bowel prep. During the test:
- You will lie on an exam table.
- You will be given medicine called a sedative to help you relax. It also prevents you from feeling pain during the procedure. You may be awake for the test, but you probably won't remember anything.
- A colonoscope, a thin, lighted tube with a camera attached, will be inserted into your rectum and up into your colon.
- Your provider will look for colorectal polyps or other abnormal areas.
- Your provider may remove polyps or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope.
- Polyps or samples may be sent to a lab for testing.
The sedative you are given may make you drowsy for several hours. You should arrange for someone to drive you home.
Sigmoidoscopy. This test allows your provider to look at the lower part of the colon. During the test:
- You will lie on an exam table with your knees drawn up to your chest.
- A sigmoidoscope, a flexible, lighted tube with a camera, will be inserted into the rectum and up into the lower part of the colon.
- Air will be pumped through the sigmoidoscope to make the colon bigger and easier to see.
- The air may make you feel like you need to have a bowel movement or pass gas.
- Your provider may remove polyps or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope.
- Polyps or samples may be sent to a lab for testing.
Virtual Colonoscopy. This is a type of x-ray that uses a CT scan (computed tomography) to take detailed, 3-dimensional pictures of the entire colon and rectum. It is usually done in a radiology department of a hospital or medical center. This procedure also requires bowel prep beforehand. During the test:
- You will lie on a narrow table.
- You may be asked to drink a liquid containing contrast dye. Contrast dye is a substance that makes parts of your body show up more clearly on an x-ray.
- A provider will insert a small tube into the rectum.
- Air will be pumped through the tube to make the colon bigger and easier to see.
- The table will slide into the CT machine.
- A series of images will be taken.
Stool tests look at stool samples for signs of cancer. For these tests, you take a stool sample at home and send it to a lab. Types of stool tests:
Fecal occult blood tests. These tests look for hidden (known as occult) blood in the stool. Blood in the stool may be a sign of polyps, cancer, or other conditions. Your health care provider will give you a kit that includes instructions on how to do the test.
There are two types of fecal occult blood tests: the fecal immunochemical test (FIT) and the guaiac smear method (gFOBT). Below are typical instructions for each test. Your instructions may vary slightly depending on the manufacturer of the test kit.
For a fecal immunochemical test (FIT), you will most likely need to:
- Collect samples from two or three separate bowel movements.
- Collect the sample from the toilet using the special brush or other device included in your kit.
- For each sample, use the brush or device to take the sample from the surface of the stool.
- Brush the sample onto a test card.
- Label and seal all your samples as directed.
- Mail the samples to your health care provider or lab.
For a guaiac smear test (gFOBT), you will most likely need to:
- Collect samples from three separate bowel movements.
- For each sample, collect the stool and store it in a clean container. Make sure the sample does not mix in with urine or water from the toilet.
- Use the applicator from your test kit to smear some of the stool on the test card or slide, also included in your kit.
- Label and seal all your samples as directed.
- Mail the samples to your health care provider or lab.
Stool DNA test. This test checks for genetic changes in the stool that may be signs of colorectal polyps or cancer. Your provider will let you know to get a test kit. The kit will include instructions on how to do the test. The instructions will likely include the following steps:
- Put a special container inside your toilet.
- Collect an entire bowel movement.
- Close and seal the container.
- Mail the container with the stool sample to a lab for testing.
There are no special preparations needed for a FIT or stool DNA test. The typical preparations for other colorectal cancer screening tests are below.
For a colonoscopy and virtual colonoscopy, you will need to do a bowel prep. Your provider will give you specific instructions on how to do your bowel prep, but steps for bowel prep may include:
- Following a liquid diet for one to three days before the test.
- Drinking plenty of clear liquids one to three days before the test. Clear liquids include water, black coffee or tea, fat-free broth, and sports drinks without added color.
- Drinking a strong liquid laxative and/or using an enema on the evening before your test.
The laxative or enema will help you empty your bowels. You should prepare to spend a lot of time in the bathroom. Bowel prep can be inconvenient and uncomfortable, but if the colon is not thoroughly cleaned out, your provider may not be able to get a full picture of your colon and rectum. Polyps and other abnormal areas may not be seen.
For a sigmoidoscopy, before the test, you may need to:
- Follow a clear liquid diet one or more days before the procedure. This isn't always required, so be sure to talk to your provider before the test.
- You may be asked to fast (not eat or drink) on the morning of the procedure.
- Use an enema to empty your bowels about one hour before the procedure. A second enema is sometimes needed.
For a g(FOBT) test, you may need to avoid the following foods and medicines for several days before your test:
- Nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, naproxen, or aspirin
- More than 250 mg of vitamin C daily from supplements, fruit juices, or fruit
- Red meat, such as beef, lamb, or pork
Your health care provider will give you full instructions on how to prepare for your screening test.
There are no risks to having a fecal occult blood test or a stool DNA test.
Serious risks of colonoscopy are rare but can include:
- Tears in the colon or rectum wall
- Bleeding
- Reaction to the sedative
There are fewer risks to sigmoidoscopy than with a colonoscopy. Tears in the colon and bleeding can happen, but they are even less common than with a colonoscopy.
In a virtual colonoscopy, risks include:
- Exposure to a small dose of radiation from the scan.
- Rarely, a tear in the colon or rectum can happen when it is inflated with air.
If your fecal occult blood test or stool DNA test had abnormal results, it doesn't necessarily mean you have cancer. But your provider will probably order more tests, such as a colonoscopy, to help make a diagnosis.
Abnormal results for the other types of screening tests may include the following:
Colonoscopy
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were found and removed.
- Samples were sent to a lab for testing.
Most polyps aren't cancerous but can turn into cancer if not removed. Depending on the size and number of polyps, your provider may recommend more frequent colonoscopies.
Sigmoidoscopy
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were found. They may or may not be removed depending on their location.
- Whether or not your polyps were removed, you will probably need a colonoscopy so your provider can view your entire colon and rectum.
Virtual colonoscopy
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were seen on the CT scan.
- You will probably need a traditional colonoscopy so your provider can get a tissue sample. Sometimes this procedure can be done on the same day as your virtual colonoscopy.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.

Each type of screening test has advantages and disadvantages. You and your provider should discuss the benefits and risks of each option. The following may help guide your decision.

Colonoscopy
Advantages Looks at the entire colon Can remove polyps and test for cancer May help find other diseases Needed only every 10 years (if no polyps were found in previous tests)	Disadvantages Small risk of tears and bleeding Bowel prep needed Sedatives are needed for the procedure Takes at least one day for bowel prep and recovery
Sigmoidoscopy
Advantages Usually doesn't require bowel prep Sedatives are not usually needed Needed every five years (if no polyps were found in previous tests)	Disadvantages Only looks at a third of the colon May miss small polyps Can't remove all polyps Very small risk of tears or bleeding Not widely used as a screening test Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal
Virtual Colonoscopy
Advantages Looks at the entire colon Sedatives not needed Needed every five years (if no polyps were found in previous tests)	Disadvantages Bowel prep needed May miss small polyps Exposure to a small amount of radiation Traditional colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal Fairly new test; may not be covered by insurance
Fecal immunochemical test (FIT)
Advantages No risk to colon No bowel prep Sample can be collected at home	Disadvantages Can have false positives Cannot detect precancerous changes (cells that are at risk for turning into cancer) May miss some signs of polyps and/or cancer Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal Should be done every year
Guaiac smear test (gFOBT)
Advantages No risk to colon No bowel prep Sample can be collected at home	Disadvantages Can have false positives Cannot detect precancerous changes May miss some signs of polyps and/or cancer Dietary restrictions required before testing Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal Should be done every year
Stool DNA
Advantages No risk to colon No bowel prep Sample can be collected at home	Disadvantages Can have false positives Cannot detect precancerous changes May miss some cancers Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal Should be done every three years Fairly new test; may not be covered by insurance

Additional Materials (23)

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Document by CDC

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Document by CDC

Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

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Screening Tests At-A-Glance - Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

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Risk Factors & Symptoms - Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

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True or false? Colorectal Cancer Screening

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Cancer and obesity

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Is it time to get your colon checked?

Colorectal—or colon—cancer is one of the most common cancers in the U.S. It's also one of the most treatable, especially if detected early. Screening can not only detect colon cancer early but also can reduce your risk of developing colon cancer by finding and removing colon polyps, some of which can progress to cancer. Most medical groups recommend that people at average risk of colorectal cancer get screened regularly beginning at age 50 with a either a colonoscopy or an at-home test. However, you may be advised to start earlier if you or a close relative have had colon polyps, an inflammatory bowel disease, colon cancer, or other risk factors. Check with your health care provider to learn when—and how— you should get checked.

Document by NIH MedlinePlus Magazine

Do You Know Tony? Family History of Colorectal Cancer

Tony, 35, knows he has a lot to be thankful for: a great job, a nice home and a terrific family. He also knows he owes a debt of gratitude to his primary care provider.

Document by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Cancer Health Disparities

Document by Center for Disease Control and Prevention

Physical Activity and Cancer

Being physically active lowers your risk for developing several commonly occurring cancers.

Document by CDC

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Colorectal cancer includes cancer of both the colon and rectum. It is the fourth most common cancer in the United States and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths affecting both men and women equally. The CDC recommends that everyone age 50 or over be screened. When diagnosed early, patients have a 90% 5-year survival rate.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Drs. Klein and O'Kieffe on how screening is prevention

Dr Mark Klein, a radiologist and specialist in virtual colonoscopy, and Dr. Donald O'Kieffe, a gastroenterologist and specialist in optical colonoscopy both stress the importance of screening for colorectal cancer. Thanks to Washington Radiology Associates and Metro Gastroenterology of the Washington, DC area.

Video by TheVisualMD

What is Colon Cancer? | At Home Colon Screening

Video by LetsGetChecked/YouTube

Easy Colon Cancer Screening at Home

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Colon Cancer: At-Home Screening with Stool-Based Testing

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Colorectal Cancer Screening

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At-home tests effective for colon cancer screening

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Colon Cancer Prevention

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How to prepare for a colonoscopy

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Colorectal Cancer Prevention | Cedars-Sinai

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How To Use Cologuard (English)

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FIT is a colorectal cancer screening test

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Colorectal Cancer Screening

CDC

Colorectal Cancer Screening

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Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

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Screening Tests At-A-Glance - Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

CDC

Risk Factors & Symptoms - Colorectal Cancer Screening Saves Lives

CDC

True or false? Colorectal Cancer Screening

CDC

Cancer and obesity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Is it time to get your colon checked?

NIH MedlinePlus Magazine

Do You Know Tony? Family History of Colorectal Cancer

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Cancer Health Disparities

Center for Disease Control and Prevention

Physical Activity and Cancer

CDC

4:12

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

0:26

Drs. Klein and O'Kieffe on how screening is prevention

TheVisualMD

3:17

What is Colon Cancer? | At Home Colon Screening

LetsGetChecked/YouTube

1:10

Easy Colon Cancer Screening at Home

My Doctor - Kaiser Permanente/YouTube

2:49

Colon Cancer: At-Home Screening with Stool-Based Testing

uvahealth/YouTube

2:42

Colorectal Cancer Screening

Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

1:56

At-home tests effective for colon cancer screening

CBS News/YouTube

2:12

Colon Cancer Prevention

Sutter Health/YouTube

8:08

How to prepare for a colonoscopy

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

1:39

Colorectal Cancer Prevention | Cedars-Sinai

Cedars-Sinai/YouTube

3:57

How To Use Cologuard (English)

Cologuard/YouTube

FIT is a colorectal cancer screening test

Veterans Administration

Colonoscopy

Colonoscopy

Also called: Coloscopy

Colonoscopy is an exam in which a doctor uses a colonoscope, to look inside your rectum and colon. Colonoscopy can show irritated and swollen tissue, ulcers, polyps, and cancer.

Colonoscopy

Also called: Coloscopy

Colonoscopy is an exam in which a doctor uses a colonoscope, to look inside your rectum and colon. Colonoscopy can show irritated and swollen tissue, ulcers, polyps, and cancer.

{"label":"Colonoscopy reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Normal findings are healthy intestinal tissues. If no abnormalities are discovered, an adult at average risk of colon cancer is generally advised to have a repeat colonoscopy 10 years until age 75.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"The exam reveals polyps or other abnormalities in the colon. During the procedure, the doctor may remove polyps or perform biopsies of your ileum, colon, and\/or rectum.","conditions":["Hemorrhoids","Diverticular disease","Colonic polyps","Crohn disease","Ulcerative colitis","Infection","Bleeding","Colorectal cancer"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal findings are healthy intestinal tissues. If no abnormalities are discovered, an adult at average risk of colon cancer is generally advised to have a repeat colonoscopy 10 years until age 75.
Related conditions
A colonoscopy is used:
- to look for early signs of cancer in the colon and rectum. It may be part of a routine screening, which usually starts at age 45.
- to look for causes of unexplained changes in bowel habits
- to evaluate symptoms like abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, and weight loss
Your doctor can also remove polyps from your colon during the procedure.
You may need a colonoscopy to find the cause of unexplained symptoms such as:
- Bleeding from your anus (the opening of the rectum through which stool passes out of your body)
- Changes in your bowel activity, such as diarrhea
- Pain in your abdomen (belly)
- Unexplained weight loss
Doctors also use the procedure to screen for colon polyps and cancer. Screening is testing for diseases when you have no symptoms. It may find diseases at an early stage, when they are easier to treat. If aren't at higher risk for colorectal cancer, your health care provider will likely recommend you start getting screenings at age 45. If you at higher risk, you may need to start getting screened for colorectal cancer earlier.
There are also other tests to screen for colorectal cancer, including stool tests. Talk with your provider about which test is right for you and when and how often you should get it.
This test allows a provider to view your entire colon and rectum. It is often done in an outpatient department of a hospital or medical center. Before the test, you will need to empty out your colon (large bowel) in a procedure called bowel prep. During the test:
- You will lie on an exam table.
- You will be given medicine called a sedative to help you relax. It also prevents you from feeling pain during the procedure. You may be awake for the test, but you probably won't remember anything.
- A colonoscope, a thin, lighted tube with a camera attached, will be inserted into your rectum and up into your colon.
- Your provider will look for colorectal polyps or other abnormal areas.
- Your provider may remove polyps or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope.
- Polyps or samples may be sent to a lab for testing.
The sedative you are given may make you drowsy for several hours. You should arrange for someone to drive you home.
For a colonoscopy, you will need to do a bowel prep. Your provider will give you specific instructions on how to do your bowel prep, but steps for bowel prep may include:
- Following a liquid diet for one to three days before the test.
- Drinking plenty of clear liquids one to three days before the test. Clear liquids include water, black coffee or tea, fat-free broth, and sports drinks without added color.
- Drinking a strong liquid laxative and/or using an enema on the evening before your test.
The laxative or enema will help you empty your bowels. You should prepare to spend a lot of time in the bathroom. Bowel prep can be inconvenient and uncomfortable, but if the colon is not thoroughly cleaned out, your provider may not be able to get a full picture of your colon and rectum. Polyps and other abnormal areas may not be seen.
Serious risks of colonoscopy are rare but can include:
- Tears in the colon or rectum wall
- Bleeding
- Reaction to the sedative
Normal findings are healthy intestinal tissues. Abnormal results may include the following:
- Colorectal polyps or abnormal tissue were found and removed.
- Samples were sent to a lab for testing.
Most polyps aren't cancerous but can turn into cancer if not removed. Depending on the size and number of polyps, your provider may recommend more frequent colonoscopies.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
2. Colonoscopy - NIDDK. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Feb 10, 2024 [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
3. Colonoscopy | MedlinePlus. National Library of Medicine. Dec 5, 2022 [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
4. Colonoscopy: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
5. Robert H. Shmerling, MD. Understanding the results of your colonoscopy - Harvard Health. Oct 14, 2020 [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (40)

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Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

Video by TheVisualMD

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Colorectal Cancer Screening

Colorectal cancer is one of the few preventable forms of cancer thanks to effective screening. For many people, screening for colorectal cancer is an unpleasant thought, but knowing your options and taking a pro-active approach especially if you're over 50 can save your life. In this video, you can learn the "ins and outs" of colonoscopy, as well as learn about a new technique called virtual colonoscopy, which uses high-tech CT scans to screen the colon.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

Colorectal cancer includes cancer of both the colon and rectum. It is the fourth most common cancer in the United States and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths affecting both men and women equally. The CDC recommends that everyone age 50 or over be screened. When diagnosed early, patients have a 90% 5-year survival rate.

Video by TheVisualMD

Preparing for a Colonoscopy

Video by Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

Why No One Should Be Afraid of a Colonoscopy

Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube

What are Colonoscopy Risks? • Risks of Colonoscopy | Colonoscopy Center of Excellence

Video by La Peer/YouTube

Having a colonoscopy

Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube

The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

What is a colonoscopy and how do I prepare for it?

Video by You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy Q&A | Dr. Karen Horton

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

What to expect during a colonoscopy

Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

6 Reasons to Get a Colonoscopy

Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

Colonoscopy Video Tour: Removal of a Colon Polyp (Polypectomy)

Video by AmCollege Gastro/YouTube

What happens during and after a colonoscopy?

Video by You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

How to prepare for a colonoscopy

Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

Colonoscopy and Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

Video by Gastro Pros/YouTube

Virtual Colonoscopy: A Kinder Gentler Way to Prevent Colon Cancer

Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

Screening for Colorectal Cancer

Video by Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

What is Colorectal Cancer?

Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube

Rectal Cancer | Q&A

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

5 Things to Know About Colonoscopy - The Nebraska Medical Center

Video by Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube

What is a flexible sigmoidoscopy?

Video by You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

Digestive health: Successful prep for colonoscopy

Video by UW Medicine/YouTube

Lower Endoscopy - Lower GI - Colonoscopy Procedure - PreOp® Patient Education

Video by PreOp.com Patient Engagement - Patient Education/YouTube

UCSF Radiology: How is Virtual Colonoscopy Performed?

Video by UCSF Imaging/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing a colonoscopy

Diagram showing a colonoscopy.

Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Virtual Colonoscopy 3D Model

With virtual colonoscopy, a computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is then created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.

Image by TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data

Virtual colonoscopy is a new imaging technology that uses computed tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. A computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.

Image by TheVisualMD

Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy testing

Drawing of a woman being tested for colon polyps. The woman is lying on her left side with her head on a pillow. In the background is a TV screen showing images of the colon.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

Surgery is the main treatment for colorectal cancer. Polyps and very early stage cancers (Stage 0 and some early Stage I tumors) can be removed during a colonoscopy, using a variety of techniques. In late Stage I and in Stage II and III cancer, the cancerous part of the colon is removed surgically. The surgeon may perform a resection, consisting of a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it) and an anastomosis (sewing the parts of the colon back together). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed and biopsied. If it isn't possible to perform a resection (for instance, if the cancer is at the outlet of the rectum), a colostomy may be performed. In a colostomy, a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body, where it empties into a special bag. The colostomy may be temporary in order to allow the colon or rectum time to heal after surgery, or it may be permanent.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Capsule endoscopy

Image of the colon acquired by capsule endoscopy

Image by Dr.HH.Krause

All Views

1

2

3

4

Virtual Colonoscopy

Virtual colonoscopy is a new technology that uses computerized tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. The result is a computer-generated, animated, three-dimensional view of the interior of the colon. The preparation for the procedure is similar to that for a colonoscopy, but the procedure itself takes only about 10 minutes, and no sedation is required. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy is performed for removal or biopsy of the growth.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy open colon section view

After the image-taking procedure is complete, the cross-sectional pictures are processed by the computer to create animated, three-dimensional images of the large intestine. They are examined by a radiologist to identify any abnormal growths. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy will be performed so that the abnormal growths can be removed or biopsied.

Image by TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Colonoscopy

A colonoscopy is an examination of the interior of the colon. It is often used as a screening tool for early detection of colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, a long flexible tube with a video camera at one end, called a colonoscope, is inserted first into the anus and then into the colon. The doctor can view the inside of the colon along its entire length on a video monitor.

Image by TheVisualMD

A Less Invasive Look

Virtual colonoscopy is a new technology that uses computed tomography (CT), or, less often, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images to look for polyps, cancer, or other diseases of the colon when an abnormality is suspected. A computer program assembles the images to create an animated, three-dimensional view of the interior of the colon. The preparation for the procedure is similar to that for a colonoscopy, but the procedure itself takes only about 10 minutes, and no sedation is required. If abnormalities are found, a conventional colonoscopy will need to be performed for removal or biopsy of the growth.

Image by TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Colonoscope

A colonoscopy is an examination of the interior of the colon. It is often used as a screening tool for early detection of colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, a long flexible tube with a video camera at one end, called a colonoscope, is inserted first into the anus and then into the colon. The doctor can view the inside of the colon along its entire length on a video monitor.

Image by TheVisualMD

Capsule endoscopy

Picture of a capsule

Image by Euchiasmus

Preparing for a colonoscopy

Video by AmerGastroAssn/YouTube

0:05

Colorectal Cancer Clip 6

TheVisualMD

0:15

Colorectal Cancer Clip 4

TheVisualMD

0:49

Colorectal Cancer Clip 3

TheVisualMD

4:13

Colorectal Cancer Screening

TheVisualMD

4:12

Colorectal Cancer Screening & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

14:55

Preparing for a Colonoscopy

Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

3:35

Why No One Should Be Afraid of a Colonoscopy

Stanford Health Care/YouTube

2:56

What are Colonoscopy Risks? • Risks of Colonoscopy | Colonoscopy Center of Excellence

La Peer/YouTube

1:37

Having a colonoscopy

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

1:23

The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

6:30

What is a colonoscopy and how do I prepare for it?

You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

8:26

Virtual Colonoscopy Q&A | Dr. Karen Horton

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

1:16

What to expect during a colonoscopy

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

3:17

6 Reasons to Get a Colonoscopy

Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

2:45

Colonoscopy Video Tour: Removal of a Colon Polyp (Polypectomy)

AmCollege Gastro/YouTube

5:15

What happens during and after a colonoscopy?

You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

8:08

How to prepare for a colonoscopy

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

2:49

Colonoscopy and Flexible Sigmoidoscopy

Gastro Pros/YouTube

1:26:06

Virtual Colonoscopy: A Kinder Gentler Way to Prevent Colon Cancer

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

4:06

Screening for Colorectal Cancer

Dartmouth-Hitchcock/YouTube

3:47

What is Colorectal Cancer?

Stanford Health Care/YouTube

8:46

Rectal Cancer | Q&A

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

4:18

5 Things to Know About Colonoscopy - The Nebraska Medical Center

Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube

1:55

What is a flexible sigmoidoscopy?

You and Colonoscopy/YouTube

18:20

Digestive health: Successful prep for colonoscopy

UW Medicine/YouTube

3:48

Lower Endoscopy - Lower GI - Colonoscopy Procedure - PreOp® Patient Education

PreOp.com Patient Engagement - Patient Education/YouTube

2:33

UCSF Radiology: How is Virtual Colonoscopy Performed?

UCSF Imaging/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing a colonoscopy

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Virtual Colonoscopy 3D Model

TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data

TheVisualMD

Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy testing

NIDDK Image Library

Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Capsule endoscopy

Dr.HH.Krause

Virtual Colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

Virtual Colonoscopy open colon section view

TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Colonoscopy

TheVisualMD

A Less Invasive Look

TheVisualMD

Screening and Diagnosis Colonoscope

TheVisualMD

Capsule endoscopy

Euchiasmus

1:15

Preparing for a colonoscopy

AmerGastroAssn/YouTube

Stool DNA Test

Stool DNA Test

Also called: Cologuard®, Fecal DNA, Genetic Stool Test, DNA Stool Test, FIT-DNA, Multi-Target Stool DNA, sDNA-FIT, MT-sDNA Test, At-Home Colorectal Cancer Screening Test

A stool DNA test is a noninvasive test that checks for altered DNA and hidden blood in a sample of your stool. The presence of abnormal cells or blood in the stool may be signs of colorectal polyps or cancer. The test is intended for adults 45 and older at average risk for colorectal cancer.

Stool DNA Test

Also called: Cologuard®, Fecal DNA, Genetic Stool Test, DNA Stool Test, FIT-DNA, Multi-Target Stool DNA, sDNA-FIT, MT-sDNA Test, At-Home Colorectal Cancer Screening Test

A stool DNA test is a noninvasive test that checks for altered DNA and hidden blood in a sample of your stool. The presence of abnormal cells or blood in the stool may be signs of colorectal polyps or cancer. The test is intended for adults 45 and older at average risk for colorectal cancer.

{"label":"Stool DNA Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal, or negative, result means that the test did not detect blood cells or altered DNA in your stool sample. If you have an average risk of colon or rectal cancer, you don't need further testing for colorectal cancer.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"An abnormal, or positive, result suggests that the test found some pre-cancer or cancer cells in your stool sample. However, the test does not diagnose cancer. You will need further tests to make a diagnosis of cancer. Your doctor will likely suggest a colonoscopy.","conditions":["Colorectal cancer","Colon polyps","Colon ulcers","Hemorrhoids"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal, or negative, result means that the test did not detect blood cells or altered DNA in your stool sample. If you have an average risk of colon or rectal cancer, you don't need further testing for colorectal cancer.
Related conditions
Stool tests look at stool samples for signs of cancer. For these tests, you take a stool sample at home and send it to a lab.
Your healthcare provider will let you know to get a test kit. The kit will include instructions on how to do the test. The instructions will likely include the following steps:
- Put a special container inside your toilet.
- Collect an entire bowel movement.
- Close and seal the container.
- Mail the container with the stool sample to a lab for testing.

1. Cologuard: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
2. Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
3. Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
4. Stool DNA test - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
5. Stool DNA | The Colorectal Cancer Alliance [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
6. Cologuard: A New Test For Reducing The Risk Of Colon Cancer | Cancer Prevention [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
7. Stool DNA Test - Testing.com. Nov 9, 2021 [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]
8. Understanding Your Test Results | Cologuard® Patient Site [accessed on Apr 20, 2023]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (21)

Cologuard - PATIENT GUIDE

Document by ©2013 Exact Sciences Corporation

What To Expect When Your Cologuard® Kit Arrives

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: Can I Collect a Stool Sample During a Menstrual Cycle?

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Preparing to Use Cologuard®

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Reminders to Complete a Cologuard® Kit, Explained

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Preparing to Use Cologuard®: Diet and Medications

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Collecting a Cologuard® Sample: Size

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: Is There Any Time I Should Not Collect a Stool Sample?

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: Should I Collect a Sample If I Have Hemorrhoids?

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: Collecting a Stool Sample with Loose Stool or Diarrhea

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: What Happens If I Get Urine into the Collection Container?

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: What If I Make a Mistake Collecting My Stool Sample?

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard®: Expiration Date

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Preparing to Return a Completed Cologuard® Kit

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard® Sample Label Tips

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

How to Return a Completed Cologuard® Kit with UPS®

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

When to Collect a Sample

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

Cologuard® Commercial: When You're 45 2.0

Video by Cologuard/YouTube

What You Need To Know About Men's Health

Video by Prostate Cancer Research Institute/YouTube

Some people are facing pricey medical bills after using popular at-home colon cancer test

Video by CBS Mornings/YouTube

Cologuard - SNL

Video by Saturday Night Live/YouTube

Cologuard - PATIENT GUIDE

©2013 Exact Sciences Corporation

0:55

What To Expect When Your Cologuard® Kit Arrives

Cologuard/YouTube

1:09

Cologuard®: Can I Collect a Stool Sample During a Menstrual Cycle?

Cologuard/YouTube

1:08

Preparing to Use Cologuard®

Cologuard/YouTube

1:08

Reminders to Complete a Cologuard® Kit, Explained

Cologuard/YouTube

0:38

Preparing to Use Cologuard®: Diet and Medications

Cologuard/YouTube

1:05

Collecting a Cologuard® Sample: Size

Cologuard/YouTube

1:29

Cologuard®: Is There Any Time I Should Not Collect a Stool Sample?

Cologuard/YouTube

1:12

Cologuard®: Should I Collect a Sample If I Have Hemorrhoids?

Cologuard/YouTube

1:04

Cologuard®: Collecting a Stool Sample with Loose Stool or Diarrhea

Cologuard/YouTube

1:05

Cologuard®: What Happens If I Get Urine into the Collection Container?

Cologuard/YouTube

0:51

Cologuard®: What If I Make a Mistake Collecting My Stool Sample?

Cologuard/YouTube

0:40

Cologuard®: Expiration Date

Cologuard/YouTube

1:10

Preparing to Return a Completed Cologuard® Kit

Cologuard/YouTube

0:57

Cologuard® Sample Label Tips

Cologuard/YouTube

1:00

How to Return a Completed Cologuard® Kit with UPS®

Cologuard/YouTube

0:56

When to Collect a Sample

Cologuard/YouTube

0:31

Cologuard® Commercial: When You're 45 2.0

Cologuard/YouTube

6:39

What You Need To Know About Men's Health

Prostate Cancer Research Institute/YouTube

5:53

Some people are facing pricey medical bills after using popular at-home colon cancer test

CBS Mornings/YouTube

3:13

Cologuard - SNL

Saturday Night Live/YouTube

Depression

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Image by TheVisualMD

Talk with Your Doctor About Depression

If you think you might be depressed, talk with a doctor about how you are feeling.

What is depression?

Depression is an illness that involves the brain. It can affect your thoughts, mood, and daily activities — and make you feel sad or down. But depression is more than feeling sad for a few days.

Depression can be mild, moderate, or severe. Even mild depression can become more serious if it’s not treated.

If you're diagnosed with depression, you aren’t alone. Depression is a common illness that affects millions of adults in the United States every year.

The good news is that you can get treatment for depression. Getting help is the best thing you can do for yourself and your loved ones. You can feel better.

What are the signs of depression?

It’s normal to feel sad sometimes, but if you feel sad or down on most days for more than 2 weeks at a time, you may be depressed.

Depression affects people differently. Some signs of depression are:

Losing interest in activities you used to enjoy
Feeling hopeless or empty
Forgetting things or having trouble making decisions
Sleeping too much or too little
Gaining or losing weight without meaning to
Thinking about suicide or death

How is depression treated?

Depression can be treated with talk therapy, medicines (called antidepressants), or both. Your doctor may refer you to a mental health professional for talk therapy or medicine.

If talk therapy and medicines don’t work for you, your doctor may recommend a treatment called brain stimulation therapy. This treatment uses electricity to change the way the brain works.

See a Doctor

Depression is a real illness. People with depression need treatment like people with any other illness. If you think you might be depressed, see your doctor.

Talk to a doctor about how you're feeling.

Get a medical checkup. Ask to see a doctor or nurse who can screen you for depression.

The doctor or nurse may also check to see if you have another health condition (like thyroid disease) that can cause depression or make it worse. If you have one of these health conditions, it’s important to get treatment right away.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover screening for depression. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get screened at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover depression screening at no cost.

If you don’t have insurance, you may still be able to get free or low-cost depression screening.

Get treatment for depression.

When you have depression, getting help is the best thing you can do. Depression can be treated with talk therapy, medicines, or both.

Ask your doctor for a referral to a mental health professional. Some programs offer free or low-cost treatment even if you don't have insurance.

Here are some places you can go to for help with depression:

Doctor’s office or health clinic
Family service or social service agency
Psychologist or psychotherapist
Counselor or social worker

Remember, even if asking for help seems scary, it's an important step toward feeling better.

Get support.

If you have depression, it can also help to reach out for support from people around you. You don't have to face depression alone. A trusted family member, friend, or faith leader can help support you as you seek medical treatment.

Get active.

Getting active can lower your stress level and help your treatment work better. It can also help keep you from getting depressed again. But it's important to know that physical activity alone may not be enough to treat your depression.

Get help right away if you or someone you know is thinking about suicide.

To get help for yourself or someone else, visit the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline or call 1-800-273-TALK (1-800-273-8255).
If someone is in immediate danger, call 911.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (4)

4:51

What Is Depression?

TheVisualMD

3:32

Treating Depression

TheVisualMD

1:00

Depression symptoms can be subtle

UW Medicine/YouTube

7:43

Postpartum Depression

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)/YouTube

Depression Screening

Depression Screening

Also called: Depression Test, PHQ-9 Depression Assessment

A depression screening is a set of questions you answer to see if you have depression, a mental health condition that often gets better with treatment. Screening can help find depression early. And treating depression early may make recovery faster.

Depression Screening

Also called: Depression Test, PHQ-9 Depression Assessment

A depression screening is a set of questions you answer to see if you have depression, a mental health condition that often gets better with treatment. Screening can help find depression early. And treating depression early may make recovery faster.

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This score indicates that your behaviors are normal.
Related conditions
A depression screening is used to:
- Help diagnose depression
- Understand how severe depression may be
- Help figure out what type of depression you have
There are different types of depression. The most common types are:
- Major depression, also called major depressive disorder. The symptoms typically make it difficult to work, sleep, study and eat. With major depression, you have symptoms most of the time for at least two weeks.
- Persistent depressive disorder, also called dysthymia. The symptoms are less severe than major depression, but they last much longer, usually for at least two years.
- Seasonal affective disorder (SAD). This form of depression usually happens in winter when there's less sunlight. Most people with SAD tend to feel better in the spring and summer.
- Postpartum depression. This is major depression that happens after giving birth. It's more severe and lasts longer than mild unhappiness and other mood changes that are often called the "baby blues." Major depression may also begin during pregnancy. Depression that happens during or shortly after pregnancy is called "perinatal depression." Medical experts recommend routine depression screening during pregnancy and after birth.
Depression screening is often part of a routine checkup. You may also need depression screening if you show signs of depression, which may include:
- Loss of interest or pleasure in activities you used to enjoy
- Feeling sad or anxious
- Feelings of guilt, worthlessness or helplessness
- Trouble sleeping (insomnia) or sleeping too much
- Fatigue and lack of energy
- Trouble concentrating, remembering details, or making decisions
- Changes in your weight
- Thoughts of hurting yourself or suicide
If you are thinking about suicide or hurting yourself, get help right away:
- Call 911 or go to your local emergency room
- Contact a suicide hotline. In the United States, you can reach the National Suicide and Crisis Lifeline at any time:
  Call or text 988
  Chat online with Lifeline Chat
  TTY users: Use your preferred relay service or dial 711 then 988
- Veterans can contact the Veterans Crisis Line:
  Call 988 then press 1
  Text 838255
  Chat online
- Call your mental health provider or other provider
- Reach out to a loved one or close friend
During a depression screening, you'll answer a standard set of questions. Your provider may ask the questions, or you may fill out a questionnaire form to discuss with your provider later.
In general, the questions ask you about:
- Changes you've noticed in your:
  Mood
  Sleep habits
  Appetite or weight
  Energy levels
  Ability to focus your attention
  Stress levels
- Medicines you take
- Alcohol and drug use
- Your personal and family history of depression and other mental health conditions
You may also have a physical exam. There's no lab test that can diagnose depression. But your provider may order blood tests to find out if another health condition, such as anemia or thyroid disease, may be causing depression.
During a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
If you are being tested by a mental health provider, he or she may ask you more detailed questions about your feelings and behaviors. You may also be asked to fill out a questionnaire about these issues.
There are many types of mental health providers who treat depression. Your primary health care provider can help you find the right support.
These are some of the professionals who have training to diagnose and treat depression:
- Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in mental health. Psychiatrists can prescribe medicine.
- Psychologists generally have doctoral degrees, but they do not have medical degrees. They can't prescribe medicine unless they have a special license. Some psychologists work with providers who can prescribe medicine. Psychologists may use one-on-one counseling and/or group therapy sessions.
- Psychiatric or mental health nurses are nurses with special training in mental health problems. Nurses who may have a master's or doctoral degree in psychiatric-mental health nursing include, advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs), certified nurse practitioners (CNPs), and clinical nurse specialists (CNSs). In some states, certain nurses can prescribe medicines.
- Licensed clinical social workers have at least a master's degree in social work with special training in mental health. They can't prescribe medicine, but they may work with providers who can prescribe medicine. Providers who are licensed clinical social workers usually have LCSW or LICSW after their names.
- Licensed professional counselors (LPC) may also be called clinicians or therapists. States have different names of these licenses, such as LMFT (licensed marriage and family therapist). These professionals usually have a master's degree in a field related to mental health. They can't prescribe medicine, but may work with providers who can prescribe.
1. Depression Screening: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2022]
2. Depression Screening - My HealtheVet - My HealtheVet [accessed on Dec 20, 2022]
3. Depression Test - Free mental health tests from Mental Health America. MHA Screening. Dec 14, 2022 [accessed on Dec 20, 2022]
4. Depression Test - Self Quiz - AnxietyCentre.com. May 15, 2021 [accessed on Dec 20, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

Older Adults and Depression

Older Adults and Depression

Document by National Institute of Mental Health

Depression Basics

Do you feel sad, empty, and hopeless most of the day, nearly every day? Have you lost interest or pleasure in your hobbies or being with friends and family? Are you having trouble sleeping, eating, and functioning? If you have felt this way for at least 2 weeks, you may have depression, a serious but treatable mood disorder.

Document by National Institute of Mental Health

Teen Depression

Teen Depression

Document by National Institute of Mental Health

Depression Risk Factors, Symptoms, & Diagnosis

Who is at risk for depression? Depression can occur at any age, although it's most common in individuals in their twenties and thirties. Race, education, marital situation, and socio-economic status also affect a person's risk for depression. Unsurprisingly, poverty is associated with an increase in risk, although depression occurs at all economic levels of society.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression

Image by PublicDomainPictures/Pixabay

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is Depression?

Take a trip inside your head to see what happens in your brain when you have depression. Hear depression sufferers talk about living with this devastating disorder, and top experts explain how depression feeds upon itself. Travel deep into the brain to zero in on the organs implicated in emotional disorders. Voyage deeper still to witness electrical impulses racing across neurons. Depression acts like a neurotoxin: view the chemicals that can cause those neurons to wither. Learn the factors that put you at risk. Discover which organs of the brain may atrophy, while others become too active. Hear a message of hope from someone who knows: even people with severe depression can become symptom-free.

Video by TheVisualMD

Depression, Loneliness, Man, Mood

Image by PublicDomainPictures/Pixabay

Brain Development

Your brain develops rapidly in infancy and adolescence, but it continues to change throughout your life. The connections formed by your brain's neural pathways, which connect one part of your nervous system with another, continue to change as well. These pathways are very important for understanding depression. In this image, a woman is seen lying down, eyes averted gloomily. Depression is a neurological phenomenon that statistically affects more women than men.

Image by TheVisualMD

Types of Depression

Depression, There is Hope : If you or someone you know has depression, there are many reasons to be optimistic and to seek out help. Advances in pharmacologic, psychological, and other forms of therapy have made it possible for millions of people to recover from clinical depression and to achieve remission--that is, to have no more than minimal symptoms of depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Causes of Depression

Who is most likely to develop depression? Depression can occur at any age, although it’s most common in individuals in their twenties and thirties. Race, education, marital situation, and socio-economic status also affect a person’s risk for depression. Unsurprisingly, poverty is associated with an increase in risk, although depression occurs at all economic levels of society.

Image by TheVisualMD

Comparing Talk Therapy and Other Depression Treatments With Antidepressant Medicines

This information comes from a research report that was funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, a Federal Government agency.

Document by Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)

Depression Changes Your Brain

Actual structural changes, changes in the physical form of the brain, can be observed in people who have depression. Regions of the brain that may be affected by depression include the ventricles, corpus callosum, hippocampus, and all parts of the limbic system- which is involved with emotion formation as well as processing, learning, and memory.

Image by TheVisualMD

Causes of Depression

Who is most likely to develop depression? Depression can occur at any age, although it’s most common in individuals in their twenties and thirties. Race, education, marital situation, and socio-economic status also affect a person’s risk for depression. Unsurprisingly, poverty is associated with an increase in risk, although depression occurs at all economic levels of society.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression and Pain

Pain and depression walk hand in hand. People with depression tend to experience more severe and longer-lasting pain than people without depression. In fact, having untreated clinical depression increases by 50% the likelihood that you’ll develop a chronic pain condition. Pain disorders suffered by people with depression can include nerve pain, irritable bowel syndrome, low back pain, fibromyalgia, and headaches (particularly migraines).

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression and Neurotransmitters

Your brain contains dozens of neurotransmitters. Four of them-serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and GABA-have been linked with depression. The color-coded lines in the image at left show their pathways through the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Postpartum Depression

Postpartum Depression

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression Changes the Brain

Actual structural alteration-changes in the physical form of the brain-can be observed in people who have depression. These changes are associated with changes in blood flow to the brain and with altered glucose metabolism. Some areas may experience physical disruption, others may change in size.

Image by TheVisualMD

Treatment for Depression, Antidepressants

Antidepressants act on the theory that depression is caused by a lack of the key neurotransmitters responsible for mood: serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The idea is to keep these neurotransmitters \"on\" by preventing them from early reuptake after they are released into the synapses, or from being broken down by monoamine oxidase.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Vagus Nerve Stimulation, Surgically Implanted Electrode: Vagus nerve stimulation is an option for the treatment of chronic, or recurrent, depression. It is intended for people who have not responded to the usual forms of treatment or who are unable to take medication. In vagus nerve stimulation, a device similar to an electronic pacemaker is surgically implanted under the skin on the left side of the chest. A wire from the electrode is connected to the left vagus nerve, stimulating the brain's limbic system. The limbic system regulates mood, appetite, motivation, and sleep patterns, all of which can be affected by depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation, Wire from Electrode

Vagus nerve stimulation is an option for the treatment of chronic, or recurrent, depression. It is intended for people who have not responded to the usual forms of treatment or who are unable to take medication. In vagus nerve stimulation, a device similar to an electronic pacemaker is surgically implanted under the skin on the left side of the chest. A wire from the electrode is connected to the left vagus nerve, stimulating the brain's limbic system. The limbic system regulates mood, appetite, motivation, and sleep patterns, all of which can be affected by depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Vagus nerve stimulation is an option for the treatment of chronic, or recurrent, depression. It is intended for people who have not responded to the usual forms of treatment or who are unable to take medication. In vagus nerve stimulation, a device similar to an electronic pacemaker is surgically implanted under the skin on the left side of the chest. A wire from the electrode is connected to the left vagus nerve, stimulating the brain's limbic system. The limbic system regulates mood, appetite, motivation, and sleep patterns, all of which can be affected by depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression and Pain

Pain and depression walk hand in hand. People with depression tend to experience more severe and longer-lasting pain than people without depression. In fact, having untreated clinical depression increases by 50% the likelihood that you’ll develop a chronic pain condition. Pain disorders suffered by people with depression can include nerve pain, irritable bowel syndrome, low back pain, fibromyalgia, and headaches (particularly migraines).

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression Changes the Brain

Actual structural alteration—changes in the physical form of the brain—can be observed in people who have depression. These changes are associated with changes in blood flow to the brain and with altered glucose metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Norepinephrine Molecule

Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter as well as a hormone (see page XX), is related to adrenaline (also referred to as epinephrine), known mostly for its' stimulating affects on the body. Norepinephrine is responsible for, among other things, arousal and alertness. For a long time, it was thought to be the primary neurotransmitter responsible for depression. Reduced levels of this chemical may partially explain the apathy seen in individuals with this and other mental disorders. Elevated levels of norepinephrine are strongly associated with anxiety disorders, which frequently coexist with depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Norepinephrine Receptor

Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter as well as a hormone (see page XX), is related to adrenaline (also referred to as epinephrine), known mostly for its' stimulating affects on the body. Norepinephrine is responsible for, among other things, arousal and alertness. For a long time, it was thought to be the primary neurotransmitter responsible for depression. Reduced levels of this chemical may partially explain the apathy seen in individuals with this and other mental disorders. Elevated levels of norepinephrine are strongly associated with anxiety disorders, which frequently coexist with depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

Major depressive disorder, also known as clinical depression, is a serious illness that affects millions of people each year. (The term "clinical" is used to indicate that the condition is serious enough to require clinical intervention.) But clinical depression is far more than the just feeling "depressed," "down," or "blue.") Depression can cause feelings of numbness or emptiness. It can cause a number of physical symptoms, like muscle aches and back pain. In fact, major depressive disorder is a whole-body illness that causes a surprising range of emotional and physical symptoms. Major depressive disorder alters how you think, how you feel, and how you behave.

Image by TheVisualMD

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Although depression may create physical changes in the brain, there is no physical test to determine whether or not someone has depression. Depressive disorder is diagnosed by the presence of certain core emotional and behavioral symptoms. These are known as the DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria. For a diagnosis of major depression, at least five of the following symptoms must be present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning. For a diagnosis of minor depression, from two to four of these symptoms must be present. For both major and minor depression, at least one of the symptoms must be either 1) depressed mood or 2) loss of interest or pleasure.

Image by TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

Major depressive disorder, also known as clinical depression, is a serious illness that affects millions of people each year. (The term "clinical" is used to indicate that the condition is serious enough to require clinical intervention.) But clinical depression is far more than the just feeling "depressed," "down," or "blue.") Depression can cause feelings of numbness or emptiness. It can cause a number of physical symptoms, like muscle aches and back pain. In fact, major depressive disorder is a whole-body illness that causes a surprising range of emotional and physical symptoms. Major depressive disorder alters how you think, how you feel, and how you behave.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman Having Postpartum Depression

Childbirth is a time for joy, but for many women this emotion quickly turns into feelings ranging from sadness and anxiety to restlessness and a sense of loss. Hormonal changes following birth are normal, and can wreak havoc in new mothers. You may feel overwhelmed one minute and exhausted the next. Usually, these \"baby blues\" go away after a week or so. This is the case for most women. For others, prolonged symptoms are a sign of postpartum depression. This can begin any time following childbirth up until a year later. In addition to the factors mentioned above, some women have an unrealistic need to be perfect. Others eat too much or too little or find themselves crying constantly. In many cases the new mother withdraws from her family and friends. All of this just adds to the stress of motherhood. This type of response falls within the scope of our discussion of depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

Major depressive disorder, also known as clinical depression, is a serious illness that affects millions of people each year. (The term "clinical" is used to indicate that the condition is serious enough to require clinical intervention.) But clinical depression is far more than the just feeling "depressed," "down," or "blue.") Depression can cause feelings of numbness or emptiness. It can cause a number of physical symptoms, like muscle aches and back pain. In fact, major depressive disorder is a whole-body illness that causes a surprising range of emotional and physical symptoms. Major depressive disorder alters how you think, how you feel, and how you behave.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Depression Cascade

Depression isn’t all in your head—it has major physiological effects on all of your body’s major systems and increases the likelihood of developing many major diseases. Having a depressive disorder unleashes a cascade of harmful effects on your body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Finding Balance

If you have depression, you may blame yourself and think that somehow you caused this condition or should be able to pull yourself out of it. But being depressed is not a failure on your part. You are not to blame for it, and you aren’t weak because you can’t “just snap out of it.” Depression is a disease—and like many other diseases, it responds to treatment. Many different forms of treatment are available. The key is to find balance: balance in your life, and the right balance of depression treatments.

Image by TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

Forms of Depression : Major depressive disorder affects millions of people throughout the world and can cause both physical and psychological symptoms. Major depressive disorder, also known as clinical depression, is a serious illness that affects millions of people each year. (The term "clinical" is used to indicate that the condition is serious enough to require clinical intervention.) But clinical depression is far more than the just feeling "depressed," "down," or "blue.") Depression can cause feelings of numbness or emptiness. It can cause a number of physical symptoms, like muscle aches and back pain. In fact, major depressive disorder is a whole-body illness that causes a surprising range of emotional and physical symptoms. Major depressive disorder alters how you think, how you feel, and how you behave.

Image by TheVisualMD

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Depression

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Depression

Image by TheVisualMD

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters Involved in Pain and Depression : It's known that in people with depression, there are changes or reductions in serotonin and norepinephrine and their receptors. Concentrations and output of the two neurotransmitters become erratic, leading to a dysregulated signaling system. The pathways of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain begin in the brain stem and project to various brain regions, including the frontal cortex, hypothalamus, and limbic regions. Symptoms of depression are associated with the frontal cortex and limbic regions. The hypothalamus is associated with loss of appetite, weight loss or gain, and loss of pleasure.

Image by TheVisualMD

Antidepressants

Treating Depression with Antidepressants : Antidepressants act on the theory that depression is caused by a lack of the key neurotransmitters responsible for mood: serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The idea is to keep these neurotransmitters "on" by preventing them from early reuptake after they are released into the synapses, or from being broken down by monoamine oxidase.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Hippocampus

The hippocampus is part of the brain's limbic system and helps to regulate emotion and to store and retrieve memories. It is located deep in the forebrain. People with depression often have a hippocampus that is reduced in size, similar to the shrinkage seen in victims of abuse and individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder. This shrinkage may explain why depressed individuals often have more difficulty processing and retaining information.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Vessel

Blood-brain barrier whose most important function is to keep unwanted substances from entering the brain. It is a layer consisting of the hundreds of small capillaries that supply blood to the brain. These blood vessels are lined with cells that \"screen\" the blood before it enters the brain to make certain that nothing harmful gets in. Antidepressants have been designed to cross this barrier.

Image by TheVisualMD

Shrunken Hippocampus

The hippocampus is part of the brain's limbic system and helps to regulate emotion and to store and retrieve memories. It is located deep in the forebrain. People with depression often have a hippocampus that is reduced in size, similar to the shrinkage seen in victims of abuse and individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder. This shrinkage may explain why depressed individuals often have more difficulty processing and retaining information.

Image by TheVisualMD

Limbic System, lateral view

The limbic system is a set of brain structures that supports a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, and long-term memory. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, fornix, hypothalamus, and thalamus.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression, Mental Health, Sadness

Image by HASTYWORDS/Pixabay

What Makes You Unique

Everything you think of as making up your essential "self," your intellect, emotions and feelings, desires, thoughts and perceptions, and dreams, all depend on a 3-pound mass of cells inside your skull: your brain. Your brain joins with your spine and billions of nerve cells, or neurons, to form your nervous system. The nervous system is both an internal network of consciousness and connections, and your sensory pathway to the outside world.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression and Neurotransmitters

Image by TheVisualMD

Treating Depression

Discover why depression is a very treatable disease. Find out why it's essential to seek medical care if you have symptoms of depression-and why so many people with depression don't. See just how untreated depression affects the physical structure of your brain. Journey inside to view, on a cellular level, how talk therapy can restore the normal functioning of your brain cells. Zoom down to the molecular level to observe the way in which antidepressants change the balance of your brain's mood-affecting neurotransmitters. View the incredible network of blood vessels that feed your energy-hungry brain, making exercise and diet an essential part of treatment. Find out why the odds of successfully treating depression are very good.

Image by TheVisualMD

Depression (mood)

Take a trip inside your head to see what happens in your brain when you have depression. Hear depression sufferers talk about living with this devastating disorder, and top experts explain how depression feeds upon itself. Travel deep into the brain to zero in on the organs implicated in emotional disorders. Voyage deeper still to witness electrical impulses racing across neurons. Depression acts like a neurotoxin: view the chemicals that can cause those neurons to wither. Learn the factors that put you at risk. Discover which organs of the brain may atrophy, while others become tooactive. Hear a message of hope from someone who knows: even people with severe depression can become symptom-free.

Image by TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

Major depressive disorder, also known as clinical depression, is a serious illness that affects millions of people each year. (The term "clinical" is used to indicate that the condition is serious enough to require clinical intervention.) But clinical depression is far more than the just feeling "depressed," "down," or "blue.") Depression can cause feelings of numbness or emptiness. It can cause a number of physical symptoms, like muscle aches and back pain. In fact, major depressive disorder is a whole-body illness that causes a surprising range of emotional and physical symptoms. Major depressive disorder alters how you think, how you feel, and how you behave.

Image by TheVisualMD

Treatment: Antidepressants

Although depression may create physical changes in the brain, there is no physical test to determine whether or not someone has depression. Depressive disorder is diagnosed by the presence of certain core emotional and behavioral symptoms. These are known as the DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria. For a diagnosis of major depression, at least five of the following symptoms must be present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning. For a diagnosis of minor depression, from two to four of these symptoms must be present. For both major and minor depression, at least one of the symptoms must be either 1) depressed mood or 2) loss of interest or pleasure.

Image by TheVisualMD

Action Potential of Neuron

Neurons consist of three elements: the cell body, axons, and dendrites. A signal is transmitted from neuron to neuron by an electrical force known as the action potential. The size of the signal is always the same; what varies is whether it's switched \"on\" or \"off.\" When a cell body receives enough stimulation--for example, when you touch a very hot teapot--voltage-gated ion channels open on its surface to let charged particles (ions) into, and then out of, the cell. The flow of these particles causes the cell to generate an electrical discharge that is transmitted down the length of the axon to its end, or terminal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nerve Components

Nerve Components : A nerve is made up of bundles of neuron axons that are grouped together and encased in protective tissue. Each nerve is made up of afferent fibers, which carry information from the outside world to the brain, and efferent fibers, which carry information from the brain to the different parts of the body. Nerve Components : A nerve is made up of bundles of neuron axons that are grouped together and encased in protective tissue. Each nerve is made up of afferent fibers, which carry information from the outside world to the brain, and efferent fibers, which carry information from the brain to the different parts of the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Neural Pathways

Your Brain, Neural Pathways, and Synapses : Information, in the form of electrical impulses, travels along neural pathways composed of interconnected neurons. Neuron cells are composed of three basic elements: the cell body, the axon, and the dendrite. Axons are long fibers, sometimes branched, which extend out of the cell body and transmit electrical impulses to the next neuron. Electrical impulses generated by a presynaptic neuron are transmitted by way of neurotransmitters (messenger chemicals) across a synaptic cleft and to the postsynaptic neuron, which then propagates the electrical signal onward to its eventual destination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Older Adults and Depression

National Institute of Mental Health

Depression Basics

National Institute of Mental Health

Teen Depression

National Institute of Mental Health

Depression Risk Factors, Symptoms, & Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Depression

PublicDomainPictures/Pixabay

4:51

What Is Depression?

TheVisualMD

Depression, Loneliness, Man, Mood

PublicDomainPictures/Pixabay

Brain Development

TheVisualMD

Types of Depression

TheVisualMD

Causes of Depression

TheVisualMD

Comparing Talk Therapy and Other Depression Treatments With Antidepressant Medicines

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)

Depression Changes Your Brain

TheVisualMD

Causes of Depression

TheVisualMD

Depression and Pain

TheVisualMD

Depression and Neurotransmitters

TheVisualMD

Postpartum Depression

TheVisualMD

Depression Changes the Brain

TheVisualMD

Treatment for Depression, Antidepressants

TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation

TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation, Wire from Electrode

TheVisualMD

Vagus Nerve Stimulation

TheVisualMD

Depression and Pain

TheVisualMD

Depression Changes the Brain

TheVisualMD

Norepinephrine Molecule

TheVisualMD

Norepinephrine Receptor

TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

TheVisualMD

Symptoms and Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

TheVisualMD

Woman Having Postpartum Depression

TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

TheVisualMD

The Depression Cascade

TheVisualMD

Finding Balance

TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

TheVisualMD

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Depression

TheVisualMD

Neurotransmitters

TheVisualMD

Antidepressants

TheVisualMD

Normal Hippocampus

TheVisualMD

Blood Vessel

TheVisualMD

Shrunken Hippocampus

TheVisualMD

Limbic System, lateral view

TheVisualMD

Depression, Mental Health, Sadness

HASTYWORDS/Pixabay

What Makes You Unique

TheVisualMD

Depression and Neurotransmitters

TheVisualMD

Treating Depression

TheVisualMD

Depression (mood)

TheVisualMD

Forms of Depression

TheVisualMD

Treatment: Antidepressants

TheVisualMD

Action Potential of Neuron

TheVisualMD

Nerve Components

TheVisualMD

Neural Pathways

TheVisualMD

Diabetes

This browser does not support the video element.

Type 2 Diabetes Testing

Video by TheVisualMD

All About Your A1C

What has your blood sugar been up to lately? Get an A1C test to find out your average levels—important to know if you’re at risk for prediabetes or type 2 diabetes, or if you’re managing diabetes.

The A1C test—also known as the hemoglobin A1C or HbA1c test—is a simple blood test that measures your average blood sugar levels over the past 3 months. It’s one of the commonly used tests to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes, and is also the main test to help you and your health care team manage your diabetes. Higher A1C levels are linked to diabetes complications, so reaching and maintaining your individual A1C goal is really important if you have diabetes.

What Does the A1C Test Measure?

When sugar enters your bloodstream, it attaches to hemoglobin, a protein in your red blood cells. Everybody has some sugar attached to their hemoglobin, but people with higher blood sugar levels have more. The A1C test measures the percentage of your red blood cells that have sugar-coated hemoglobin.

Who Should Get an A1C Test, and When?

Testing for diabetes or prediabetes:

Get a baseline A1C test if you’re an adult over age 45—or if you’re under 45, are overweight, and have one or more risk factors for prediabetes or type 2 diabetes:

If your result is normal but you’re over 45, have risk factors, or have ever had gestational diabetes, repeat the A1C test every 3 years.
If your result shows you have prediabetes, talk to your doctor about taking steps now to improve your health and lower your risk for type 2 diabetes. Repeat the A1C test as often as your doctor recommends, usually every 1 to 2 years.
If you don’t have symptoms but your result shows you have prediabetes or diabetes, get a second test on a different day to confirm the result.
If your test shows you have diabetes, ask your doctor to refer you to diabetes self-management education and support services so you can have the best start in managing your diabetes.

Managing diabetes:

If you have diabetes, get an A1C test at least twice a year, more often if your medicine changes or if you have other health conditions. Talk to your doctor about how often is right for you.

How to Prepare for Your A1C Test

The test is done in a doctor’s office or a lab using a sample of blood from a finger stick or from your arm. You don’t need to do anything special to prepare for your A1C test. However, ask your doctor if other tests will be done at the same time and if you need to prepare for them.

Your A1C Result

Diagnosing Prediabetes or Diabetes

Normal	Below 5.7%
Prediabetes	5.7% to 6.4%
Diabetes	6.5% or above

A normal A1C level is below 5.7%, a level of 5.7% to 6.4% indicates prediabetes, and a level of 6.5% or more indicates diabetes. Within the 5.7% to 6.4% prediabetes range, the higher your A1C, the greater your risk is for developing type 2 diabetes.

Managing Diabetes

Your A1C result can also be reported as estimated average glucose (eAG), the same numbers (mg/dL) you’re used to seeing on your blood sugar meter:

A1C %	eAG mg/dL
7	154
8	183
9	212
10	240

What Can Affect Your A1C Result?

Get your A1C tested in addition to—not instead of—regular blood sugar self-testing if you have diabetes.

Several factors can falsely increase or decrease your A1C result, including:

Kidney failure, liver disease, or severe anemia.
A less common type of hemoglobin that people of African, Mediterranean, or Southeast Asian descent and people with certain blood disorders (such as sickle cell anemia or thalassemia) may have.
Certain medicines, including opioids and some HIV medications.
Blood loss or blood transfusions.
Early or late pregnancy.

Let your doctor know if any of these factors apply to you, and ask if you need additional tests to find out.

Your A1C Goal

The goal for most people with diabetes is 7% or less. However, your personal goal will depend on many things such as your age and any other medical conditions. Work with your doctor to set your own individual A1C goal.

Younger people have more years with diabetes ahead, so their goal may be lower to reduce the risk of complications, unless they often have hypoglycemia (low blood sugar, or a “low”). People who are older, have severe lows, or have other serious health problems may have a higher goal.

A1C: Just Part of the Toolkit

A1C is an important tool for managing diabetes, but it doesn’t replace regular blood sugar testing at home. Blood sugar goes up and down throughout the day and night, which isn’t captured by your A1C. Two people can have the same A1C, one with steady blood sugar levels and the other with high and low swings.

If you’re reaching your A1C goal but having symptoms of highs or lows, check your blood sugar more often and at different times of day. Keep track and share the results with your doctor so you can make changes to your treatment plan if needed.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (2)

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

What is insulin resistance?

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin

A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin

A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{Hb}
5.7
6.5
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) test is a blood test that shows what your average blood sugar (glucose) level was over the past two to three months.
Glucose is a type of sugar in your blood that comes from the foods you eat. Your cells use glucose for energy. A hormone called insulin helps glucose get into your cells. If you have diabetes your body doesn't make enough insulin, or your cells don't use it well. As a result, glucose can't get into your cells, so your blood sugar levels increase.
Glucose in your blood sticks to hemoglobin, a protein in your red blood cells. As your blood glucose levels increase, more of your hemoglobin will be coated with glucose. An A1C test measures the percentage of your red blood cells that have glucose-coated hemoglobin.
An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months because:
- Glucose sticks to hemoglobin for as long as the red blood cells are alive.
- Red blood cells live about three months.
High A1C levels are a sign of high blood glucose from diabetes. Diabetes can cause serious health problems, including heart disease, kidney disease, and nerve damage. But with treatment and lifestyle changes, you can control your blood glucose levels.
An A1C test may be used to screen for or diagnose:
- Type 2 diabetes. With type 2 diabetes your blood glucose gets too high because your body doesn't make enough insulin to move blood sugar from your bloodstream into your cells, or because your cells stop responding to insulin.
- Prediabetes. Prediabetes means that your blood glucose levels are higher than normal, but not high enough to diagnosed as diabetes. Lifestyle changes, such as healthy eating and exercise, may help delay or prevent prediabetes from becoming type 2 diabetes.
If you have diabetes or prediabetes, an A1C test can help monitor your condition and check how well you've been able to control your blood sugar levels.
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends A1C testing for diabetes and prediabetes if:
- You are over age 45.
  If your results are normal, you should repeat the test every 3 years.
  If your results show you have prediabetes, you will usually need to be tested every 1 to 2 years. Ask your provider how often to get tested and what you can do to reduce your risk of developing diabetes.
  If your results show you have diabetes, you should get an A1C test at least twice a year to monitor your condition and treatment.
- You are under 45 and are more likely to develop diabetes because you:
  Have prediabetes.
  Are overweight or have obesity.
  Have a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes.
  Have high blood pressure or high cholesterol levels.
  Have heart disease or have had a stroke.
  Are physically active less than 3 times a week.
  Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy) or given birth to a baby over 9 pounds.
  Are African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian, or an Alaska Native person. Some Pacific Islander and Asian American people also have a higher risk of developing diabetes.
  Have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).
You may also need an A1C test if you have symptoms of diabetes, such as:
- Feeling very thirsty
- Urinating (peeing) a lot
- Losing weight without trying
- Feeling very hungry
- Blurred vision
- Numb or tingling hands or feet
- Fatigue
- Dry skin
- Sores that heal slowly
- Having more infections than usual
A1C results tell you what percentage of your hemoglobin is coated with glucose. The percent ranges are just a guide to what is normal. What's normal for you depends on your health, age, and other factors. Ask your provider what A1C percentage is healthy for you.
To diagnose diabetes or prediabetes, the percentages commonly used are:
- Normal: A1C below 5.7%
- Prediabetes: A1C between 5.7% and 6.4%
- Diabetes: A1C of 6.5% or higher
Providers often use more than one test to diagnose diabetes. So, if your test result was higher than normal, you may have another A1C test or a different type of diabetes test, usually either a fasting blood glucose test or an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).
If your A1C test was done to monitor your diabetes, talk with your provider about what your test results mean.
1. Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Oct 05, 2022]
2. https://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2018-ADA-Standards-of-Care.pdf [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
3. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/hemoglobin-a1c [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
4. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/tests-diagnosis/a1c-test [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Hemoglobin A1C molecule

Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

Several tests are used to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes. In June 2009, the ADA, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and the International Diabetes Federation made a joint recommendation that type 2 diabetes testing include the glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This test measures average blood glucose level during the past 2-3 months by measuring the percentage of glucose attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein pigment in red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C molecule

The A1C test is a common blood test used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes and then to gauge how well you're managing your diabetes. The A1C test goes by many other names, including glycated hemoglobin, glycosylated hemoglobin, hemoglobin A1C and HbA1c. The A1C test result reflects your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months. Specifically, the A1C test measures what percentage of your hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen, is coated with sugar (glycated). The higher your A1C level, the poorer your blood sugar control. And if you have previously diagnosed diabetes, the higher the A1C level, the higher your risk of diabetes complications.

Image by TheVisualMD

α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex

A model of α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex. There are 2 α,β-hemoglobin dimers depicted: one space filling model (yellow/orange), and one ribbon model (purple/blue). Each is bound by a haptoglobin molecule (both haptoglobin molecules are shown in pink, with one as a space filling model and one as a ribbon model).

Image by Ayacop

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Video by TheVisualMD

Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

Haemoglobin

Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube

A1c - What You Need To Know

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Type 2 Diabetes Testing

An estimated 79 million Americans, just over 25 percent of the population aged 20 years or older, have prediabetes. Prediabetes is a state where blood sugars may be a little bit elevated, but are not yet elevated to a dangerous range. It is typically asymptomatic, and if undiagnosed and untreated, prediabetes may lead to a potentially life-threatening condition called type 2 diabetes. Complications of type 2 diabetes include blindness, heart attack, and stroke. Prediabetes is readily detectable through simple blood testing with a goal of detecting abnormal glucose levels. Two common and complementary tests include fasting blood sugar and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) tests. With early detection and diagnosis, appropriate and immediate action can be made by the patient to reduce complications and to ensure a long and healthy life.

Video by TheVisualMD

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Video by Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

Video by DiabeTV/YouTube

Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim

Video by nabil ebraheim/YouTube

What Is An A1C?

Video by dLife/YouTube

A1C Levels

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

Type 1 diabetes can be diagnosed with blood tests that measure how much sugar is in your blood. They include: hemoglobin A1C, fasting blood glucose, and oral glucose tolerance. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. About 5% of adults with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. Early diagnosis is crucial for early treatment. Type 1 diabetics need to take insulin, either through a pump or injections. Regular exercise as well as a diet low in refined carbohydrates will also help control blood sugar levels. By maintaining appropriate blood sugar levels, type 1 diabetics can lead normal lives free of serious complications.

Video by TheVisualMD

The 411 On Your A1c

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

Is Your A1C AOK?

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?

Video by TEDMED/YouTube

Lactate Threshold Test

Video by Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube

How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

A Critical Balance

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Diabetes in the US

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C molecule

TheVisualMD

α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex

Ayacop

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

1:10

Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)

Healthguru/YouTube

5:31

Haemoglobin

Wellcome Trust/YouTube

1:28

A1c - What You Need To Know

Rehealthify/YouTube

5:52

Type 2 Diabetes Testing

TheVisualMD

4:31

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

1:43

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

DiabeTV/YouTube

4:41

Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim

nabil ebraheim/YouTube

3:03

What Is An A1C?

dLife/YouTube

6:09

A1C Levels

Khan Academy/YouTube

1:12

Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

TheVisualMD

1:56

The 411 On Your A1c

Lee Health/YouTube

1:41

Is Your A1C AOK?

Lee Health/YouTube

3:21

What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?

TEDMED/YouTube

1:06

Lactate Threshold Test

Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube

2:28

How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Diabetes in the US

TheVisualMD

Diabetes Tests

Diabetes Tests

Also called: Diabetes Risk Assessment, Diabetes Screening, Prediabetes Screen

Diabetes is a disease that affects how your body uses glucose, your body's main source of energy. It can cause serious health problems. Diabetes tests measure glucose levels in blood or urine to see if you are at risk for or have diabetes.

Diabetes Tests

Also called: Diabetes Risk Assessment, Diabetes Screening, Prediabetes Screen

Diabetes is a disease that affects how your body uses glucose, your body's main source of energy. It can cause serious health problems. Diabetes tests measure glucose levels in blood or urine to see if you are at risk for or have diabetes.

Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a disease that affects how your body uses glucose (blood sugar). Glucose is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If you have diabetes, your body can't make insulin or insulin doesn't work like it should. This can cause glucose levels to get too high, which can lead to serious health problems. These include heart disease, nerve damage, eye problems, and kidney disease. Diabetes tests measure glucose levels in blood or urine to see if you are at risk for or have diabetes.
Diabetes tests are used to screen for and/or diagnose the following:
- Type 1 diabetes. If you have type 1 diabetes, your body makes little or no insulin at all. This condition happens when your immune system attacks and destroys cells that produce insulin. It can develop at any age, but it most often starts in childhood. People with type 1 diabetes must take daily doses of insulin, either by injection or a special pump
- Type 2 diabetes. This is the most common form of diabetes. If you have type 2 diabetes, your body may still be able to make insulin, but the cells in your body don't respond well to insulin and can't easily take up enough glucose from your blood. Type 2 diabetes may be caused by your genes and lifestyle factors, such as being overweight or having obesity. The condition most often occurs in adulthood but is becoming more common in children and teens.
- Gestational diabetes. This is a form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy.
- Prediabetes. This is a condition in which your blood glucose levels are higher than normal, but not high enough to be considered diabetes. But it may put you at risk for getting diabetes.
You may need testing if you have symptoms of diabetes, such as:
- Increased thirst
- Frequent urination
- Increased hunger
- Fatigue
- Blurred vision
- Unexplained weight loss
- Sores that are slow to heal
- Numbness or tingling in the feet
Symptoms of type 1 diabetes usually come on quickly and can be severe. Symptoms of type 2 diabetes and prediabetes often develop slowly, even over the course of years.
Gestational diabetes doesn't usually cause symptoms in the early stages of pregnancy, but most pregnant women are screened for the condition. If testing shows glucose levels are high, you will be tested again to confirm the diagnosis.
You may also need testing if you have certain risk factors. You may be at higher risk for diabetes if you:
- Are over 45 years old. The American Diabetes Association recommends annual diabetes screening for all adults aged 45 years and older.
- Have prediabetes
- Are overweight or obese
- Have a family history of diabetes
- Have high blood pressure or heart disease
- Previously had gestational diabetes
There are several ways to screen for and diagnose diabetes. Most tests involve measuring glucose levels in the blood.
To get a blood sample, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
The different types of glucose blood tests include:
- Blood glucose test, also known as fasting blood glucose. Before the test, you will need to fast (not eat or drink) for eight hours before the test. This test is often used as a screening test for diabetes. It may be repeated to confirm a diagnosis.
- Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). This test also requires fasting before the test. When you arrive for your test, a blood sample will be taken. You will then drink a sugary liquid that contains glucose. About two hours later, another blood sample will be taken.
- Random blood sugar. This test can be taken at any time. No fasting is required.
- Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). This test measures the average amount of glucose attached to hemoglobin over the past 3 months. Hemoglobin is the part of your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. No fasting is required for this test.
Glucose may also be measured in urine. Urine tests are not used to diagnose diabetes but may show if you are at risk for getting the disease. If your glucose in urine levels are higher than normal, you will probably need a blood test to confirm the diagnosis.
For a glucose in urine test, your provider may recommend an at-home test kit. The kit will include a test strip that you hold under your stream of urine. The test strip will change colors to show different levels of glucose.
Depending on the type of test or tests you had, your results may show one of the following:
- Normal glucose levels. This means you probably are not at risk for or do not have diabetes.
- Prediabetes. This means you have higher than normal glucose levels and may be at risk for getting diabetes.
- Type 1 or type 2 diabetes
- Gestational diabetes
If you have been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, talk to your provider about how to best manage the condition. There is no cure for type 1 diabetes, but it may be controlled with regular glucose monitoring and taking insulin.
If you've been diagnosed with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes, your condition may be managed or even reversed by taking diabetes medicines and making lifestyle changes. These include eating a healthy diet, losing weight, and increasing exercise.
If you've been diagnosed with gestational diabetes, you may be able to lower your glucose levels by eating a healthy diet and getting regular exercise. But be sure to talk to your provider about treatment options. Most of the time, gestational diabetes goes away after giving birth.
If you have other questions about your diabetes diagnosis or treatment, talk to your health care provider.
1. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/prediabetes-insulin-resistance [accessed on Sep 29, 2021]
2. LabCorp: Diabetes Risk–Asymptomatic Adults [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
3. Mayo Clinic: NMR LipoProfile w/IR Markers [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
4. LipoScience: Understanding the NMR LipoProfile® test Report [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
5. LabCorp: NMR LipoProfile® (With Graph) [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]

Additional Materials (50)

Insulin Delivery Devices

Image by BruceBlaus

Insulin Is the Key

Insulin is a hormone and protein with a critical job. It unlocks the calories stored in glucose (blood sugar) so that the body’s cells, including blood, muscle, and fat cells, can access the glucose for energy. The pancreas, an organ that also produces digestive enzymes and other hormones, secretes insulin in response to dietary sugars.

Image by TheVisualMD

Importance of Insulin

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in your body. Your pancreas is always secreting a small amount of insulin, but rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell’s membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. Insulin causes • Skeletal muscle fiber cells o to take up glucose from the blood, use it for energy, and store the rest as glycogen. Skeletal muscle is the major target for glucose, taking up about 50% of the amount available. o to take up amino acids and convert them to protein• Liver cells o to take up glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen to prepare for energy needs after food has been digested and absorbed o to inhibit production of the enzymes involved in breaking glycogen back down o to inhibit the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose • Fat cells o to take up glucose from the blood and make fat • Red blood cells o to take up glucose from the blood and use it for energy • The hypothalamus o to reduce your appetite The net result of all these insulin-mediated actions is the lowering of your glucose, or blood sugar, level.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels

Type 2 diabetes begins when cells that normally respond to insulin (like muscle, fat, and liver cells) become insulin resistant. They stop letting a normal amount of glucose into their interiors, causing too much glucose to remain in the blood. We still don't understand exactly how and why this happens. It may be that something goes wrong with the insulin receptors, or with the glucose transporting process. Whatever the reasons, the pancreas responds to the increased levels of glucose in the blood by producing ever-greater amounts of insulin.

Image by TheVisualMD

All Carbs are Sugars

Most people make an immediate association between sugar and sweetness, and with good reason. Sucrose, the table sugar you put in a cup of tea, has a flavor that appeals from the very first taste. It`s no mistake, after all, that evolution included sugar in mother`s milk, increasing a newborn`s draw to the mother`s nourishing breast. In scientific terms, sugars are not identified by flavor but by their chemical makeup. All sugars are based on a simple union of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules (C, H, and O). The sweetness of sugars will vary depending on how many molecules each of C, H, and O are in the sugar`s chemical formula.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin (Medicine)

Insulin is the Key : Insulin is a hormone and protein with a critical job. It unlocks the calories stored in glucose (blood sugar) so that the body`s cells, including blood, muscle, and fat cells, can access the glucose for energy. The pancreas, an organ that also produces digestive enzymes and other hormones, secretes insulin in response to dietary sugars. After we eat, most of the carbohydrates (sugars) in food are absorbed from the intestines into the bloodstream. The pancreas detects this increase in blood sugar and secretes insulin in response. Most cells of the body have insulin receptors, which bind to the insulin. The cell then turns on other receptors that absorb the glucose from the blood stream into the cell. Just like the cells need oxygen from the air we breathe, they need glucose from the carbohydrates we eat. Insulin is essential to the process, allowing glucose to enter the cells. Without insulin, you could starve, even if you ate lots of food.

Image by TheVisualMD

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What Is Insulin?

After eating, carbohydrates are broken down into smaller sugar molecules. One sugar, sucrose-also known as table sugar-is broken down into two simple sugars: fructose and glucose. Glucose can be used by every cell in your body and is the molecule that we refer to as blood sugar. Glucose is absorbed into the intestines and enters the bloodstream. This triggers cells in the pancreas to produce insulin. Insulin tells cells to take in glucose for energy.

Video by TheVisualMD

Insulin Resistance, [Left] Insulin and glucose levels in the bloodstream are balanced; [Right] Insulin and glucose build up in the bloodstream and cause blood vessel damage.

[Left] Insulin and glucose levels in the bloodstream are balanced; [Right] Insulin and glucose build up in the bloodstream and cause blood vessel damage.

Image by TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of insulin resistance and prediabetes?

insulin resistance model

Image by Posted by jessdavisva

Blood Glucose

The Homostatic Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels

Image by OpenStax College

Blood glucose monitoring

Blood glucose testing by blood glucose meter.

Image by Biswarup Ganguly

Drawing of a person injecting insulin

Drawing of a person injecting insulin with a needle and syringe through an injection port attached to the abdomen. The port has a round adhesive patch covering a cannula inserted under the skin. Using an injection port reduces the number of skin punctures to one every few days to apply a new port. The user injects insulin through the port.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Pancreas and blood glucose

Drawing showing how the pancreas responds to low or high blood glucose levels. Insulin and glucagon help regulate blood glucose levels.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Insulin

Insulin is made by your pancreas - an organ located just behind your stomach. Insulin is a hormone that allows your cells to absorb sugar from the blood, thus lowering the sugar levels. Your cells then convert the sugars into energy or other types of molecules for storage. Diabetics either produce insufficient insulin, or the cells in their body no longer respond normally to insulin. High blood sugar stresses and damages cells, especially the filtering capillaries in the kidneys and the capillaries in the back of your eyes. Thus, many diabetics suffer from chronic kidney disease, which then increases their blood pressure. Damage from the high blood sugar compounded with the increasing blood pressure can lead to vision loss. People with diabetes often also have high blood cholesterol that contributes to atherosclerosis, thereby increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

This image shows capillaries in fat tissue with a cross section showing red blood cells, pink particles representing blood glucose and purple particles representing insulin. Normally, fat and muscle cells utilize glucose (pink) avoiding glucose build-up in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump

This image shows an Insulin receptor (larger) and glucose pump in the wall of a fat cell. Insulin is able to bind to the receptor which causes the glucose pump to allow glucose into the fat cell from the bloodstream. The fat cell will either store the glucose or utilize the glucose for energy.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump of Diabetic Person

This image shows an Insulin receptor (larger) and glucose pump in the wall of a fat cell of someone with type two diabetes with glucose unable to enter the fat cells. In type two diabetes insulin might not be available to bind to the receptor, the insulin receptor may be flawed, or there may be a flaw in the glucose transporter system that brings sugar into the cells for processing. The result is that the glucose is unable to enter the cells

Image by TheVisualMD

Working Insulin Receptor in Fat Cell Wall

This image shows a working insulin receptor and glucose pump in a fat cell wall.bringing glucose from the blood into the fat cell. Synthetic insulin (green) makes it possible for the impaired insulin receptor to begin to work again and thus opens the channels so that glucose (pink) moves from the blood to cells. The amount of blood sugar in the bloodstream is managed at healthy levels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Function Within Healthy and Unhealthy Diabetic Capillaries

A comparison of healthy and unhealthy diabetic capillaries within fat cells. The inset images show an insulin receptor (larger) and glucose pump (smaller) in the wall of one of the fat cells. Normally, insulin is able to bind to the receptor, which causes the glucose pump to permit glucose to enter the fat cell from the bloodstream. The fat cell will either store the glucose or utilize it for energy. In diabetes, the insulin is either not produced or cannot be utilized properly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump of Diabetic Person

Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Diabetics must maintain normal blood sugar levels through dietary control and insulin injection. Diabetes current affects 25 million Americans; complications include kidney failure, blindness, and amputation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Binding to Insulin Receptor

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule

The hormone insulin is critical in the delivery of glucose to the cells, essentially providing a pathway for the sugar through the cell wall. In a healthy body, insulin is always in harmonic counterbalance to glucose: Too little insulin is associated with too much blood sugar, and too much insulin with too little blood sugar. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, nitrogen atoms are blue, sulfur atoms are yellow, and oxygen atoms are red.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cell Membrane Cross-Section Showing Insulin Signaling Vesicle

This image features a cross-section of a cell membrane where insulin molecules (yellow) have bound with receptors in the cell membrane. This binding initiates a complex relay which ultimately signals vesicles (white \"orb\" partially visible at bottom of image) inside the cell. These vesicles and the glucose transporters that they carry travel to the cell surface, where they fuse with the cell membrane. The vesicles deposit the glucose transporters, which act like a door by allowing glucose (pink) to pass through the membrane and enter the cell. Through this process, insulin is the key to \"unlocking\" our cells; it allows glucose to be transferred from the bloodstream into the cells, where the sugar provides energy for movement, growth, repair, and more.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diabetic blood reading

For someone with diabetes, regularly checking blood sugar levels is very important. It allows quick responses to blood sugar levels that are too low (hypoglycemia) or too high (hyperglycemia). Adjustments can include diet, exercise, oral medications, or insulin, as instructed by a healthcare provider. Keeping track of blood sugar levels also permits someone with diabetes to see patterns in blood sugar levels, and this helps in planning meals, activities, and medication times. People with diabetes should consult with their healthcare professionals to know how often they should test their blood sugar levels. Those with type 2 diabetes should test their glucose levels at least once a day. Those who use insulin need to test more often, from 3 to 10 times a day, in order to see how well their previous insulin injection worked and to see when they need to inject again. There are many different types of blood sugar monitors, but all work essentially the same way. A finger or another area of the body is pricked with a lancet and a small drop of blood is placed on a disposable test strip. The monitor measures the electrical current that runs through the strip and translates that measurement into the concentration of glucose in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Normal Conditions

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Activated Glucose Transporter

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Inhibited Glucose Transporter

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. In type 2 diabetes, cells that normally respond to insulin (like muscle, fat, and liver cells) become insulin resistant. They stop letting a normal amount of glucose into their interiors, causing too much glucose to remain in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Type 2 Diabetes

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. In type 2 diabetes, cells that normally respond to insulin (like muscle, fat, and liver cells) become insulin resistant. They stop letting a normal amount of glucose into their interiors, causing too much glucose to remain in the blood. The pancreas responds to the increased levels of glucose in the blood by producing ever-greater amounts of insulin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. The pancreas is always secreting a small amount of insulin, but rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule, Yellow

The hormone insulin is critical in the delivery of glucose to the cells, essentially providing a pathway for the sugar through the cell wall. In a healthy body, insulin is always in harmonic counterbalance to glucose: Too little insulin is associated with too much blood sugar, and too much insulin with too little blood sugar.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule, Yellow

The hormone insulin is critical in the delivery of glucose to the cells, essentially providing a pathway for the sugar through the cell wall. In a healthy body, insulin is always in harmonic counterbalance to glucose: Too little insulin is associated with too much blood sugar, and too much insulin with too little blood sugar.

Image by TheVisualMD

Injecting Insulin Using a Syringe

Video by Covenant Health/YouTube

How Insulin Gets Glucose Into a Cell

Video by FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

Insulin Production and Type 1 Diabetes

Video by WEHImovies/YouTube

How sugar affects the brain - Nicole Avena

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Insulin Receptor and Type 2 Diabetes

Video by WEHImovies/YouTube

Glucose animation

Video by Ranamm/YouTube

The Chemistry of Addiction

Video by SciShow/YouTube

PostCare™ Diabetes Center: Injecting Insulin

Video by PostCare™ Discharge Series/YouTube

Insulin and the Regulation of Glucose in the Blood

Video by MarkHoelzer/YouTube

Insulin and Glucagon Overview

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Social Interaction and the 'Bliss Molecule'

Video by SciShow/YouTube

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Insulin and Glucagon | Physiology | Biology | FuseSchool

Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

A pathological state in which BLOOD GLUCOSE level is less than approximately 140 mg/100 ml of PLASMA at fasting, and above approximately 200 mg/100 ml plasma at 30-, 60-, or 90-minute during a GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST. This condition is seen frequently in DIABETES MELLITUS, but also occurs with other diseases and MALNUTRITION. (NCBI/NIH)

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What Is Insulin Resistance?

When you eat carbohydrates, they are broken down into sugars. Glucose is a principal sugar in the carbohydrate family and it can be taken up by every cell in the body and burnt as fuel. As the glucose enters your body it raises your blood sugar levels. In response, specialized cells in your pancreas produce insulin, a hormone that signals cells in the body to absorb glucose for energy. Insulin also tells your body to store fat, preventing you from burning it as fuel. When you consistently eat refined carbohydrates (like candies and foods made with white flour), your blood stream is quickly flooded with glucose. Spikes of glucose in the blood stream spur the pancreas to produce more insulin. Insulin receptors on the cell surface that have been bombarded with insulin for years start to burn out and ignore insulin's signals. The pancreas secretes more and more insulin, trying to bring more glucose into the cell but only causing the receptors to degrade more. As a result you have partial or full blown insulin resistance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Peter Attia: What if we're wrong about diabetes?

Video by TED/YouTube

A Critical Balance

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Diabetes in the US

Interactive by TheVisualMD

How Fructose Makes You Fat

Fructose is a carbohydrate, but it is  turned into fats by the liver. The more fructose you eat over time, the more fats  the liver secretes.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Insulin Delivery Devices

BruceBlaus

Insulin Is the Key

TheVisualMD

Importance of Insulin

TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels

TheVisualMD

All Carbs are Sugars

TheVisualMD

Insulin (Medicine)

TheVisualMD

1:44

What Is Insulin?

TheVisualMD

Insulin Resistance, [Left] Insulin and glucose levels in the bloodstream are balanced; [Right] Insulin and glucose build up in the bloodstream and cause blood vessel damage.

TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of insulin resistance and prediabetes?

Posted by jessdavisva

Blood Glucose

OpenStax College

Blood glucose monitoring

Biswarup Ganguly

Drawing of a person injecting insulin

NIDDK Image Library

Pancreas and blood glucose

NIDDK Image Library

Insulin

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

TheVisualMD

Normal Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump

TheVisualMD

Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump of Diabetic Person

TheVisualMD

Working Insulin Receptor in Fat Cell Wall

TheVisualMD

Insulin Function Within Healthy and Unhealthy Diabetic Capillaries

TheVisualMD

Insulin Receptor and Glucose Pump of Diabetic Person

TheVisualMD

Insulin Binding to Insulin Receptor

TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Cell Membrane Cross-Section Showing Insulin Signaling Vesicle

TheVisualMD

Diabetic blood reading

TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Normal Conditions

TheVisualMD

Activated Glucose Transporter

TheVisualMD

Inhibited Glucose Transporter

TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Type 2 Diabetes

TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule, Yellow

TheVisualMD

Insulin Molecule, Yellow

TheVisualMD

5:39

Injecting Insulin Using a Syringe

Covenant Health/YouTube

5:22

How Insulin Gets Glucose Into a Cell

FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

4:13

Insulin Production and Type 1 Diabetes

WEHImovies/YouTube

5:03

How sugar affects the brain - Nicole Avena

TED-Ed/YouTube

3:58

Insulin Receptor and Type 2 Diabetes

WEHImovies/YouTube

0:57

Glucose animation

Ranamm/YouTube

11:50

The Chemistry of Addiction

SciShow/YouTube

4:54

PostCare™ Diabetes Center: Injecting Insulin

PostCare™ Discharge Series/YouTube

2:36

Insulin and the Regulation of Glucose in the Blood

MarkHoelzer/YouTube

4:43

Insulin and Glucagon Overview

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

4:20

Social Interaction and the 'Bliss Molecule'

SciShow/YouTube

7:24

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Khan Academy/YouTube

2:11

Insulin and Glucagon | Physiology | Biology | FuseSchool

FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

TheVisualMD

What Is Insulin Resistance?

TheVisualMD

15:59

Peter Attia: What if we're wrong about diabetes?

TED/YouTube

Diabetes in the US

TheVisualMD

How Fructose Makes You Fat

TheVisualMD

Blood Glucose Test

Blood Glucose Test

Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)

A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.

Blood Glucose Test

Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)

A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
70
100
125
Your result is Normal.
A healthy (normal) fasting blood glucose level for someone without diabetes is 70 to 99 mg/dL (3.9 to 5.5 mmol/L). Values between 50 and 70 mg/dL (2.8 to 3.9 mmol/L) for people without diabetes can be "normal" too.
Related conditions
{"label":"Glucose (random) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":30,"max":80},"text":"Low blood sugar, also known as hypoglycemia, can be a dangerous condition. Low blood sugar can happen in people with diabetes who take medicines that increase insulin levels in the body.","conditions":["Medications, such as quinine","Hepatitis or kidney disorders","Tumor that produces excess insulin","Endocrine disorders, such as adrenal gland deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":140},"text":"In a random blood glucose test, a normal result depends on when you last ate. You may start your day at below 100 mg\/dL in the morning before breakfast and your blood glucose may rise as high as 140 mg\/dL about 2 hours after meals during the day. Most of the time, the blood glucose level will be below 125 mg\/dL (6.9 mmol\/L).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"A level of between 140\u2013200 mg\/dl is considered pre-diabetes.","conditions":["Prediabetes"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VH","long":"Very high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":200,"max":500},"text":"A level of 200 mg\/dL (11 mmol\/L) or higher paired with the classic symptoms of high blood sugar (excessive thirst, urination at night, blurred vision and, in some cases, weight loss) often means you have diabetes.","conditions":["Diabetes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":110,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
80
140
200
Your result is Normal.
In a random blood glucose test, a normal result depends on when you last ate. You may start your day at below 100 mg/dL in the morning before breakfast and your blood glucose may rise as high as 140 mg/dL about 2 hours after meals during the day. Most of the time, the blood glucose level will be below 125 mg/dL (6.9 mmol/L).
Related conditions
{"label":"Glucose (postprandial) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":65,"max":140},"text":"Within 2 hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. Normal blood glucose values in people who don't have diabetes are less than 140 mg\/dL, and in people with diabetes are less than 180 mg\/dL.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":140,"max":200},"text":"If your blood glucose level is still high 2 hours after you've eaten, it could mean you have diabetes.","conditions":["High blood sugar","Type 2 diabetes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"value":102.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
140
Your result is Normal.
Within 2 hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. Normal blood glucose values in people who don't have diabetes are less than 140 mg/dL, and in people with diabetes are less than 180 mg/dL.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a blood glucose test if you have symptoms of high glucose levels or low glucose levels.
Symptoms of high blood glucose levels include:
- Increased thirst and urination (peeing)
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
- Sores that don't heal
- Weight loss when you're not trying to lose weight
- Numbness or tingling in your feet or hands
Symptoms of low blood glucose levels include:
- Feeling shaky or jittery
- Hunger
- Fatigue
- Feeling dizzy, confused, or irritable
- Headache
- A fast heartbeat or arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Having trouble seeing or speaking clearly
- Fainting or seizures
You may also need a blood glucose test if you have a high risk for developing type 2 diabetes. You're more likely to develop diabetes if you:
- Are overweight or have obesity
- Are age 45 or older
- Have a family history of diabetes
- Have high blood pressure
- Don't exercise enough
- Have a history of heart disease or stroke
- Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes that happens only during pregnancy)
If you are pregnant, you will likely get a blood glucose test between the 24th and 28th week of your pregnancy to check for gestational diabetes.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
For some types of glucose blood tests, you will drink a sugary liquid and wait for an hour before your blood sample is taken:
- A glucose challenge test is used to test for gestational diabetes in pregnancy. If your blood glucose level is higher than normal, you may have gestational diabetes. You'll need an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to get a diagnosis.
- An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is used to diagnose gestational diabetes, and type 2 diabetes and prediabetes in people who aren't pregnant. A blood sample will be taken before you have a sugary drink and then again, every hour for the next 2 or 3 hours.
If your results show higher than normal glucose levels, it may mean you have or are at risk for getting diabetes. High glucose levels may also be a sign of:
- Hyperthyroidism
- Pancreas disorders
- Stress from surgery, very serious illness, or trauma
If you have diabetes, lower than normal glucose levels may be caused by:
- Side effects from certain diabetes medicines
- Not eating enough, especially after taking diabetes medicine
- Being more physically active than usual
If you don't have diabetes, low blood glucose levels may be a sign of:
- Liver disease
- Kidney disease
- Underactive adrenal, pituitary, or thyroid gland (hypothyroidism)
- Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
If your glucose results are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines and stress can affect glucose levels. To learn what your test results mean, talk with your health care provider.
If you have diabetes, you may need to do blood sugar testing at home every day to help manage your blood glucose levels. There are two ways to do this:
- Blood glucose meters require you to prick your finger with a small device called a lancet. You apply a drop of blood to a test strip and insert it into a small, electronic glucose meter, which measures the glucose is in your blood.
- Continuous glucose monitors (CGM) use a tiny sensor that you insert under your skin. Every few minutes, the sensor measures glucose levels in fluids between your cells. If your glucose is too high or too low, you use a blood glucose meter to check your blood levels before making changes to raise or lower your glucose level.
1. Blood sugar test: Health Article | MedlinePlus - NIH [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
2. Random glucose test - Wikipedia [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
3. 001032: Glucose | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
4. 001818: Glucose, Plasma | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
5. 090400: Diabetes Risk–Asymptomatic Adults | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
6. Glucose (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
7. Blood Glucose Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 12, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

Glucose: Pancreas

The pancreas is a large gland (located behind the stomach) that secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum (small intestine), which then combine with bile, produced in the liver. The pancreas also produces the hormone insulin, which helps control blood sugar levels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)

Our brains need a continuous supply of fuel in the form of glucose because they can't store energy as fat or glycogen. Though the brain represents only about 2% of the body's mass, it consumes 60% of the sugar coursing through our bloodstreams.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Insulin & Glucose

The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Blood levels of glucose rise after meals, but insulin keeps glucose levels within a narrow range; excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Diabetes and insulin injection

There are 3 main types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes develops when the body's immune system destroys the pancreatic cells that produce the hormone insulin. Type 2 diabetes develops when cells can no longer use insulin effectively, which can result in the pancreas gradually losing its ability to produce insulin. Both types of diabetes can require insulin injections to compensate for this deficiency. A third type, gestational diabetes, is a form of glucose intolerance that appears in some women during pregnancy.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin from a healthy pancreas keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, this balance is disrupted because either the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage blood vessels in the kidneys and eyes, as well as nerve cells; acute disruptions of the insulin/glucose balance can be life threatening. Blood and urine tests can determine whether someone is diabetic or pre-diabetic. Diabetes is looming as a major public health concern; an estimated 25 million people in the U.S. have diabetes, with more than a quarter of them undiagnosed.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Fasting Plasma Glucose

The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, also known as the fasting blood sugar test, measures blood sugar levels and is used to diagnose diabetes.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

What Is Type 2 Diabetes?

Go deep inside your body to see how type 2 diabetes happens, what it does to your body-and what you can do about it. Diabetes expert Dr. David Katz of the Yale Prevention Research Center talks about the frightening future of diabetes: in just a few decades, one third of all Americans may have diabetes. See the pancreas, where insulin is produced. Real imaging data reveals the body's inner anatomy slice by slice, from brain to base of spine. Dr. Cynthia Geyer of Canyon Ranch talks about how insulin resistance develops. View its results, as visceral abdominal fat builds up and chokes the vital organs. Discover the symptoms of type 2 diabetes and find out if you should be tested. See the complications of diabetes, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, vision damage, kidney disease, and gangrene. The good news? Diabetes is a highly manageable disease. Dr. Mark Liponis of Canyon Ranch talks about controlling your risk for type 2 diabetes and, by managing it, reversing its symptoms and literally slowing the aging process.

Video by TheVisualMD

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What are Carbohydrates?

Most of the foods we consume, including fruits and vegetables, contain carbohydrates. Once metabolized, these macronutrients become the body's primary source of energy, providing food to cells. And while nature never produced any "good" or "bad" carbs, it's also true that excessive carbohydrate consumption can lead to unwanted weight gain. Before you strike carbs from your diet, though, learn more about how this important nutrient supports your good health.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Simple Carbohydrates

Because only the smallest molecules of sugar can pass through the intestinal walls and into the blood stream, foods ingested as simple carbohydrates (single- and double-molecule sugars) can be used immediately while complex carbohydrates (three or more molecules) require more time and action to break down and be absorbed. Some simple sugars occur naturally in vegetables, milk, honey, and other unprocessed foods. Synthetic sweeteners such as corn syrup and high fructose are simple sugars as well. Simple carbs cause a rapid rise and fall in glucose, leaving you feeling hungry faster.

Video by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Pancreas

TheVisualMD

Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)

TheVisualMD

Glucose: Insulin & Glucose

TheVisualMD

9:19

Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy

Khan Academy/YouTube

7:24

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Khan Academy/YouTube

5:11

How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood

TED-Ed/YouTube

Diabetes and insulin injection

TheVisualMD

1:36

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

0:23

Fasting Plasma Glucose

TheVisualMD

4:22

What Is Type 2 Diabetes?

TheVisualMD

1:11

What are Carbohydrates?

TheVisualMD

1:09

Simple Carbohydrates

TheVisualMD

Glucose Tolerance Test

Glucose Tolerance Test

Also called: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test, OGTT

The oral glucose tolerance test consists of a series of steps that involve drinking a load of 75 grams of glucose (sugar). This test is commonly used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes as well as gestational diabetes.

Glucose Tolerance Test

Also called: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test, OGTT

The oral glucose tolerance test consists of a series of steps that involve drinking a load of 75 grams of glucose (sugar). This test is commonly used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes as well as gestational diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
140
200
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to order this test to diagnose prediabetes, type 1 diabetes, and type 2 diabetes in the following situations:
- If you have symptoms of diabetes, such as polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (excessive thirst), and polyphagia (excessive hungriness).
- For all people older than 45-years-old, despite not having any symptoms.
- If you are younger than 45-years-old and don’t have any symptoms of diabetes but are overweight or obese and have one or more risk factors, which includes:
  Having a close relative with diabetes.
  Hypertension (high blood pressure).
  History of cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke.
  High triglyceride levels.
  Low levels of HDL cholesterol, also known as “good cholesterol.”
  Physical inactivity
  Polycystic ovary syndrome in women.
- To diagnose gestational diabetes (onset of diabetes during pregnancy).
Two-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) reference ranges are:
- Less than 140 mg/dL (or 7.8 mmol/L): normal.
- From 140 to 199 mg/dL (or from 7.8 to 11.1 mmol/L): prediabetes. This means that your blood glucose levels (glycemia) is too high to be considered normal but still doesn’t met the criteria for diabetes.
- Greater or equal than 200 mg/dL (or 11.1 mmol/L) on more than one testing occasion: diabetes.
Usually, when the first two-hour OGTT result is greater or equal than 200 mg/dL, and in the absence of symptoms of hyperglycemia (high blood sugar), a second test must be performed to confirm the diabetes diagnosis.
1. LabCorp: Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT), Two-hour (Oral WHO Protocol) [accessed on Sep 01, 2018]
2. https://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2018-ADA-Standards-of-Care.pdf [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
3. Glucose Tolerance Test: Purpose, Procedure, and Risks [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
4. Glucose tolerance test - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
5. RACGP - Oral glucose tolerance testing [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
6. Glucose tolerance test - non-pregnant: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
7. Glucose Tests [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

The glucose tolerance test is a lab test to check how your body breaks down sugar. The most common glucose tolerance test is the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Vessel Dispersion

Our bodies and brains run on glucose. Our ability to use glucose as a source of energy depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Levels of insulin and glucose in the blood must be maintained in careful balance. Chronic conditions of too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage the heart, kidneys, eyes, nerves, and blood vessels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Random glucose (pink) in a capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

Several tests are used to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes. In June 2009, the ADA, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and the International Diabetes Federation made a joint recommendation that type 2 diabetes testing include the glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This test measures average blood glucose level during the past 2-3 months by measuring the percentage of glucose attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein pigment in red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Glucose tolerance test

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test : The glucose tolerance test is a lab test to check how your body breaks down sugar. The most common glucose tolerance test is the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).

Video by TheVisualMD

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Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin from a healthy pancreas keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, this balance is disrupted because either the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage blood vessels in the kidneys and eyes, as well as nerve cells; acute disruptions of the insulin/glucose balance can be life threatening. Blood and urine tests can determine whether someone is diabetic or pre-diabetic. Diabetes is looming as a major public health concern; an estimated 25 million people in the U.S. have diabetes, with more than a quarter of them undiagnosed.

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Fasting Plasma Glucose

The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, also known as the fasting blood sugar test, measures blood sugar levels and is used to diagnose diabetes.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

Type 1 diabetes can be diagnosed with blood tests that measure how much sugar is in your blood. They include: hemoglobin A1C, fasting blood glucose, and oral glucose tolerance. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. About 5% of adults with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. Early diagnosis is crucial for early treatment. Type 1 diabetics need to take insulin, either through a pump or injections. Regular exercise as well as a diet low in refined carbohydrates will also help control blood sugar levels. By maintaining appropriate blood sugar levels, type 1 diabetics can lead normal lives free of serious complications.

Video by TheVisualMD

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What Is Type 2 Diabetes?

Go deep inside your body to see how type 2 diabetes happens, what it does to your body-and what you can do about it. Diabetes expert Dr. David Katz of the Yale Prevention Research Center talks about the frightening future of diabetes: in just a few decades, one third of all Americans may have diabetes. See the pancreas, where insulin is produced. Real imaging data reveals the body's inner anatomy slice by slice, from brain to base of spine. Dr. Cynthia Geyer of Canyon Ranch talks about how insulin resistance develops. View its results, as visceral abdominal fat builds up and chokes the vital organs. Discover the symptoms of type 2 diabetes and find out if you should be tested. See the complications of diabetes, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, vision damage, kidney disease, and gangrene. The good news? Diabetes is a highly manageable disease. Dr. Mark Liponis of Canyon Ranch talks about controlling your risk for type 2 diabetes and, by managing it, reversing its symptoms and literally slowing the aging process.

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Exercise & Diabetes

The body is powered by glucose, commonly called blood sugar, which it converts to fuel. In diabetics, the system of signaling the cells to take up glucose from the blood is impaired, disrupting this vital chain of events. Researchers have found that exercise helps diabetics' insulin sensitivity, meaning that their bodies are better able to gather up this glucose for energy. In fact, those who exercise at least 5 days a week and improve their diet improved their health more than diabetics who took medication only.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Managing Diabetes

The first step in managing type 2 diabetes is accepting the fact that you have diabetes. Diabetics need to take an active role in managing their condition. Regular doctor visits are a must to check on blood pressure and cholesterol levels and to monitor eye health. Dr. Michael Stein of Brown University talks about stabilizing kidney function. Blood sugar levels need to be monitored using self-testing kits. According to Dr. Osama Hamdy of the Joslin Diabetes Center, the best treatments for type 2 diabetes are diet and exercise, not medications. Cynthia Geyer of Canyon Ranch explains how exercise enables tissues to take up glucose independent of insulin receptors. Eating small sensible meals helps to keep blood sugar levels and weight under control. Losing 7% of body weight can increase insulin sensitivity by 50%--that's equivalent to two diabetes medications at maximum dose. Dr. Mark Liponis of Canyon Ranch tells us the good news about diabetes: we have the ability to improve diabetes, and that isn't true of many conditions.

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Blood glucose monitoring

Self Test Blood Glucose Level : Unlike many other diseases, type 2 diabetes is treatable, and its symptoms can be reduced or even eliminated. The key is monitoring your blood sugar level by self-testing. When you keep your glucose level down, you can prevent serious health consequences and health care costs: For every 1% reduction in HbA1C levels, there is a 30% reduction in complications such as eye disease and nerve damage, and a 16% drop in complications such as heart disease.

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Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Infomercial

Video by Dokie PH/YouTube

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Video by Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

A Critical Balance

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5

6

7

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Diabetes in the US

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel

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Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic. 2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal. 3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Vessel Dispersion

TheVisualMD

Random glucose (pink) in a capillary

TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

TheVisualMD

0:27

Glucose tolerance test

TheVisualMD

1:36

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

0:23

Fasting Plasma Glucose

TheVisualMD

1:12

Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

TheVisualMD

4:22

What Is Type 2 Diabetes?

TheVisualMD

1:14

Exercise & Diabetes

TheVisualMD

3:08

Managing Diabetes

TheVisualMD

0:38

Blood glucose monitoring

TheVisualMD

1:46

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Infomercial

Dokie PH/YouTube

4:31

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

Diabetes in the US

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

TheVisualMD

Glucose Challenge Test

Glucose Challenge Test

Also called: GCT, Gestational Diabetes Screen

The glucose challenge test comprises a series of steps which involve drinking a load of glucose (sugar) to see how the body reacts to it. This test is commonly used to diagnose gestational diabetes in pregnant women without a preexisting diabetes diagnosis.

Glucose Challenge Test

Also called: GCT, Gestational Diabetes Screen

The glucose challenge test comprises a series of steps which involve drinking a load of glucose (sugar) to see how the body reacts to it. This test is commonly used to diagnose gestational diabetes in pregnant women without a preexisting diabetes diagnosis.

A glucose challenge test measures how well your body is able to absorb glucose (sugar) from your regular diet.
In pregnant women GDM diagnosis can be accomplished with either of two strategies:
One-step strategy:
After drinking a syrupy solution containing 75 grams of glucose, your blood glucose levels will be measured at 1 and 2 hours. You must be fasting prior to this test.
The one-step glucose challenge reference ranges and are as follows:
- Fasting blood glucose: normal values are considered to be less than 92 mg/dL (5.1 mmol/L).
- 1 hour after oral glucose intake: normal values are less than 180 mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L).
- 2 hours after oral glucose intake: normal values are less than 153 mg/dL (8.5 mmol/L).
When any of these values are exceeded in pregnant women, the diagnosis of gestational diabetes is made.
Two-step strategy:
Step 1
After drinking a syrupy solution containing 50 grams of glucose, your blood glucose levels will be measured after 1 hour. You don’t need to be fasting prior to this test.
If your blood glucose levels exceed 130 mg/dL (7.2 mmol/L), the second step must be performed.
Step 2
After drinking a syrupy solution containing 100 grams of glucose, your blood glucose levels will be measured at 1, 2, and 3 hours. You must be fasting prior to this test.
- Fasting blood glucose: normal values are considered to be less than 95 mg/dL (5.3 mmol/L).
- 1 hour after oral glucose intake: normal values are less than 180 mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L).
- 2 hours after oral glucose intake: normal values are less than 155 mg/dL (8.6 mmol/L).
- 3 hours after oral glucose intake: normal values are less than 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L).
When at least one (in some cases two) of these values are exceeded in pregnant women, the diagnosis of gestational diabetes is made.
1. https://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2018-ADA-Standards-of-Care.pdf [accessed on Oct 22, 2018]
2. 102277: Gestational Diabetes Screen (ACOG Recommendations) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 02, 2018]
3. Glucose challenge test - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Oct 22, 2018]
4. 50 Grams Oral Glucose Challenge Test: Is It an Effective Screening Test for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus? [accessed on Oct 22, 2018]

Additional Materials (3)

Baby Development in the Womb

TheVisualMD

1:47

Glucose Challenge Test during Pregnancy | 1mg Lab Test

Tata 1mg/YouTube

1:13

I get a glucose test at my 26 week checkup. What can I eat, and when should I stop eating?

IntermountainMoms/YouTube

Glucose in Urine Test

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
- Increased thirst
- More frequent urination
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
- Diabetes
- Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
- A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.

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Diabetes Symptoms

(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

TheVisualMD

Glucose Self-Monitoring Test

Glucose Self-Monitoring Test

Also called: Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose, SMBG, Glucometer

Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is an important component of modern therapy for diabetes mellitus. SMBG has been recommended for people with diabetes and their health care professionals in order to achieve a specific level of glycemic control and to prevent hypoglycemia.

Glucose Self-Monitoring Test

Also called: Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose, SMBG, Glucometer

Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is an important component of modern therapy for diabetes mellitus. SMBG has been recommended for people with diabetes and their health care professionals in order to achieve a specific level of glycemic control and to prevent hypoglycemia.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
54
80
130
250
600
Your result is Normal.
Your health care provider will identify the appropriate glucose range when you are prescribed a glucose meter.
Related conditions
You should take this test if you have diabetes and you need to monitor your blood sugar (glucose) levels. You and your doctor can use the results to:
- determine your daily adjustments in treatment
- know if you have dangerously high or low levels of glucose
- understand how your diet and exercise change your glucose levels
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (1993) showed that good glucose control using home monitors led to fewer disease complications.
The accuracy of this test depends on many factors including:
- the quality of your meter
- the quality of your test strips
- how well you perform the test. For example, you should wash and dry your hands before testing and closely follow the instructions for operating your meter.
- your hematocrit (the amount of red blood cells in the blood). If you are severely dehydrated or anemic, your test results may be less accurate. Your health care provider can tell you if your hematocrit is low or high, and can discuss with you how it may affect your glucose testing.
- interfering substances (Some substances, such as Vitamin C, Tylenol, and uric acid, may interfere with your glucose testing). Check the instructions for your meter and test strips to find out what substances may affect the testing accuracy.
- altitude, temperature, and humidity (High altitude, low and high temperatures, and humidity can cause unpredictable effects on glucose results). Check the meter manual and test strip package insert for more information.
- store and handle the meter and strips according to manufacturer's instructions. It is important to store test strip vials closed.
There are many different types of meters available for purchase that differ in several ways, including:
- accuracy
- amount of blood needed for each test
- how easy it is to use
- pain associated with using the product
- testing speed
- overall size
- ability to store test results in memory
- likelihood of interferences
- ability to transmit data to a computer
- cost of the meter
- cost of the test strips used
- doctor's recommendation
- technical support provided by the manufacturer
- special features such as automatic timing, error codes, large display screen, or spoken instructions or results
Talk to your health care provider about the right glucose meter for you, and how to use it.
There are three ways to make sure your meter works properly:
1. Use liquid control solutions:
  every time you open a new container of test strips
  occasionally as you use the container of test strips
  if you drop the meter
  whenever you get unusual results
  To test a liquid control solution, you test a drop of these solutions just like you test a drop of your blood. The value you get should match the value written on the test strip vial label.
2. Use electronic checks. Every time you turn on your meter, it does an electronic check. If it detects a problem it will give you an error code. Look in your meter's manual to see what the error codes mean and how to fix the problem. If you are unsure if your meter is working properly, call the toll-free number in your meter's manual, or contact your health care provider.
3. Compare your meter with a blood glucose test performed in a laboratory. Take your meter with you to your next appointment with your health care provider. Ask your provider to watch your testing technique to make sure you are using the meter correctly. Ask your health care provider to have your blood tested with a laboratory method. If the values you obtain on your glucose meter match the laboratory values, then your meter is working well and you are using good technique.
Some meters allow you to test blood from sites other than the fingertip. Examples of such alternative sampling sites are your palm, upper arm, forearm, thigh, or calf. Alternative site testing (AST) should not be performed at times when your blood glucose may be changing rapidly, as these alternative sampling sites may provide inaccurate results at those times. You should use only blood from your fingertip to test if any of the following applies:
- you have just taken insulin
- you think your blood sugar is low
- you are not aware of symptoms when you become hypoglycemic
- the results do not agree with the way you feel
- you have just eaten
- you have just exercised
- you are ill
- you are under stress
Also, you should never use results from an alternative sampling site to calibrate a continuous glucose monitor (CGM), or in insulin dosing calculations.
1. Blood Glucose Monitoring Devices. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [accessed on Nov 15, 2018]
2. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Low blood sugar - self-care. [accessed on Nov 15, 2018]
3. Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose: The Basics. Evan M. Benjamin. Clinical Diabetes Jan 2002, 20 (1) 45-47; DOI: 10.2337/diaclin.20.1.45 [accessed on Nov 15, 2018]
4. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes – 2017. Diabetes Care, January 2017, vol. 40, Supplement 1, S11-S24 [accessed on Nov 18, 2018]
5. NIDDK. Know Your Blood Sugar Numbers: Use Them to Manage Your Diabetes. [accessed on Nov 18, 2018]
6. WebMD. Normal Blood Sugar Levels for Adults With Diabetes. [accessed on Nov 18, 2018]
7. https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/ketoacidosis [accessed on Apr 09, 2019]
8. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetic-coma/symptoms-causes/syc-20371475 [accessed on Apr 09, 2019]
9. http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/complications/hyperosmolar-hyperglycemic.html [accessed on Apr 09, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

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What Is Insulin Resistance?

When you eat carbohydrates, they are broken down into sugars. Glucose is a principal sugar in the carbohydrate family and it can be taken up by every cell in the body and burnt as fuel. As the glucose enters your body it raises your blood sugar levels. In response, specialized cells in your pancreas produce insulin, a hormone that signals cells in the body to absorb glucose for energy. Insulin also tells your body to store fat, preventing you from burning it as fuel. When you consistently eat refined carbohydrates (like candies and foods made with white flour), your blood stream is quickly flooded with glucose. Spikes of glucose in the blood stream spur the pancreas to produce more insulin. Insulin receptors on the cell surface that have been bombarded with insulin for years start to burn out and ignore insulin's signals. The pancreas secretes more and more insulin, trying to bring more glucose into the cell but only causing the receptors to degrade more. As a result you have partial or full blown insulin resistance.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin from a healthy pancreas keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, this balance is disrupted because either the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage blood vessels in the kidneys and eyes, as well as nerve cells; acute disruptions of the insulin/glucose balance can be life threatening. Blood and urine tests can determine whether someone is diabetic or pre-diabetic. Diabetes is looming as a major public health concern; an estimated 25 million people in the U.S. have diabetes, with more than a quarter of them undiagnosed.

Video by TheVisualMD

Glucose Self-monitoring in Non–Insulin-Treated Patients With Type 2 Diabetes

Video by TheJAMAReport/YouTube

How To Test Blood Sugar | How To Use Glucometer | How To Check Blood Glucose | (2018)

Video by AbrahamThePharmacist/YouTube

Checking Your Blood Sugar Level

Video by Covenant Health/YouTube

Checking Blood Sugar (Glucose) Level | How to Use a Glucometer (Glucose Meter)

Video by RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

Blood glucose measurement - OSCE Guide

Video by Geeky Medics/YouTube

Diabetes in children (3 of 9): Blood glucose monitoring

Video by Nicklaus Children's Hospital/YouTube

Medical Information : How Does a Glucose Monitor Meter Work?

Video by ehowhealth/YouTube

Benefits of Testing Blood Glucose

Video by Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube

What is Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM)?

Video by Dexcom/YouTube

Monitoring Glucose Like a Pro (Living With Diabetes #2)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

How to do a blood glucose test

Video by University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust/YouTube

Diabetes: Your blood glucose target range

Video by ClearlyHealth/YouTube

How to test your blood glucose levels | Diabetes UK

Video by Diabetes UK/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Glucose tolerance test

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test : The glucose tolerance test is a lab test to check how your body breaks down sugar. The most common glucose tolerance test is the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Blood glucose monitoring

Self Test Blood Glucose Level : Unlike many other diseases, type 2 diabetes is treatable, and its symptoms can be reduced or even eliminated. The key is monitoring your blood sugar level by self-testing. When you keep your glucose level down, you can prevent serious health consequences and health care costs: For every 1% reduction in HbA1C levels, there is a 30% reduction in complications such as eye disease and nerve damage, and a 16% drop in complications such as heart disease.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Random Plasma Glucose

The random plasma glucose test, also called the casual glucose test, may be used for diagnosing diabetes when symptoms of diabetes are present.

Video by TheVisualMD

Type 1 Diabetes: Why We Chose an Insulin Pump and a Continuous Glucose Monitor (CGM)

Video by NYU Langone Health/YouTube

What is continuous glucose monitoring?

Video by Top Doctors UK/YouTube

Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems

Video by Southcoast Health/YouTube

What is Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM)?

Video by Medtronic Diabetes/YouTube

Ask the Expert: Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs)

Video by Hormone Health Network/YouTube

Insulin Pumps and Sensors: Treating Diabetes with Technology at Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Coping with a Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

Insulin and Glucose Vessel Dispersion

Our bodies and brains run on glucose. Our ability to use glucose as a source of energy depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Levels of insulin and glucose in the blood must be maintained in careful balance. Chronic conditions of too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage the heart, kidneys, eyes, nerves, and blood vessels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

The woman pictured here, was about to check her blood glucose level. This process is known as self-monitoring blood glucose, and it is a way for people with diabetes to find out how much glucose is in their blood. A drop of blood from the fingertip is placed on a special coated strip of paper, revealing the amount of glucose in the blood. Many people use an electronic meter to get this reading. This stage of the procedure now required this patient to read her blood glucose level using an electronic glucose meter. Her reading of 76 mg/dL, was within normal limits, which when take before eating, should read 70–130 mg/dl (5.0–7.2 mmol/l), and after eating should read

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

The woman pictured here, was about to check her blood glucose level. This process is known as self-monitoring blood glucose, and it is a way for people with diabetes to find out how much glucose is in their blood. A drop of blood from the fingertip is placed on a special coated strip of paper, revealing the amount of glucose in the blood. Many people use an electronic meter to get this reading.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

Pictured here, was a young girl who was in the process of testing her blood glucose level, by using a self-monitoring finger stick device. Held against her left thumb, the monitoring device was secured using her right hand. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is frequently performed to guide therapy for persons with diabetes.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Continuous Glucose Monitor

Continuous Glucose Monitor There are many options available allowing patients with diabetes to monitor and manage their glucose levels. The Continuous Glucose Monitor (CGM) shown here includes a glucose level sensor and transmitter, a data receiver which displays the patient's glucose levels, and an insulin delivery system (pump), which administers doses of insulin decided by the patient and their health care provider. Patients should always make insulin and other diabetes dosing decisions using a blood glucose level result. Insulin may be delivered by pill, syringe, pen, or pump.

Image by PROThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Glucose Challenge Test Orange Drink

Glucose Challenge Test Orange Drink

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferredfrom blood to cells and waste from cells to blood. The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

This image reveals a blood droplet atop the left thumb of a young girl, who was in the process of performing a self-monitoring blood glucose test, which as a diabetic, would test her blood glucose level. She was holding the monitoring device in her right hand. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is frequently performed to guide therapy for persons with diabetes.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

This photograph depicts a young diabetic girl who was in the process of carrying out a self-monitored blood glucose test. After having performed a finger stick (see PHIL 13564), and introduced the blood droplet to the glucose monitor (see PHIL 13565), she was now in the process of reading the liquid crystal display on the monitor in order to find the level of glucose in her blood. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is frequently performed to guide therapy for persons with diabetes.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders

Glucose metabolism and various forms of it in the process. Glucose-containing compounds and isomeric forms are digested and taken up by the body in the intestines, including starch, glycogen, disaccharides and monosaccharides. Glucose is stored in mainly the liver and muscles as glycogen. It is distributed and used in tissues as free glucose.

Image by Mikael Häggström

Manage Your Diabetes by Checking Your Blood Glucose

Image by TheVisualMD

Drawing of a developing baby inside the womb showing how glucose travels through the umbilical cord to the baby

If your blood glucose level is too high, then your baby also gets too much glucose.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

Our bodies and brains run on glucose, a simple sugar produced by the digestion of carbohydrates. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Blood sugar levels naturally rise after meals, but insulin from a healthy pancreas keeps these levels within a narrow range. In diabetes, however, this balance is disrupted because either the body loses its ability to respond to insulin or the pancreas loses its ability to produce insulin. Too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage blood vessels in the kidneys and eyes, as well as nerve cells; acute disruptions of the insulin/glucose balance can be life threatening. Blood and urine tests can determine whether someone is diabetic or pre-diabetic. Diabetes is looming as a major public health concern; an estimated 25 million people in the U.S. have diabetes, with more than a quarter of them undiagnosed.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin & Glucose

Our bodies and brains run on glucose. Our ability to use glucose as a source of energy depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Levels of insulin and glucose in the blood must be maintained in careful balance. Chronic conditions of too much or too little glucose in the bloodstream can damage the heart, kidneys, eyes, nerves, and blood vessels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

A pathological state in which BLOOD GLUCOSE level is less than approximately 140 mg/100 ml of PLASMA at fasting, and above approximately 200 mg/100 ml plasma at 30-, 60-, or 90-minute during a GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST. This condition is seen frequently in DIABETES MELLITUS, but also occurs with other diseases and MALNUTRITION. (NCBI/NIH)

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

A pathological state in which BLOOD GLUCOSE level is less than approximately 140 mg/100 ml of PLASMA at fasting, and above approximately 200 mg/100 ml plasma at 30-, 60-, or 90-minute during a GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST. This condition is seen frequently in DIABETES MELLITUS, but also occurs with other diseases and MALNUTRITION. (NCBI/NIH)

Image by TheVisualMD

Drop of blood on exposed vascular fingertip

Drop of Blood on exposed vascular fingertip

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Insulin Receptor

Glucose is vital to health as a source of energy for muscles as well as the brain's main source of fuel. The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Levels of blood glucose and insulin must be kept in balance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Normal Conditions

Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. To avoid problems, the level of glucose in the blood has to be maintained within a very narrow range: between 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors, where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Checking blood sugar levels

A patient has blood sugar levels checked Oct. 13, 2015, at the Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center, Joint Base San Antonio-Lackland. Monitoring blood sugar levels is important to prevent the onset of diabetes symptoms and future health concerns. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Chelsea Browning)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Chelsea Browning

CGM systems provide glucose measurements as often as once per minute.

CGM systems provide glucose measurements as often as once per minute. The measurements are transmitted to a wireless monitor. Drawing of three people, each using a different type of wireless continuous glucose monitoring system. A man on the left wears a glucose sensor/transmitter on his right arm and holds a monitor in his left hand. In the middle drawing, a woman's torso is shown with a sensor/transmitter on her abdomen and a monitor clipped to the top of her pants. A woman on the right wears a third type of monitor outside her clothing; the sensor/transmitter is worn beneath her clothing so it is not pictured

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Wireless continuous glucose monitoring systems

CGM systems provide glucose measurements as often as once per minute. The measurements are transmitted to a wireless monitor.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Blood glucose meter FreeStyle Libre from Abbott. The white sensor is fixed to the upper arm and scanned with the reader. The reader is showing (top to bottom) days to replacement of sensor (11), current BG (7,4) & change (-> i.e. steady) and a diagram of the latest BG levels.

Blood glucose meter FreeStyle Libre from Abbott. The white sensor is fixed to the upper arm and scanned with the reader. The reader is showing (top to bottom) days to replacement of sensor (11), current BG (7,4) & change (-> i.e. steady) and a diagram of the latest BG levels.

Image by Sjö

Continuous Glucose Monitoring

Image by tedeytan

1:47

What Is Insulin Resistance?

TheVisualMD

1:36

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

2:08

Glucose Self-monitoring in Non–Insulin-Treated Patients With Type 2 Diabetes

TheJAMAReport/YouTube

4:55

How To Test Blood Sugar | How To Use Glucometer | How To Check Blood Glucose | (2018)

AbrahamThePharmacist/YouTube

3:18

Checking Your Blood Sugar Level

Covenant Health/YouTube

10:43

Checking Blood Sugar (Glucose) Level | How to Use a Glucometer (Glucose Meter)

RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

2:09

Blood glucose measurement - OSCE Guide

Geeky Medics/YouTube

10:43

Diabetes in children (3 of 9): Blood glucose monitoring

Nicklaus Children's Hospital/YouTube

1:03

Medical Information : How Does a Glucose Monitor Meter Work?

ehowhealth/YouTube

1:21

Benefits of Testing Blood Glucose

Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube

7:37

What is Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM)?

Dexcom/YouTube

2:48

Monitoring Glucose Like a Pro (Living With Diabetes #2)

Healthguru/YouTube

4:14

How to do a blood glucose test

University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust/YouTube

1:55

Diabetes: Your blood glucose target range

ClearlyHealth/YouTube

4:46

How to test your blood glucose levels | Diabetes UK

Diabetes UK/YouTube

0:27

Glucose tolerance test

TheVisualMD

0:38

Blood glucose monitoring

TheVisualMD

0:17

Random Plasma Glucose

TheVisualMD

2:40

Type 1 Diabetes: Why We Chose an Insulin Pump and a Continuous Glucose Monitor (CGM)

NYU Langone Health/YouTube

1:48

What is continuous glucose monitoring?

Top Doctors UK/YouTube

1:58

Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems

Southcoast Health/YouTube

4:23

What is Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM)?

Medtronic Diabetes/YouTube

3:41

Ask the Expert: Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs)

Hormone Health Network/YouTube

3:17

Insulin Pumps and Sensors: Treating Diabetes with Technology at Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

7:48

Coping with a Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

Insulin and Glucose Vessel Dispersion

TheVisualMD

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Continuous Glucose Monitor

PROThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

Glucose Challenge Test Orange Drink

TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

TheVisualMD

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders

Mikael Häggström

Manage Your Diabetes by Checking Your Blood Glucose

TheVisualMD

Drawing of a developing baby inside the womb showing how glucose travels through the umbilical cord to the baby

NIDDK Image Library

Blood Glucose and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

Insulin & Glucose

TheVisualMD

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

TheVisualMD

Glucose Intolerance - Cells resist insulin and minimal glucose enters cells

TheVisualMD

Drop of blood on exposed vascular fingertip

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Insulin Receptor

TheVisualMD

Insulin and Glucose Levels in the Bloodstream in Normal Conditions

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Checking blood sugar levels

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Chelsea Browning

CGM systems provide glucose measurements as often as once per minute.

NIDDK Image Library

Wireless continuous glucose monitoring systems

NIDDK Image Library

Blood glucose meter FreeStyle Libre from Abbott. The white sensor is fixed to the upper arm and scanned with the reader. The reader is showing (top to bottom) days to replacement of sensor (11), current BG (7,4) & change (-> i.e. steady) and a diagram of the latest BG levels.

Sjö

Continuous Glucose Monitoring

tedeytan

Hearing

Audiologist, 2015

Image by Bundesinnung Hörakustiker (bundesinnung_ha)/Wikimedia

Get Your Hearing Checked

If you are worried that you might have hearing loss, you aren’t alone. Many people lose their hearing slowly as they age.

Almost 1 in 4 Americans between ages 65 and 74 have hearing loss.
Almost 1 in 2 Americans over age 75 have hearing loss.

It’s also possible to develop hearing loss due to noise. This is true at any age – and it can happen suddenly or over time. As many as 40 million Americans under age 70 may have a hearing problem caused by being around loud noise.

Start by talking with your doctor. Your doctor may refer you to a hearing specialist or other health professional for a hearing test.

Hearing problems are serious.

Hearing loss can be frustrating and even dangerous. If you have hearing loss, you may:

Have trouble hearing doorbells or alarms
Miss important directions or warnings
Feel alone or depressed
Have other health problems

The good news is that if you have a hearing problem, there are things you can do to hear better. That’s why it’s important to get your hearing checked.

How do I know if I have hearing loss?

If you have hearing loss, you may have trouble hearing or understanding family members, friends, or coworkers. It may also help to ask yourself these questions:

Do I often ask people to repeat themselves?
Do I hear ringing in my ears?
Do I have trouble hearing the TV or radio when others don't?
Do I have trouble hearing when there’s noise in the background?

If you answered yes to some of these questions, you may have hearing loss.

What can I do if I have hearing loss?

There are many products, tools, and devices that can help with hearing loss:

Special phones and smartphone apps that make sounds louder
Tools to help you hear in places like a classroom or theater (called assistive listening devices)
TV settings that also show text (called closed captioning)
Flashing lights to let you know when an alarm or doorbell is ringing
Hearing aids you wear in or behind your ear

If you think you have hearing loss, a doctor can help you figure out which options are right for you.

Take Action!

To find out if you have hearing loss, the first step is to get tested.

Ask your doctor about getting your hearing tested.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (3)

3:25

Adult Hearing Loss

CNN/YouTube

1:38

How Old Are Your Ears? (Hearing Test)

AsapSCIENCE/YouTube

1:00

Hearing Test - Infant Hearing Screening

HNEkidshealth/YouTube

Hearing Tests

Hearing Tests

Also called: Audiometry, Audiography, Audiogram, Sound Test

Hearing tests diagnose hearing loss. Hearing loss affects about one-third of all adults over the age of 65. If you are diagnosed with hearing loss, you may be able take steps to treat or manage the condition.

Hearing Tests

Also called: Audiometry, Audiography, Audiogram, Sound Test

Hearing tests diagnose hearing loss. Hearing loss affects about one-third of all adults over the age of 65. If you are diagnosed with hearing loss, you may be able take steps to treat or manage the condition.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
dB
15
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Your result is Normal hearing.
Hearing threshold levels (the quietest sounds you can hear) are measured in decibels (dB) at different frequencies from low (500 Hz) to high (8000 Hz). The range for normal hearing is 0 to 15 dB. The full safe range of human hearing ranges from -10 to 120 dB.
Related conditions
Hearing tests measure how well you are able to hear. Normal hearing happens when sound waves travel into your ear, causing your eardrum to vibrate. The vibration moves the waves farther into the ear, where it triggers nerve cells to send sound information to your brain. This information is translated into the sounds you hear.
Hearing loss happens when there is a problem with one or more parts of the ear, the nerves inside the ear, or the part of the brain that controls hearing. There are three main types of hearing loss:
- Sensorineurual (also called nerve deafness). This type of hearing loss is caused by a problem with the structure of the ear and/or with the nerves that control hearing. It may be present at birth or show up late in life. Sensorineural hearing loss is usually permanent. This type of hearing loss ranges from mild (the inability to hear certain sounds) to profound (the inability to hear any sounds).
- Conductive. This type of hearing loss is caused by a blockage of sound transmission into the ear. It can occur at any age, but it's most common in infants and young children and is often caused by ear infections or fluid in the ears. Conductive hearing loss is usually mild, temporary, and treatable.
- Mixed, a combination of both sensorineural and conductive hearing loss.
Hearing loss is common in older adults. About one-third of adults over the age of 65 have some hearing loss, most often the sensorineural type. If you are diagnosed with hearing loss, there are steps you can take that may help treat or manage the condition.
You may need a hearing test if you have symptoms of hearing loss. These include:
- Trouble understanding what other people are saying, especially in a noisy environment
- Needing to ask people to repeat themselves
- Trouble hearing high-pitched sounds
- Needing to turn up the volume on the TV or music player
- A ringing sound in your ears
Your hearing test may be done by a primary health care provider or one of the following types of providers:
- An audiologist, a health care provider who specializes in diagnosing, treating, and managing hearing loss
- An otolaryngologist (ENT), a doctor specializing in treating diseases and conditions of the ears, nose, and throat.
There are several types of hearing tests. Most tests check for your response to tones or words delivered at different pitches, volumes, and/or noise environments. These are called sound tests. Common sound tests include:
Acoustic Reflex Measures, also called middle ear muscle reflex (MEMR), test how well the ear responds to loud sounds. In normal hearing, a tiny muscle inside the ear tightens when you hear loud noises. This is called the acoustic reflex. It happens without you knowing it. During the test:
- The audiologist or other provider will place a soft rubber tip inside the ear.
- A series of loud sounds will be sent through the tips and recorded onto a machine.
- The machine will show when or if the sound has triggered a reflex.
- If hearing loss is bad, the sound may have to be very loud to trigger a reflex, or it may not trigger the reflex at all.
Pure-tone test, also known as audiometry. During this test:
- You will put on headphones.
- A series of tones will be sent to your headphones.
- The audiologist or other provider will change the pitch and loudness of the tones at different points during the test. At some points, the tones may be barely audible.
- The provider will ask you to respond whenever you hear the tones. Your response may be to raise your hand or press a button.
- The test helps find the quietest sounds you can hear at different pitches.
Tuning fork tests. A tuning fork is a two-pronged metal device that makes a tone when it vibrates. During the test:
- The audiologist or other provider will place the tuning fork behind your ear or on top of your head.
- The provider will hit the fork so that it makes a tone.
- You'll be asked to tell the provider whenever you hear the tone at different volumes, or if you heard the sound in your left ear, right ear, or both equally.
- Depending on where the fork is placed and how you respond, the test can show if there is hearing loss in one or both ears. It can also show which type of hearing loss you have (conductive or sensorineural).
Speech and word recognition tests can show how well you can hear spoken language. During the test:
- You will put on headphones.
- The audiologist will talk to you through your headphones, and ask you to repeat a series of simple words, spoken at different volumes.
- The provider will record the softest speech you are able to hear.
- Some of the testing may be done in a noisy environment, because many people with hearing loss have trouble understanding speech in loud places.
Another type test, called tympanometry, checks for how well your eardrum moves.
During a tympanometry test:
- The audiologist or other provider will place a small device inside the ear canal.
- The device will push air into the ear, making the eardrum move back and forth.
- A machine records the movement on graphs called tympanograms.
- The test helps find out if there is an ear infection or other problems such as fluid or wax buildup, or a hole or tear in the eardrum.
Your results may show if you have a hearing loss, and whether the hearing loss is sensorineural or conductive.
If you are diagnosed with sensorineural hearing loss, your results may show that the hearing loss is:
- Mild: you can't hear certain sounds, such as tones that are too high or too low.
- Moderate: you can't hear many sounds, such as speech in a noisy environment.
- Severe: you can't hear most sounds.
- Profound: you can't hear any sounds.
Treatment and management of sensorineural hearing loss will depend on serious it is.
If you are diagnosed with conductive hearing loss, your provider may recommend medicine or surgery, depending on the cause of the loss.
If you have questions about the results, talk to your health care provider.
Even mild hearing loss can make it difficult to understand normal speech. Because of this, many older adults will avoid social situations, leading to isolation and depression. Treating hearing loss can help prevent these problems. While hearing loss in older adults is usually permanent, there are ways to manage the condition. Treatment options include:
- Hearing aids. A hearing aid is a device that's worn either behind or inside the ear. A hearing aid amplifies (makes louder) sound. Some hearing aids have more advanced functions. Your audiologist can recommend the best option for you.
- Cochlear implants. This is a device that's implanted surgically in the ear. It's usually used in people with more severe hearing loss and who don't get much benefit from using a hearing aid. Cochlear implants send sound directly to the hearing nerve.
- Surgery. Some types of hearing loss can be treated with surgery. These include problems with the eardrum or in the tiny bones inside the ear.
1. Hearing Tests for Adults: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 26, 2019]

Additional Materials (6)

Hearing Tests

U.S. Air Force Airman 1st Class Kayla Gearheart, 7th Aerospace Medicine Squadron public health technician, administers a hearing test to Maj. Andrew Leader, 436th Training Squadron assistant director of operations, at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, March 20, 2018. The flight tests a patient’s hearing by inspecting the insides for abnormalities and by observing how well they hear a series of sounds. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Kylee Thomas)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Kylee Thomas

Diagnosis

This image depicts a female clinician conducting an examination of a male patient’s right ear, using an otoscope, which she’d inserted into the right ear canal. Peering into the ear canal, the healthcare provider is able to see, whether or not, there are any pathogenic processes taking place in the canal itself, upon the ear drum, or tympanic membrane, and behind the ear drum, or inner ear.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

This image depicts a male physician conducting an examination of a female patient’s left ear, using an otoscope, which he’d inserted into the left ear canal. Peering into the ear canal, the doctor is able to see, whether or not, there are any pathogenic processes taking place in the canal itself, upon the ear drum, or tympanic membrane, and behind the ear drum, or middle ear.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

This image depicts a male physician conducting an examination of a female patient’s left ear, using an otoscope, which he’d inserted into the left ear canal. Peering into the ear canal, the doctor was able to see, whether or not, there are any pathogenic processes taking place in the canal itself, upon the ear drum, or tympanic membrane, and behind the ear drum, or middle ear.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

This image depicts a female physician conducting an examination of a female patient’s left ear, using an otoscope, which she’d inserted into the left ear canal. Peering into the ear canal, the doctor was able to see, whether or not, any pathogenic processes were taking place in the canal itself, upon the ear drum, or tympanic membrane, and behind the ear drum, or middle ear.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

This image depicts a female clinician conducting an examination of a male patient’s right ear, using an otoscope, which she’d inserted into the right ear canal. Peering into the ear canal, the healthcare provider is able to see, whether or not, there are any pathogenic processes taking place in the canal itself, upon the ear drum, or tympanic membrane, and behind the ear drum, or inner ear.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Hearing Tests

U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Kylee Thomas

Diagnosis

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Diagnosis

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Hepatitis C

Who Should Get Tested for Hepatitis C?

Image by CDC

Hepatitis C Questions and Answers: Tests

Who should get tested for hepatitis C?

CDC recommends hepatitis C testing for:

Are 18 years of age and older (get tested at least once in your lifetime)
Are pregnant (get tested during each pregnancy)
Currently inject drugs (get tested regularly)
Have ever injected drugs, even if it was just once or many years ago
Have HIV
Have abnormal liver tests or liver disease
Are on hemodialysis
Received donated blood or organs before July 1992
Received clotting factor concentrates before 1987
Have been exposed to blood from a person who has hepatitis C
Were born to a mother with hepatitis C

Should anyone be tested for hepatitis C more than once?

Yes. Regular testing is recommended for people who currently inject and share needles, syringes, or other drug preparation equipment and for those currently getting maintenance hemodialysis.

If I am pregnant, should I be tested for hepatitis C?

Yes, hepatitis C testing is recommended during every pregnancy.

What tests are used to diagnose someone with hepatitis C?

A blood test, called an HCV antibody test, is used to find out if someone has ever been infected with the hepatitis C virus. This test, sometimes called the anti-HCV test, looks for antibodies, which are proteins released into the bloodstream when someone gets infected with the virus that causes hepatitis C. People who have positive HCV antibody tests are given a follow-up HCV RNA test to learn whether they have active infection.

When should I expect to get my test results?

Test results can take anywhere from a few days to a few weeks to come back. Rapid anti-HCV tests are available in some health clinics, and the results of these tests are available in 20–30 minutes.

How are hepatitis C test results interpreted?

Your doctor will help interpret the results from your HCV antibody test and help guide you through next steps. The test can be “non-reactive,” or “negative,” meaning that you are not currently infected with the hepatitis C virus. The test can also be “reactive,” or “positive,” which means you have been infected with the hepatitis C virus at some point in time. It is important to know that

Once you have been infected, you will always have antibodies in your blood. This is true if you have cleared the virus, have been cured, or still have the virus in your blood.
A reactive, or positive, antibody test does not necessarily mean that you currently have hepatitis C, so a follow-up test is needed.

What should I do if the HCV antibody test is reactive?

If the antibody test is reactive or positive, you need an additional test to see if you currently have hepatitis C. This test is called a nucleic acid test (NAT) for HCV RNA, but it can also be called a PCR test.
If the nucleic acid test for HCV RNA (or PCR test) is:
- Negative – this means you were infected with hepatitis C virus, but the virus is no longer in your body because you were cured or cleared the virus naturally.
- Positive – this means you currently have the virus in your blood and are infectious, meaning you can spread the virus to others.
If you have a reactive antibody test and a positive NAT for HCV RNA, you need to talk to a doctor about treatment. Treatments are available that can cure most people with hepatitis C in 8–12 weeks.

How soon after exposure to the hepatitis C virus can a test tell if someone is infected?

After exposure to the hepatitis C virus, it can take 8–11 weeks for an HCV antibody test to be positive. For most people who are infected, the anti-HCV blood test will become positive by 6 months after exposure. A special kind of blood test called a nucleic acid test (NAT) that detects HCV RNA (also called a PCR test) can tell if a person is infected within 1–2 weeks of exposure.

Can a person have normal liver enzyme level and still have hepatitis C?

Yes. For people with hepatitis C, it is common for liver enzyme levels to go up and down, sometimes returning to normal or near normal. Some people with hepatitis C have liver enzyme levels that are normal for over a year even though they have chronic liver disease.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (2)

1:54

Who Should be tested for Hepatitis C?

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

3:43

NY Cures Hep C Campaign: “Learn about Hepatitis C Testing” Animated Video

NYSDOH NY/YouTube

Hepatitis C Antibody Test

Hepatitis C Antibody Test

Also called: HCV Antibody, HCV Ab, Anti-HCV

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) produces a disease known as hepatitis C which is characterized by liver inflammation and enlargement. A hepatitis C antibody test is used to detect hepatitis C virus infection.

Hepatitis C Antibody Test

Also called: HCV Antibody, HCV Ab, Anti-HCV

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) produces a disease known as hepatitis C which is characterized by liver inflammation and enlargement. A hepatitis C antibody test is used to detect hepatitis C virus infection.

{"label":"Hepatitis C Antibody Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative\/Non-Reactive","long":"Negative\/Non-Reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"No antibodies for HCV were found in your blood. This means that either you don't have Hepatitis C or that the exposure to the virus happened too recently (less than 6 months).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive\/Reactive","long":"Positive\/Reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"HCV antibodies were found in your blood. A positive result means that you were infected at some point in your life. In this case, another test called HCV RNA is required to confirm whether the virus is active.","conditions":["Hepatitis C, Acute or Chronic","Cirrhosis","Liver Cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative/Non-Reactive.
No antibodies for HCV were found in your blood. This means that either you don't have Hepatitis C or that the exposure to the virus happened too recently (less than 6 months).
Related conditions
Hepatitis C testing should be performed in:
- Every person that has used injected drugs, even if it was only one time.
- Every person who received blood transfusions or an organ transplant before 1992 (which was the time when it became mandatory previous HCV testing in donated tissues and blood).
- Anyone born from 1945 to 1965.
- Anyone with chronic liver disease, HIV or AIDS.
- Every person with liver disease or abnormal liver tests.
- Every person on hemodialysis.
- Health care providers or lab technicians who were exposed to blood through accidental needle sticks or injuries with sharp objects.
- Anyone born to a mother who was diagnosed with HCV.
Most people with HCV don’t know they are infected because the disease is mostly asymptomatic until late stages, so if you identify yourself among the high-risk group, you should see your doctor.
You should also seek medical help if you or any of your relatives present some of the following signs or symptoms:
- Nausea
- Fatigue
- Hyporexia (appetite loss)
- Joint pain
- Itching
- Abdominal pain
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
- Dark-colored urine
- Light-colored stools
- Ascites (accumulation of large quantities of fluid in the abdomen)
- Mental confusion
If left untreated, late-stage HCV infection can cause chronic liver damage, hepatic cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
Cirrhosis is the primary cause of liver transplantation in individuals with chronic HCV infection.
1. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HCV/PDFs/HepCTesting-Diagnosis.pdf [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
2. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HCV/PDFs/HepCGettingTested.pdf [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
3. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Diagnostics Fact Sheet | Treatment Action Group [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
4. HCSRN - Clinical: Hepatitis C Antibody Screen with Reflex to HCV RNA by PCR, Serum [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
5. Hepatitis C Testing [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
6. 144065: Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Antibody With Reflex... | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]
7. Laboratory Diagnostics for Hepatitis C Virus Infection | Clinical Infectious Diseases | Oxford Academic [accessed on Sep 25, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

This browser does not support the video element.

Hepatitis C

Hepatitis-C Testing : Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an infectious disease of the liver and the most common blood-borne infection in the U.S. Complications of this disease and liver cancer cause about 12,000 deaths annually. HCV is particularly dangerous because it is typically asymptomatic and can go undetected for years before the damage it causes shows up in routine tests. The CDC recommends that all baby boomers be tested for the disease. Other high risk groups include those who have used injected drugs, blood transfusion or organ transplant recipients (prior to 1992), and those with multiple sexual partners. Screening for HCV is important because if detected early, HCV can be treated and cured.

Video by TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Liver

The liver is remarkable in its resilience; liver tissue has the ability to recover from injury and regenerate. But the liver is also susceptible to chronic damage; alcohol, hepatitis, obesity, and drug toxicity can overwhelm a liver's natural resilience.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Jaundice

When red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is eliminated as bile; when liver disease disrupts the disposal of bilirubin, it builds up in the body and results in jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Internal Organs, Torso

The hepatitis C (HCV) test detects the presence of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to infection by the virus. HCV attacks the liver and can eventually lead to chronic disease and cancer, but symptoms often take years to appear.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C

Colorized transmission electron micrograph of a hepatitis C virion. Micrograph courtesy of Maria Teresa Catanese and Charles M. Rice, The Rockefeller University; colorized by NIAID.

Image by NIAID and The Rockefeller University

3:56

Hepatitis C

TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Liver

TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Jaundice

TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C Antigens: Internal Organs, Torso

TheVisualMD

Hepatitis C

NIAID and The Rockefeller University

Hepatitis C Home Test

Hepatitis C Home Test

Also called: HCV Home Testing

You may prefer to find out on your own whether you have been infected with the hepatitis C virus. The home test only detects if you have this infection, not how advanced your disease is.

Hepatitis C Home Test

Also called: HCV Home Testing

You may prefer to find out on your own whether you have been infected with the hepatitis C virus. The home test only detects if you have this infection, not how advanced your disease is.

{"label":"Hepatitis C Home Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative test does not guarantee that you don't have HCV infection since it takes some time for you to develop antibodies after you are infected with this virus. If you think you were exposed to the virus and might be infected, you should see your doctor for a more accurate laboratory test.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If you have a positive test, you either are infected with HCV now or you have been infected with HCV in the past. A positive result may not mean that you are currently infected with HCV. If you receive a positive result from this test, you should see your doctor for further testing and information.","conditions":["Hepatitis C infection"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative test does not guarantee that you don't have HCV infection since it takes some time for you to develop antibodies after you are infected with this virus. If you think you were exposed to the virus and might be infected, you should see your doctor for a more accurate laboratory test.
Related conditions
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommend that you do this test if you:
- have ever injected illegal drugs,
- received clotting factor concentrates produced before 1987,
- were ever on long-term dialysis,
- received a blood transfusion before July 1992,
- received an organ transplant before July 1992, or
- are a health care, emergency medicine, or public safety worker who contacted HCV-positive blood through needlesticks, sharps, or mucosal exposure.
The test kit comes with a small piece of filter paper, a lancet, and instructions for obtaining a blood sample and placing it on the filter paper. You first prick your finger with the lancet to get a drop of blood. Then, you put your drop of blood on a piece of filter paper and send it in a special container to the testing laboratory. You get the results of your test by phone from the laboratory. The laboratory does a preliminary (screening) test that separates the samples into three groups
- Samples that are clearly positive,
- Samples that might be positive, and
- Samples that are negative.
All samples that "might be positive" receive a more specific (confirmatory) test to find those that are truly positive. All the "clearly positives" from the preliminary test and the "truly positives" from the more specific test are reported to you as positive.
You should note that a positive result does not mean that you are infected with HCV. If you receive a positive result from this test, you should see your doctor for further testing and information.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

HIV

This browser does not support the video element.

HIV Testing

Video by TheVisualMD

Get Tested for HIV

HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. If you have HIV, getting treatment early can help you live a long, healthy life.

The only way to know if you have HIV is to get tested. You could have HIV and still feel healthy.

How often do I need to get tested for HIV?

Everyone ages 15 to 65 needs to get tested for HIV at least once. All pregnant women also need to get tested. People at higher risk for HIV infection may need to get tested more often.

Talk to your doctor or nurse about how often you need to get tested.

Get tested for HIV at least once a year if you're at higher risk.

For example, you may be at higher risk for HIV if you:

Are a man who has sex with men
Have sex with someone who has HIV
Use drugs with needles
Have sex in exchange for things, like drugs or money
Have more than 1 sex partner who could have HIV
Have another STD (sexually transmitted disease)

If you're a man who has sex with men, you may need to get tested even more often — like every 3 to 6 months. Talk to your doctor or nurse about what's best for you.

What is HIV?

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus — the virus that causes AIDS. There's no cure yet for HIV/AIDS, but there are treatments that can help people live long, healthy lives.

How do people get HIV?

HIV spreads through body fluids, like blood, semen (cum), vaginal fluids, and breast milk. HIV can pass from one person to another through:

Sex (vaginal or anal) without a condom with a person who has HIV
Sharing needles with someone who has HIV
Breastfeeding, pregnancy, or childbirth if the mother has HIV

Why do I need to get tested for HIV?

The only way to know if you have HIV is to get tested. Many people with HIV don’t have any symptoms. In the United States, about 1 in 7 people who have HIV don't know they have it.

Once you’ve gotten tested for HIV:

If you don’t have HIV (you're HIV-negative), you can take steps to make sure you stay HIV-free
If you have HIV (you're HIV-positive), you can take steps to have a healthier future — you can also take steps to protect other people

Live longer with HIV.

If you have HIV, early treatment can help you live a long, healthy life. It’s important to get early treatment for HIV even if you don’t feel sick. The sooner you get care for HIV, the better.

Protect yourself and others.

If you have HIV, you can take steps to protect your partner. Your partner can also take a medicine called PrEP (pre-exposure prophylaxis) to lower their risk of getting HIV.

How can I get tested for HIV?

You can get an HIV test at a doctor's office or clinic – or you can test yourself at home. There are different types of HIV tests. Some use a sample of your blood and some use fluid from your mouth.

How long does it take to get the test results?

It depends on the type of HIV test you get.

Lab tests take a few days to give results
Rapid tests give results in 30 minutes or less
Home test results can be ready in 20 minutes

If your test shows that you have HIV, you'll need a second HIV test to be sure.

What’s the difference between confidential and anonymous testing?

When you get tested at a doctor’s office or clinic, your test results are confidential. This means they can only be shared with people allowed to see your medical records.

If you're worried about giving your name, you can get an anonymous HIV test at some clinics. This means that you don’t have to give your name.

Get Tested

Take these steps to protect yourself and others from HIV.

Find a place to get tested.

You can get an HIV test at your local health clinic, HIV testing center, hospital, or health department. Your regular doctor can also test you for HIV.

What about cost?

Free HIV testing is available at some testing centers and health clinics.

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover HIV testing for everyone ages 15 to 65 — and for others who are at higher risk for HIV. HIV counseling is also covered for teens who are sexually active and adults at increased risk for STDs. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get HIV testing and counseling at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover HIV screening for certain groups at no cost.

Protect yourself from HIV.

The best way to protect yourself from HIV is to not have sex unless you're in a relationship with only 1 person and you have both tested negative.

Here are some other steps you can take to help prevent HIV:

Use a latex condom with water-based lubricant every time you have vaginal or anal sex.
Get tested for other STDs and get treatment if you need to.
Don’t inject drugs or share needles.

Take medicine to lower your risk of HIV.

If you’re at higher risk for HIV — like if you’re in a relationship with someone who's HIV-positive — you can take a medicine called PrEP every day to lower your risk of getting HIV. Talk with your doctor about your risk and ask if PrEP is right for you.

Talk with your partner about getting tested.

It’s important to make time to talk before having sex. Ask your partner to get tested for HIV and other STDs — or offer to get tested together.

Get counseling about HIV prevention.

If you want more information about preventing HIV, ask your local testing center if they offer prevention counseling. You may want counseling if:

You're worried about getting HIV
You're interested in taking PrEP to reduce your risk of HIV
You have HIV and are worried about giving it to someone else

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (5)

Early Symptoms of HIV Diagram

Nicolearyanne/Wikimedia

0:58

Doing It — Reasons Why You Should Get Tested for HIV

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:00

Mayo Clinic Minute: Why you should get tested for HIV

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Ways HIV is Not Transmitted

Ways HIV is Not Transmitted

HIV Rotation

TheVisualMD

HIV Screening

HIV Screening

An HIV test is used to diagnose HIV. While there is no cure for HIV, there are more and better treatments available now than in the past.

HIV Screening

An HIV test is used to diagnose HIV. While there is no cure for HIV, there are more and better treatments available now than in the past.

An HIV test shows whether you are infected with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). HIV is a virus that attacks and destroys cells in the immune system. These cells protect your body against disease-causing germs, such as bacteria and viruses. If you lose too many immune cells, your body will have trouble fighting off infections and other diseases.
There are three main types of HIV tests:
- Antibody Test. This test looks for HIV antibodies in your blood or saliva. Your immune system makes antibodies when you are exposed to bacteria or viruses, like HIV. An HIV antibody test can determine if you have HIV from 3–12 weeks after infection. That's because it can take a few weeks or longer for your immune system to make antibodies to HIV. You may be able to do an HIV antibody test in the privacy of your home. Ask your health care provider about at-home HIV test kits.
- HIV Antibody/Antigen Test. This test looks for HIV antibodies and antigens in the blood. An antigen is a part of a virus that triggers an immune response. If you've been exposed to HIV, antigens will show up in your blood before HIV antibodies are made. This test can usually find HIV within 2–6 weeks of infection. The HIV antibody/antigen test is one of the most common types of HIV tests.
- HIV Viral Load. This test measures the amount of the HIV virus in the blood. It can find HIV faster than antibody and antibody/antigen tests, but it is very expensive. It is mostly used for monitoring HIV infections.
Other names: HIV antibody/antigen tests, HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibody and antigen evaluation, HIV test, human immunodeficiency virus antibody test, type 1, HIV p24 antigen test
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that everyone between the ages of 13 and 64 get tested for HIV at least once as part of routine health care. You may also need an HIV test if you are at higher risk for infection. HIV is mainly spread through sexual contact and blood, so you may be at a higher risk for HIV if you:
- Are a man that has had sex with another man
- Have had sex with an HIV-infected partner
- Have had multiple sex partners
- Have injected drugs, such as heroin, or shared drug needles with someone else
HIV can spread from mother to child during birth and through breast milk, so if you are pregnant your doctor may order an HIV test. There are medicines you can take during pregnancy and delivery to greatly reduce your risk of spreading the disease to your baby.
You will either get a blood test in a lab, or do your own test at home.
For a blood test in a lab:
- A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For at home test, you will need to get a sample of saliva from your mouth or a drop of blood from your fingertip.
- The test kit will provide instructions on how to get your sample, package it, and send it to a lab.
  For a saliva test, you will use special spatula-like tool to take a swab from your mouth.
  For a fingertip antibody blood test, you will use a special tool to prick your finger and collect a sample of blood.
For more information on at-home testing, talk to your health care provider.

Additional Materials (23)

HIV Cures Cancer?? WTF!

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Where did Aids come from?

Video by BBC News/YouTube

Basic Course in HIV - HIV and Nutrition | Center for AIDS Research

Video by Harvard University/YouTube

HIV Replication 3D Medical Animation

Video by Dr Bell/YouTube

HIV Animation

Video by Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube

CDC: Start Talking. Stop HIV.: Conversations

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Start Talking. Stop HIV.: Medicines that treat HIV (Treatment as Prevention)

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

What is HIV Undetectable? (1:00)

Video by Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

HIV: Journey to Undetectable

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

CDC Grand Rounds: Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for Prevention of HIV

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

The HIV and Viral Hepatitis Epidemic

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

HIV Testing

HIV, the human immunodeficiency virus, is an often sexually-transmitted infection that attacks the body's immune system and leaves it vulnerable to disease. HIV infection can progress in stages to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a potentially life-threatening condition. The progression of HIV infection to an AIDS diagnosis can be slowed or prevented with medical treatment if the infection is detected early enough. Screening tests include the HIV antibody test, rapid HIV testing, HIV antibody/antigen tests, and early-detection tests. The CDC recommends at least one test for everyone aged 13 to 64. Any patient whom a physician considers to be at high risk, and anyone initiating a new sexual relationship, should be screened more frequently in accordance with a doctor's recommendations.

Video by TheVisualMD

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Family and Fetus Inside Mother's Womb

Video begins with a family, pregnant mother, toddler and father sitting on a couch. The toddler daughter is playing with the mother's pregnant stomach. The camera zooms into the stomach and the video fades away to show a Micro Maganetic Resonanace Imaging based stylized visualization of the mother's skeletal system and her fetus as it is encompassed by the translucent amniotic sac.The camera rotates around the the fetus before it zooms back out.

Video by TheVisualMD

HIV Drug Classes

Schematic description of the mechanism of the four classes of currently available antiviral drugs against HIV: fusion inhibitors ( interfere with the binding, fusion or entry of an HIV virion), reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (interfere with the translation of viral RNA into DNA), integrase inhibitors (block the viral enzyme integrase, that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell), protease inhibitors (block proteolytic cleavage of protein precursors that are necessary for the production of infectious viral particles).

Image by Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

The virus that causes AIDS, which is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. HIV is a retrovirus that occurs as two types: HIV-1 and HIV-2. Both types are transmitted through direct contact with HIV-infected body fluids, such as blood, semen, and genital secretions, or from an HIV-infected mother to her child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding (through breast milk).

Image by AIDS Info/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

HIV. See a full animation of this medical topic

Image by BruceBlaus

HIV-infected H9 T cell

Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

Model of HIV-1 Neurotropism

Image by J Roberto Trujillo

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus Description : Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus from hugging to telephones; one of a series of fact sheets about AIDS and HIV.

Image by Wellcome Trust

HIV Virus

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (red) budding and replicating from a segment of a chronically infected H9 cell (blue). Particles are in various stages of maturity; arc/semi-circles are immature particles that have started to form but are still part of the cell. Immature particles slowly change morphology into mature forms and exhibit the classic “conical or spherical-shaped core.” Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

HIV Rotation

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or, in the case of drug addicts, a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another user. HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelop, releasing its RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a complimentary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the life cycle of the virus. See artwork: GR-32.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

3:06

HIV Cures Cancer?? WTF!

Seeker/YouTube

1:15

Where did Aids come from?

BBC News/YouTube

48:18

Basic Course in HIV - HIV and Nutrition | Center for AIDS Research

Harvard University/YouTube

5:14

HIV Replication 3D Medical Animation

Dr Bell/YouTube

0:34

HIV Animation

Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube

5:08

CDC: Start Talking. Stop HIV.: Conversations

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

2:08

Start Talking. Stop HIV.: Medicines that treat HIV (Treatment as Prevention)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:56

What is HIV Undetectable? (1:00)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

2:44

HIV: Journey to Undetectable

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:02:12

CDC Grand Rounds: Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for Prevention of HIV

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:23

The HIV and Viral Hepatitis Epidemic

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

3:20

HIV Testing

TheVisualMD

0:17

Family and Fetus Inside Mother's Womb

TheVisualMD

HIV Drug Classes

Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

AIDS Info/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

BruceBlaus

HIV-infected H9 T cell

NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

J Roberto Trujillo

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Wellcome Trust

HIV Virus

NIAID

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

TheVisualMD

HIV Rotation

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

HIV Antibody Test

HIV Antibody Test

Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab

This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.

HIV Antibody Test

Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab

This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
It can take weeks for the immune system to produce the telltale antibodies that indicate HIV infection. If a person is tested too early, the result may be misleadingly negative.
Related conditions
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) debilitates your immune system by harming your white blood cells (leukocytes), making you prone to catch any virus, bacteria, or fungi, including those that usually don’t make people sick.
If left untreated, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is the final stage of the infection.
HIV is transmitted through:
- Unprotected sexual intercourse
- From an infected mother to her fetus
- Lactation from an infected mother
- Having direct contact with the blood of an infected person through an open wound
- From an injury with a blood-covered object (such as a needle)
There are two types of HIV, which are type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2).The only difference between them is that HIV type 2 is found only in West Africa and an individual can become infected with HIV-2 only by having sexual intercourse or entering in contact with the blood of an infected person from that geographic region.
An HIV 1+O+2 AB test refers to the detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 antibodies in a sample of your blood.
Usually, screening is done with a combination HIV antigen/antibody test. If that test result comes back positive, an HIV test that differentiates between HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies is performed.
HIV screening is the only way to know if you are infected. Is recommended that any person between the ages of 13 to 64 years and every pregnant woman gets tested for HIV at least once.
There are other situations in which you should also be tested, even if you were already screened or if you don’t belong to the group of people who are between 13 to 64 years of age. These situations include:
- If you were diagnosed with tuberculosis, hepatitis B or C, or another sexually transmitted disease.
- If you had a sexual partner who has been recently diagnosed with HIV.
- If you suspect or know that your partner had sex with another person.
- If you are a healthcare worker and had direct contact with blood while doing your job.
- If you think you may have been exposed to the virus.
Annual screening for HIV is recommended if you are at high-risk of contracting the virus. You have a higher risk if you:
- Have had unprotected sex with multiple partners since your last HIV screening.
- Are a man and had sex with another man
- Have used illegal injected drugs, especially if you have shared needles
- Have a sexual partner who is HIV positive.
- Are a sex-worker
Normally this test is indicated when a previous screening HIV test has been performed, and the result has come back positive.
Therefore, if this test comes back negative for HIV-1and HIV-2, it means that a disparity has occurred, and then a third test (HIV RNA) must be performed to get to a firm diagnosis.
If the HIV 1+O+2 Ab test has come back positive, the possibilities include:
- HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody negative: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 1 infection.
- HIV-1 antibody negative + HIV-2 antibody positive: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 2 infection.
- HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody positive: you have a co-infection with both types of HIV.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (11)

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

HIV. See a full animation of this medical topic

Image by BruceBlaus

HIV Drug Classes

Schematic description of the mechanism of the four classes of currently available antiviral drugs against HIV: fusion inhibitors ( interfere with the binding, fusion or entry of an HIV virion), reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (interfere with the translation of viral RNA into DNA), integrase inhibitors (block the viral enzyme integrase, that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell), protease inhibitors (block proteolytic cleavage of protein precursors that are necessary for the production of infectious viral particles).

Image by Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

HIV-infected H9 T cell

Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

HIV Virus

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (red) budding and replicating from a segment of a chronically infected H9 cell (blue). Particles are in various stages of maturity; arc/semi-circles are immature particles that have started to form but are still part of the cell. Immature particles slowly change morphology into mature forms and exhibit the classic “conical or spherical-shaped core.” Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

Model of HIV-1 Neurotropism

Image by J Roberto Trujillo

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus Description : Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus from hugging to telephones; one of a series of fact sheets about AIDS and HIV.

Image by Wellcome Trust

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelop, releasing its RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a complimentary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the life cycle of the virus. See artwork: GR-32.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS

Video by Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube

When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

HIV Rotation

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or, in the case of drug addicts, a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another user. HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

BruceBlaus

HIV Drug Classes

Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

HIV-infected H9 T cell

NIAID

HIV Virus

NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

J Roberto Trujillo

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

TheVisualMD

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Wellcome Trust

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

6:52

Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS

Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube

3:52

When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)

Healthguru/YouTube

HIV Rotation

TheVisualMD

HIV Viral Load Test

HIV Viral Load Test

Also called: Human Immunodeficiency Virus RNA, HIV RNA

An HIV viral load is a blood test that measures the amount of HIV in your blood. It can determine how well your HIV medicines are working. The main goal of HIV medicines is to reduce the HIV viral load to an "undetectable" level, meaning the lower your viral load, the better.

HIV Viral Load Test

Also called: Human Immunodeficiency Virus RNA, HIV RNA

An HIV viral load is a blood test that measures the amount of HIV in your blood. It can determine how well your HIV medicines are working. The main goal of HIV medicines is to reduce the HIV viral load to an "undetectable" level, meaning the lower your viral load, the better.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{copies}/mL
20
200
Your result is Normal.
A normal or undetectable (not detected) result means no HIV was found in your blood. If you've been diagnosed with HIV, reducing the viral load to "undetectable" levels slows or stops disease progression and prevents HIV transmission to sex partners. Treatment for HIV suppresses the virus but does not eliminate it. Even if HIV levels are not detectable, the HIV is still in the body and will rebound to detectable if the HIV medicines are stopped.
Related conditions
An HIV viral load test may be used to:
- Check how well your HIV medicines are working
- Monitor any changes in your HIV infection
- Diagnose HIV if you think you've been recently infected
An HIV viral load is an expensive test and is mostly used when a quick result is needed. Other less expensive types of tests are used more often for diagnosing HIV.
Your health care provider may order an HIV viral load when you are first diagnosed with HIV. This initial measurement helps your provider measure how your condition changes over time. You will probably be tested again every three to four months to see if your viral levels have changed since your first test. If you are being treated for HIV, your health care provider may order regular viral load tests to see how well your medicines are working.
You may also need an HIV viral load if you think you may have been recently infected. HIV is mainly spread through sexual contact and blood. (It can also be transmitted from mother to child during birth and through breast milk.) You may be at higher risk of infection if you:
- Are a man that has had sex with another man
- Have had sex with an HIV-infected partner
- Have had multiple sex partners
- Have injected drugs, such as heroin, or shared drug needles with someone else
An HIV viral load can find HIV in your blood within days after you've been infected. Other tests can take several weeks or months to show an infection. During that time, you could infect someone else without knowing it. An HIV viral load gives you results sooner, so you can avoid spreading the disease.
Below is a list of typical results. Your results may vary depending on your health and even the lab used for testing.
- A normal result means no HIV was found in your blood, and you are not infected.
- A low viral load means the virus is not very active and probably means your HIV treatment is working.
- A high viral load means the virus is more active and your treatment is not working well. The higher the viral load, the more risk you have for problems and diseases related to a weak immune system. It may also mean you are at higher risk for developing AIDS. If your results show a high viral load, your health care provider will probably make changes in your treatment plan.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. HIV Viral Load: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 14, 2018]
2. HIV viral load (or 'HIV RNA'). U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. [accessed on Oct 16, 2019]
3. 550430: Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1),... | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
4. HIV Viral Load [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (7)

0:58

#AskTheHIVDoc: What is viral load? (0:57)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

0:58

#AskTheHIVDoc: What is a viral load blip? (0:57)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

1:01

#AskTheHIVDoc: What if my viral load goes up? (1:00)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

0:48

#AskTheHIVDoc: What happens when HIV enters the body? (0:47)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

0:48

#AskTheHIVDoc: What is HIV undetectable? (0:47)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

1:13

#AskTheHIVDoc: How long does it take to get to HIV undetectable? (1:13)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

0:43

#AskTheHIVDoc: How do you know if you are HIV undetectable? (0:42)

Greater Than AIDS/YouTube

HIV Self-Test

HIV Self-Test

Also called: HIV Home Test, Home Access HIV-1 Test System, OraQuick® In-Home HIV Test

Home HIV screening kits test either a sample of oral fluid or a sample of blood that you get by pricking your finger. It is used to detect whether or not you have antibodies to HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

HIV Self-Test

Also called: HIV Home Test, Home Access HIV-1 Test System, OraQuick® In-Home HIV Test

Home HIV screening kits test either a sample of oral fluid or a sample of blood that you get by pricking your finger. It is used to detect whether or not you have antibodies to HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

{"label":"HIV self-test reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"If you test negative for HIV, it means you did not have antibodies to HIV at the time of the test. If you think you were exposed to the virus and might be infected, you should test yourself again in a few months.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If you test positive in this test, you are infected with the HIV virus. Having HIV infection does not necessarily mean you have AIDS. You should see your doctor so you can learn the status of your disease and decide what therapy, if any, you need.","conditions":["HIV infection"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
If you test negative for HIV, it means you did not have antibodies to HIV at the time of the test. If you think you were exposed to the virus and might be infected, you should test yourself again in a few months.
Related conditions
You should do this test to find out if you have an HIV infection. If you know that you have an HIV infection,
- you can obtain medical treatment that helps slow the course of the disease, and
- you can take precautions to keep from infecting others.
Untreated, HIV destroys your immune system. The most advanced stage of HIV infection is AIDS, an often-fatal disease.
You should do this test if you believe there is a chance you may have an HIV infection. You are at greatest risk for HIV if you:
- have ever shared injection drug needles and syringes or "works."
- have ever had sex without a condom with someone who had HIV.
- have ever had a sexually transmitted disease, like chlamydia or gonorrhea.
- received a blood transfusion or a blood-clotting factor between 1978 and 1985.
- have ever had sex with someone who has done any of those things
If you use this test, no one but you will know you were tested for HIV or what the results showed.
The test comes with sterile lancets, an alcohol pad, gauze pads, a blood specimen collection card, a bandage, a lancet disposal container, a shipping pouch, and instructions. To do the test, you
- call a specified telephone number,
- register a code number that is included with the specimen collection kit,
- prick your finger with a lancet to get a drop of blood,
- place drops of blood on the card,
- send the shipping pouch by express courier service to the central testing laboratory,
- receive results by phone after 3-7 business days later, and
- if you test positive for HIV, you get counseling on what to do about your infection.
1. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Home Use Tests. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [accessed on Nov 16, 2018]
2. HIV Home Test Kits. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [accessed on Nov 16, 2018]
3. Information regarding the Home Access HIV-1 Test System. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [accessed on Dec 10, 2018]
4. HIV Testing. Home Tests. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [accessed on Nov 16, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

OraQuick In-Home HIV Test Kit

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

HIV test

Marcello Casal JR/ABr

Lung Cancer

Biopsy, Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA), Lung

Image by © 2022 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Who Should Be Screened for Lung Cancer?

Screening means testing for a disease when there are no symptoms or history of that disease. Doctors recommend a screening test to find a disease early, when treatment may work better.

The only recommended screening test for lung cancer is low-dose computed tomography (also called a low-dose CT scan, or LDCT). During an LDCT scan, you lie on a table and an X-ray machine uses a low dose (amount) of radiation to make detailed images of your lungs. The scan only takes a few minutes and is not painful.

Who Should Be Screened?

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends yearly lung cancer screening with LDCT for people who—

Have a 20 pack-year or more smoking history, and
Smoke now or have quit within the past 15 years, and
Are between 50 and 80 years old.

A pack-year is smoking an average of one pack of cigarettes per day for one year. For example, a person could have a 20 pack-year history by smoking one pack a day for 20 years or two packs a day for 10 years.

Risks of Screening

Lung cancer screening has at least three risks—

A lung cancer screening test can suggest that a person has lung cancer when no cancer is present. This is called a false-positive result. False-positive results can lead to follow-up tests and surgeries that are not needed and may have risks.
A lung cancer screening test can find cases of cancer that may never have caused a problem for the patient. This is called overdiagnosis. Overdiagnosis can lead to treatment that is not needed.
Radiation from repeated LDCT tests can cause cancer in otherwise healthy people.

That is why lung cancer screening is recommended only for adults who are at high risk for developing the disease because of their smoking history and age, and who do not have a health problem that substantially limits their life expectancy or their ability or willingness to have lung surgery, if needed.

If you are thinking about getting screened, talk to your doctor. If lung cancer screening is right for you, your doctor can refer you to a high-quality screening facility.

Some people with a smoking history may blame themselves or feel that others blame them for being at risk for getting cancer. Lung cancer can be caused by many different things. If you do get lung cancer, lung cancer screening can help find it early, when treatment may work better.

When you get lung cancer screening, your doctor may ask you if you smoke, ask if you’re ready to quit smoking, and tell you about proven steps that can help you quit. No matter how long you have used tobacco, quitting can reduce your risk for lung cancer and other chronic diseases. Many people who use tobacco become addicted to nicotine, a drug found naturally in tobacco. This can make it hard to quit using tobacco. Most people who use tobacco try to quit several times before they succeed. For more information about quitting tobacco use, visit smokefree.gov.

The only recommended screening test for lung cancer is low-dose computed tomography (also called a low-dose CT scan). Screening is recommended only for adults who have no symptoms but are at high risk.

When Should Screening Stop?

The Task Force recommends that yearly lung cancer screening stop when the person being screened—

Turns 81 years old, or
Has not smoked in 15 or more years, or
Develops a health problem that makes him or her unwilling or unable to have surgery if lung cancer is found.

Insurance and Medicare Coverage

Most insurance plans and Medicare help pay for recommended lung cancer screening tests. If the screening test finds something abnormal, you may need more tests. These follow-up tests may have a cost such as a co-pay or deductible. Check with your insurance plan to find out what benefits are covered for lung cancer screening. For more information about Medicare coverage, visit www.medicare.gov or call 1-800-MEDICARE (1-800-633-4227). TTY users should call 1 (877) 486-2048.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (21)

Thoracic Aspiration

Image by © 2014 Terese Winslow LLC

Ultrasound, Endoscopic (EUS), With Biopsy

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy; drawing shows an endoscope with an ultrasound probe and biopsy needle inserted through the mouth and into the esophagus. Also shown are the lymph nodes near the esophagus and cancer in one lung. An inset shows the ultrasound probe locating the lymph nodes with cancer and the biopsy needle removing tissue from one of the lymph nodes near the esophagus. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy. An endoscope that has an ultrasound probe and a biopsy needle is inserted through the mouth and into the esophagus. The probe bounces sound waves off body tissues to make echoes that form a sonogram (computer picture) of the lymph nodes near the esophagus. The sonogram helps the doctor see where to place the biopsy needle to remove tissue from the lymph nodes. This tissue is checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.

Image by © 2022 Terese Winslow LLC, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Bronchoscopy - No Cancer

Image by © 2006 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS)

Image by © 2007 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy of the Lung

Image by © 2007 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

LungcaCT

Lung CA seen on CT

Image by James Heilman, MD/Wikimedia

right side lung, side S2-S3 small cell carcinoma

right-side S2+S3, small cell lung cancer, male, 66y.o,

Image by melvil

Pulmonary adenocarcinoma

Pulmonary adenocarcinoma, left lung, CT scan A large mass is present in the left lung.

Image by Yale Rosen from USA

CAT Scan

Carlos Jorge, Fort Sill Reynolds Army Community Hospital CAT scan technician, slides Spc. Lane Penn, Fort Sill WTU Soldier, into the entrance of the CAT scan machine. Kevin Young, Fort Sill Cannoneer.

Image by U.S. Army

X-ray of Lung Cancer

X-ray of Lung Cancer

Image by Aspérule/Wikimedia

Normal Lung Anatomy

Image by © 2006 Terese Winslow LLC, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

CT Scan of Lung Cancer

CT Scan of Lung Cancer

Image by Aspérule/Wikimedia

Anterior Pancoast tumor PET

PET scan of an anterior superior sulcus tumor.

Image by Soichi Oka, Kenji Ono, Kenta Kajiyam, and Katsuma Yoshimatsu/Wikimedia

Diagram showing how you have internal radiotherapy for lung cancer CRUK 160

Diagram showing how you have internal radiotherapy for lung cancer.

Image by Cancer Research UK/Wikimedia

Lung biopsy guided by computertomography: Lung cancer

Lung biopsy guided by computertomography: Lung cancer

Image by Hellerhoff

How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?

The image shows how spirometry is done. The patient takes a deep breath and blows as hard as possible into a tube connected to a spirometer. The spirometer measures the amount of air breathed out. It also measures how fast the air was blown out.

Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)

Lung Cancer

Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute

Lung Cancer Screening: Early Detection for Smokers

Video by uvahealth/YouTube

Low Dose CT Screening for Lung Cancer Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Video by Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube

Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

Lung cancer diagnosis | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Thoracic Aspiration

© 2014 Terese Winslow LLC

Ultrasound, Endoscopic (EUS), With Biopsy

© 2022 Terese Winslow LLC, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Bronchoscopy - No Cancer

© 2006 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS)

© 2007 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy of the Lung

© 2007 Terese Winslow, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

LungcaCT

James Heilman, MD/Wikimedia

right side lung, side S2-S3 small cell carcinoma

melvil

Pulmonary adenocarcinoma

Yale Rosen from USA

CAT Scan

U.S. Army

X-ray of Lung Cancer

Aspérule/Wikimedia

Normal Lung Anatomy

© 2006 Terese Winslow LLC, U.S. Govt. has certain rights

CT Scan of Lung Cancer

Aspérule/Wikimedia

Anterior Pancoast tumor PET

Soichi Oka, Kenji Ono, Kenta Kajiyam, and Katsuma Yoshimatsu/Wikimedia

Diagram showing how you have internal radiotherapy for lung cancer CRUK 160

Cancer Research UK/Wikimedia

Lung biopsy guided by computertomography: Lung cancer

Hellerhoff

How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)

Lung Cancer

National Cancer Institute

2:17

Lung Cancer Screening: Early Detection for Smokers

uvahealth/YouTube

4:46

Low Dose CT Screening for Lung Cancer Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube

1:44

Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer

Lee Health/YouTube

5:52

Lung cancer diagnosis | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

LDCT

Low-Dose Computed Tomography

Also called: LDCT, Low-Dose CT Scan, Lung Cancer Screening with Low-Dose CT

Lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography is recommended only for adults who have no symptoms but are at high risk for developing the disease because of their smoking history and age. In this test, an X-ray machine scans the body and uses low doses of radiation to make detailed pictures of the lungs.

Low-Dose Computed Tomography

Also called: LDCT, Low-Dose CT Scan, Lung Cancer Screening with Low-Dose CT

Lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography is recommended only for adults who have no symptoms but are at high risk for developing the disease because of their smoking history and age. In this test, an X-ray machine scans the body and uses low doses of radiation to make detailed pictures of the lungs.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means nothing abnormal was seen on the scan. Ask your care team when and if you should repeat the scan based on your health and history. False-negative test results can occur, meaning the scan may appear to be normal even though lung cancer is present.
Related conditions
1. Who Should Be Screened for Lung Cancer? | CDC [accessed on Jan 07, 2019]
2. Decision Memo for Screening for Lung Cancer with Low Dose Computed Tomography (LDCT) (CAG-00439N) [accessed on Jan 07, 2019]
3. Lung Cancer Screening With Low-Dose CT (LDCT) FAQs [accessed on Jan 07, 2019]
4. Lung Cancer Screening [accessed on Jan 07, 2019]
5. PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board. PDQ Lung Cancer Screening. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Jan 07, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Chest X-Ray

Chest X-Ray Test

Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film

A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.

Chest X-Ray Test

Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film

A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
X rays are electromagnetic waves. They use ionizing radiation to create pictures of the inside of your body. A chest x ray takes pictures of the inside of your chest. The different tissues in your chest absorb different amounts of radiation. Your ribs and spine are bony and absorb radiation well. They normally appear light on a chest x ray. Your lungs, which are filled with air, normally appear dark.
Related conditions
1. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-x-ray [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003804.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
3. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/chestrad [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
4. https://www.emedicinehealth.com/chest_x-ray/article_em.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min

Video by Nick Smith/YouTube

How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Tuberculosis X-ray

An anteroposterior X-ray of a patient diagnosed with advanced bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis. This AP X-ray of the chest reveals the presence of bilateral pulmonary infiltrate (white triangles), and caving forma.

Image by CDC / Der Lange

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

This highly-magnified, 1981 transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image, reveals some of the morphologic traits exhibited by a human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The virion is variable in shape, and size, with an average diameter between 120-300nm. RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children, under 1-year of age.

Image by CDC/ E. L. Palmer

Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray

Combination of two x-rays (A) normal chest x-ray (B) x-ray documenting Q fever pneumonia.

Image by US Gov

Chest X Ray

A Lateral Chest X-Ray with the heart shadow outlined.

Image by US Army

Projectional radiography

Image relating focal spot size to geometric unsharpness in projectional radiography.

Image by Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom

Chest Radiograph

Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.

Image by TheVisualMD

X-ray of Healthy Lung

This image shows an x-ray of healthy lungs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cancer screening

Cancer Imaging: X-Rays : Chest X-rays can be used to show the presence of tumors, as for lung cancer, but they may also indicate problems associated with cancer. An X-ray may produce images suggestive of fluid accumulation, masses, or enlarged lymph nodes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lung Cancer

Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute

Chest X Ray

Mediastinal structures on a chest radiograph.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators

CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion

CT scan of chest showing loculated pleural effusion in left side. Some thickening of pleura is also noted. From my personal collection. Permission obtained from patient.

Image by Drriad

Chest X-ray (Cancer)

This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

This browser does not support the video element.

CT Scans (VIDEO)

This video shows how modern science of scanning can expose the health condition of the patient. The video starts with a patient undergoing CT scanning, an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Visible are the heart, lungs, and arteries of a patient.

Video by TheVisualMD

Chest X-Ray

Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings Arrows indicate costophrenic angles

Image by US Army

Gallstones

Gallstones as seen on plain x-ray.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Hemoptysis x-ray

Hemoptysis can be discovered with the help of radiology.

Image by Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.

X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema

Within the lungs, the main airways (bronchi) branch off into smaller passageways, the smallest of which are called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs (alveoli). Pulmonary edema is a condition caused when excess fluid collects in these air sacs, making it difficult to breathe. Fluid in the lungs can be caused by pneumonia, acute respiratory distress and other conditions, but in most cases, the cause of pulmonary edema is heart problems (when a damaged heart can't pump enough blood and fluid leaks into the lungs).

Image by TheVisualMD

What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery

A normal chest X-ray after placement of an ICD, showing the ICD generator in the upper left chest and the ICD lead in the right ventricle of the heart. Note the 2 opaque coils along the ICD lead.

Image by Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC

This browser does not support the video element.

Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]

NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a Chest X-ray. This video is silent.

Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view

Most aneurysms are detected in the course of an exam, such as a physical exam or a chest X-ray, being performed for a different reason.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pleural Effusion: Tests

Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.

Image by CDC InvictaHOG

Coccidioidomycosis

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed pulmonary changes indicative of pulmonary fibrosis in a case of coccidioidomycosis, caused by fungal organisms of the genus, Coccidioides. Because these changes also resemble those seen in other lung infections including tuberculosis, the findings uncovered with a chest x-ray needs to be coupled with serologic testing, as well as possible tissue biopsy. The degree of fibrotic changes, indicative of scarring found on x-ray, can be directly correlated to the severity of the fungal infection.

Image by CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg

How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?

Chest X-Ray: Acute respiratory distress syndrome on plain Xray

Image by James Heilman, MD

How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?

Early Asbestosis in a Retired Pipe Fitter : Chest X-ray in asbestosis shows plaques above diaphragm

Image by Clinical Cases

Aspergillosis

This was a photomicrograph of a lung tissue specimen, harvested from a caged, sulfur-crested cockatoo, that depicted some of the histopathologic changes that had been caused by the fungal organism, Aspergillus fumigatus, in a case of avian pulmonary aspergillosis. Here, you are able see how the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, revealed A. fumigatus ultrastructural morphology including conidial heads and mycelium.

Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan

Pleural Effusion - Defined

A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray

Image by Drriad

Pleural Effusion: Tests

A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray

Image by James Heilman MD

Breast implants

Chest X-ray showing breast implants

Image by James Heilman

Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

No cure is available for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) yet. Your symptoms may get worse over time. As your symptoms worsen, you may not be able to do many of the things that you did before you had IPF. However, lifestyle changes and ongoing care can help you manage the disease. If you're still smoking, the most important thing you can do is quit. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. Ask family members and friends not to smoke in front of you or in your home, car, or workplace.

Image by Drriad

Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)

A chest x-ray showing increased opacity in both lungs, indicative of pneumonia, in a patient with SARS.

Image by CDC

Chilaiditi syndrome

Chest X-ray showing obvious Chilaiditi's sign, or presence of gas in the right colic angle between the liver and right hemidiaphragm (left side of the image).

Image by Steven Fruitsmaak

Chest X Ray

Medical X-rays.

Image by © Nevit Dilmen

Calcification

Piper's Sign: In days gone by the lateral chest x-ray (demonstrating greater opacity in the aortic arch and descending aorta than the thoracic spine) gave an indication to the degree of calcified plaque burden a patient had. This has been known as Piper's sign and can often be seen in elderly persons particularly those with concomitant osteoporosis.

Image by U4077905

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Image by Stockholm

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Image by Lange123 at German Wikipedia

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza

Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.

Image by Mikael Häggström

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral

Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.

Image by Mikael Häggström

Fungal Parasites and Pathogens

(a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on skin; (b) Trichophyton violaceum, shown in this bright field light micrograph, causes superficial mycoses on the scalp; (c) Histoplasma capsulatum is an ascomycete that infects airways and causes symptoms similar to influenza. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit b: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit c: modification of work by M. Renz, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Image by CNX Openstax

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)

Pneumocystis jirovecii is the causative agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), one of the most frequent and severe opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis organisms represent a large group of species of atypical fungi with universal distribution and pulmonary tropism, and each species has a strong specificity for a given mammalian host species.

Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Image by Stillwaterising

Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child

PA view Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child. Released per permission of mother.

Image by Samir (talk)

Chest X Ray

Structures shown: Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings. Arrows indicate costophrenic angles

Image by US Army

Thoracic diaphragm

X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.

Image by OpenStax College

Chest X Ray

Roentgenogram or Medical X-ray image. May not be to scale.

Image by © Nevit Dilmen

Thoracic cavity

Chest landmarks, for radiography and other chest imaging techniques

Image by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.

Reading a chest X-ray

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

4:51

Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min

Nick Smith/YouTube

4:42

How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang

TED-Ed/YouTube

What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?

Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Tuberculosis X-ray

CDC / Der Lange

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

CDC/ E. L. Palmer

Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray

US Gov

Chest X Ray

US Army

Projectional radiography

Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom

Chest Radiograph

TheVisualMD

X-ray of Healthy Lung

TheVisualMD

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Lung Cancer

National Cancer Institute

Chest X Ray

Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators

CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion

Drriad

Chest X-ray (Cancer)

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

0:40

CT Scans (VIDEO)

TheVisualMD

Chest X-Ray

US Army

Gallstones

James Heilman, MD

Hemoptysis x-ray

Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.

X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema

TheVisualMD

What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery

Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC

1:43

Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view

TheVisualMD

Pleural Effusion: Tests

CDC InvictaHOG

Coccidioidomycosis

CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg

How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?

James Heilman, MD

How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?

Clinical Cases

Aspergillosis

CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan

Pleural Effusion - Defined

Drriad

Pleural Effusion: Tests

James Heilman MD

Breast implants

James Heilman

Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Drriad

Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)

CDC

Chilaiditi syndrome

Steven Fruitsmaak

Chest X Ray

© Nevit Dilmen

Calcification

U4077905

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Stockholm

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Lange123 at German Wikipedia

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza

Mikael Häggström

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral

Mikael Häggström

Fungal Parasites and Pathogens

CNX Openstax

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)

CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Stillwaterising

Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child

Samir (talk)

Chest X Ray

US Army

Thoracic diaphragm

OpenStax College

Chest X Ray

© Nevit Dilmen

Thoracic cavity

Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.

7:02

Reading a chest X-ray

Osmosis/YouTube

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Sputum Culture

Sputum Culture

Also called: Sputum cytology, Deep cough sputum, Respiratory culture, Bacterial sputum culture, Routine sputum culture

A sputum culture is a test that helps diagnose infections of the lungs or airways. Sputum is a thick mucus made in your lungs. It is not the same as spit or saliva. You may cough up sputum if you have an infection or chronic illness of the respiratory system.

Sputum Culture

Also called: Sputum cytology, Deep cough sputum, Respiratory culture, Bacterial sputum culture, Routine sputum culture

A sputum culture is a test that helps diagnose infections of the lungs or airways. Sputum is a thick mucus made in your lungs. It is not the same as spit or saliva. You may cough up sputum if you have an infection or chronic illness of the respiratory system.

{"label":"Sputum Culture Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"If your results were normal, it means no harmful bacteria or fungi were found. A normal sputum sample result is negative for malignancy.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If your results were not normal, it may mean you have some kind of bacterial or fungal infection. If abnormal cells are present in the sputum sample, this can indicate either lung cancer or non-cancerous conditions.","conditions":["Bacterial infection","Fungal infection","Pneumonia","Bronchitis","Tuberculosis","Lung cancer","Inflammatory lesions","Allergic reaction","Squamous metaplasia"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
If your results were normal, it means no harmful bacteria or fungi were found. A normal sputum sample result is negative for malignancy.
Related conditions
A sputum culture is a test that checks for bacteria or another type of organism that may be causing an infection in your lungs or the airways leading to the lungs. Sputum, also known as phlegm, is a thick type of mucus made in your lungs. If you have an infection or chronic illness affecting the lungs or airways, it can make you cough up sputum.
Sputum is not the same as spit or saliva. Sputum contains cells from the immune system that help fight the bacteria, fungi, or other foreign substances in your lungs or airways. The thickness of sputum helps trap the foreign material. This allows cilia (tiny hairs) in the airways to push it through the mouth and be coughed out.
Sputum can be one of several different colors. The colors can help identify the type of infection you may have or if a chronic illness has become worse:
- Clear. This usually means no disease is present, but large amounts of clear sputum may be a sign of lung disease.
- White or gray. This may also be normal, but increased amounts may mean lung disease.
- Dark yellow or green. This often means a bacterial infection, such as pneumonia. Yellowish-green sputum is also common in people with cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease that causes mucus to build up in the lungs and other organs.
- Brown. This often shows up in people who smoke. It is also a common sign of black lung disease. Black lung disease is a serious condition that can happen if you have long-term exposure to coal dust.
- Pink. This may be a sign of pulmonary edema, a condition in which excess fluid builds up in the lungs. Pulmonary edema is common in people with congestive heart failure.
- Red. This may be an early sign of lung cancer. It may also be a sign of a pulmonary embolism, a life-threatening condition in which a blood clot from a leg or other part of the body breaks loose and travels to the lungs. If you are coughing up red or bloody sputum, call 911 or seek immediate medical attention.
A sputum culture is most often used to:
- Find and diagnose bacteria or fungi that may be causing an infection in the lungs or airways.
- See if a chronic illness of the lungs has worsened.
- See if treatment for an infection is working.
A sputum culture is often done with another test called a Gram stain. A Gram stain is a test that checks for bacteria at the site of a suspected infection or in body fluids such as blood or urine. It can help identify the specific type of infection you may have.
You may need this test if you have symptoms of pneumonia or another serious infection of the lungs or airways. These include:
- Cough which produces a lot of sputum
- Fever
- Chills
- Shortness of breath
- Chest pain that gets worse when you breathe deeply or cough
- Fatigue
- Confusion, especially in older people
Your health care provider will need to get a sample of your sputum. During the test:
- A health care provider will ask you to breathe deeply and then cough deeply into a special cup.
- Your provider may tap you on the chest to help loosen sputum from your lungs.
- If you have trouble coughing up enough sputum, your provider may ask you to breathe in a salty mist that can help you cough more deeply.
- If you still can't cough up enough sputum, your provider may perform a procedure called a bronchoscopy. In this procedure, you'll first get a medicine to help you relax, and then a numbing medicine so you won't feel any pain.
- Then a thin, lighted tube will be put through your mouth or nose and into the airways.
- Your provider will collect a sample from your airway using a small brush or suction.
If your results were normal, it means no harmful bacteria or fungi were found. If your results were not normal, it may mean you have some kind of bacterial or fungal infection. Your provider may need to do more tests to find the specific type of infection you have. The most common types of harmful bacteria found in a sputum culture include those that cause:
- Pneumonia
- Bronchitis
- Tuberculosis
An abnormal sputum culture result may also mean a flare-up of a chronic condition, such as cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a lung disease that makes it hard to breathe.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Sputum Cytology | LungCancer.net [accessed on Jan 01, 2019]
2. Sputum cytology in suspected cases of carcinoma of lung (Sputum cytology a poor man's bronchoscopy!) [accessed on Jan 01, 2019]
3. Sputum examination for early detection of lung cancer [accessed on Jan 01, 2019]
4. Sputum Cytology [accessed on Jan 01, 2019]
5. Lung Cancer Screening and Tests: LDCT, Biopsy, Bronchoscopy, and More [accessed on Jan 01, 2019]
6. Lung disease | womenshealth.gov [accessed on Jan 11, 2019]
7. 009076: Sputum Cytology Series | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 11, 2019]
8. Sputum Culture and Cytology Study - MidMichigan Health [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (5)

Phlegm

Zhangmoon618

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

CDC

4:18

Sputum

MSREducators/YouTube

8:03

How to Identify Haemophilus influenzae in a Sputum Culture

Suzanne Clark/YouTube

Staph sputum - Staphylococcus aureus: Gram positive cocci under the microscope (40x) from a sputum sample.

Bobjgalindo

Osteoporosis

Bone mineral density

Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Juliane Isaac, Ph.D., NIAMS Laboratory of Skin Biology (Maria I. Morasso, Ph.D., Chief)

Get a Bone Density Test

Overview

A bone density test measures how strong bones are. The test will tell you if you have osteoporosis, or weak bones.

Women are at higher risk for osteoporosis than men, and the risk increases with age.

If you’re a woman age 65 or older, schedule a bone density test.
If you’re a woman age 64 or younger and you have gone through menopause, ask your doctor if you need a bone density test.

Men can get osteoporosis, too. If you’re a man over age 65 and you’re concerned about your bone strength, talk with your doctor or nurse.

What is osteoporosis?

Osteoporosis is a bone disease. It means your bones are weak and more likely to break. People with osteoporosis most often break bones in the hip, spine, and wrist.

There are no signs or symptoms of osteoporosis. You might not know you have the disease until you break a bone. That’s why it’s so important to get a bone density test to measure your bone strength.

What happens during a bone density test?

A bone density test is like an x-ray or scan of your body. The test doesn’t hurt, and you don't need to do anything to prepare for it. It only takes about 15 minutes.

Am I at Risk?

Am I at risk for osteoporosis?

Osteoporosis is most common in older women, but men can also get it. Your risk for osteoporosis increases as you get older.

Other things can increase your risk for osteoporosis, including:

Hormone changes (especially for women who have gone through menopause)
Not getting enough calcium and vitamin D
Taking certain medicines
Smoking cigarettes or drinking too much alcohol
Not getting enough physical activity
Having a low body weight
Having a parent who broke a hip

Treatment Options

What if I have osteoporosis?

If you have osteoporosis, you can still slow down bone loss. Finding and treating the disease early can keep you healthier and more active – and help lower your risk of breaking bones.

Depending on the results of your bone density test, you may need to:

Add more calcium and vitamin D to your diet
Get more physical activity
Take medicine to slow down bone loss

Your doctor can tell you what steps are right for you. It doesn’t matter how old you are – it’s never too late to improve your bone health.

Get Tested

Take these steps to protect your bone health.

Schedule a bone density test if your doctor recommends it.

Ask your doctor if you’re at risk for osteoporosis and if you need to schedule a bone density test.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, insurance plans must cover screening for osteoporosis. Depending on your insurance plan, you may be able to get screened at no cost to you. Check with your insurance company to find out more.

Medicare may also cover bone density tests at no cost.

If you don’t have insurance, you may still be able to get a free or low-cost bone density test.

Calcium and Vitamin D

You need both calcium and vitamin D for strong bones.

Get enough calcium.

Calcium helps keep your bones strong. You can get calcium from:

Fat-free or low-fat (1%) milk, yogurt, and cheese
Soy milk or yogurt with added calcium
Certain vegetables, including soybeans, collard greens, and turnip greens
Tofu with added calcium
Orange juice with added calcium
Calcium pills

Get enough vitamin D.

Vitamin D helps your body take in calcium.

Your body makes vitamin D when you’re out in the sun. You can also get vitamin D from:

Fish like salmon, tuna, and trout
Milk with added vitamin D
Some breakfast cereals, yogurt, and juices with added vitamin D
Vitamin D pills

Get active.

Physical activity can help slow down bone loss. Weight-bearing activities (like running or doing jumping jacks) help keep your bones strong. Try these tips to get active:

Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity a week. Anything that gets your heart beating faster counts.
Do muscle-strengthening activities at least 2 days a week. These include lifting weights or using resistance bands (long rubber strips that stretch).
Team up with a friend or join a fitness class. Getting active with others can help you stick with it.

Find activities that work for you.

You don't need special equipment or a gym membership to stay active. Check with your local community center or senior center to find fun, affordable ways to get active.

If you have a health condition or a disability, be as active as you can. Your doctor can help you choose activities that are right for you.

Healthy Habits

Stay away from cigarettes and alcohol.

Smoking cigarettes and drinking too much alcohol can weaken your bones.

If you smoke, make a plan to quit.
If you choose to drink, drink alcohol only in moderation — that means 1 drink or less in a day for women and 2 drinks or less in a day for men

Take steps to prevent falls.

Falls can be especially serious for people with weak bones. You can make small changes to lower your risk of falling, like doing exercises that improve your balance. For example, tai chi is a mind-body exercise that improves balance.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (4)

1:00

Mayo Clinic Minute: What's a bone density test?

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

2:47

How Osteoporosis Is Diagnosed

Everyday Health/YouTube

2:13

Women's Wellness: Bone density

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

1:32

What is a DEXA bone scan and what does it show?

Top Doctors UK/YouTube

Bone Density Scan

Bone Density Scan

Also called: Bone mineral density, BMD, Bone mass measurement, Osteoporosis screening, DEXA scan, DXA, Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

A bone density scan is an imaging test that measures calcium and other minerals in your bones. It's used to diagnose osteopenia (low bone mass) and osteoporosis, a more serious disorder that often leads to broken bones.

Bone Density Scan

Also called: Bone mineral density, BMD, Bone mass measurement, Osteoporosis screening, DEXA scan, DXA, Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

A bone density scan is an imaging test that measures calcium and other minerals in your bones. It's used to diagnose osteopenia (low bone mass) and osteoporosis, a more serious disorder that often leads to broken bones.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
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-1
Your result is Normal.
This number shows the amount of bone you have compared with a young adult of the same gender with peak bone mass. A T-score above -1 is considered normal.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
SD
-2
Your result is Normal.
This number reflects the amount of bone you have compared with other people in your age group and of the same size and gender.
Related conditions
A bone density scan is used to:
- Diagnose osteopenia (low bone mass)
- Diagnose osteoporosis
- Predict risk of future fractures
- See if treatment for osteoporosis is working
Most women age 65 or older should have a bone density scan. Women in this age group are at high risk for losing bone density, which can lead to fractures. You may also be at risk for low bone density if you:
- Have a very low body weight
- Have had one or more fractures after the age of 50
- Have lost a half inch or more in height within one year
- Are a man over the age of 70
- Have a family history of osteoporosis
Other risk factors include:
- Lack of physical activity
- Smoking cigarettes
- Heavy drinking
- Not getting enough calcium and vitamin D in your diet
There are different ways to measure bone density. The most common and accurate way uses a procedure called dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, also known as a DEXA scan. The scan is usually done in a radiologist's office.
During a DEXA scan:
- You will lie on your back on a padded table. You will probably be able to leave your clothes on.
- You may need to lie with your legs straight, or you may be asked to rest your legs on a padded platform.
- A scanning machine will pass over your lower spine and hip. At the same time, another scanning machine called a photon generator will pass beneath you. The images from the two machines will be combined and sent to a computer. A health care provider will view the images on the computer screen.
- While the machines are scanning, you will need to stay very still. You may be asked to hold your breath.
To measure bone density in the forearm, finger, hand, or foot, a provider may use a portable scanner known as a peripheral DEXA (p-DEXA) scan.
Bone density results are often given in the form of a T score. A T score is a measurement that compares your bone density measurement with the bone density of a healthy 30-year-old. A low T score means you probably have some bone loss.
Your results may show one of the following:
- A T score of -1.0 or higher. This is considered normal bone density.
- A T score between -1.0 and -2.5. This means you have low bone density (osteopenia) and may be at risk for developing osteoporosis.
- A T score of -2.5 or less. This means you probably have osteoporosis.
If your results show you have low bone density, your health care provider will recommend steps to prevent further bone loss. These may include:
- Getting more exercise, with activities such walking, dancing, and using weight machines.
- Adding calcium and vitamin D to your diet
- Taking prescription medicines to increase bone density
If you have questions about your results and/or treatments for bone loss, talk to your health care provider.
1. NIH Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases ~ National Resource Center. Bone Mass Measurement: What the Numbers Mean. [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]
2. NIH Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases ~ National Resource Center. Osteoporosis: The Diagnosis PDF. [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]
3. Diagnostic Ragiology: Bone Densitometry (DEXA, DXA) [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]
4. Bone mineral density test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]
5. Sheu A, Diamond T. Bone mineral density: testing for osteoporosis. Aust Prescr. 2016;39(2):35-9. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
6. American Bone Health. Understanding Bone Density Results. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
7. Better Bones. The infamous T score and neglected Z score. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]

Overweight and Obesity

Overweight / Normal Weight

Weight Loss (Men vs Women)

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Overweight and Obesity Screening

Children and adults should be screened at least annually to see if they have a high or increasing body mass index (BMI), which allows doctors to recommend healthy lifestyle changes to prevent overweight and obesity.

Screening for a high or increasing body mass index (BMI)

To screen for overweight and obesity, doctors measure BMI using calculations that depend on whether you are a child or an adult. After reading the information below, talk to your doctor or your child’s doctor to determine if you or your child has a high or increasing BMI.

Children: A healthy weight is usually when your child’s BMI is at the 5th percentile up to the 85th percentile, based on growth charts for children who are the same age and sex.
Adults: A healthy weight for adults is usually when your BMI is 18.5 to less than 25.

Body mass index (BMI) is used to determine if you or your child are underweight, healthy, or overweight or obese. Children are underweight if their BMI is below the 5th percentile, healthy weight if their BMI is between the 5th to less than the 85th percentile, overweight if their BMI is the 85th percentile to less than the 95th percentile, and obese if their BMI is the 95th percentile or above. Adults are underweight if their BMI is below 18.5, healthy weight if their BMI is 18.5 to 24.9, overweight if their BMI is 25 to 29.9, and obese if their BMI is 30 or above. *A child’s BMI percentile is calculated by comparing your child’s BMI to growth charts for children who are the same age and sex as your child.

Healthy lifestyle changes to prevent overweight and obesity

If your BMI indicates you are getting close to being overweight, or if you have certain risk factors, your doctor may recommend you adopt healthy lifestyle changes to prevent you from becoming overweight and obese. Changes include healthy eating, being physically active, aiming for a healthy weight, and getting healthy amounts of sleep.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

Additional Materials (3)

31:12

Healthy Foods and Obesity Prevention (HBO: The Weight of the Nation)

HBODocs/YouTube

7:05

The effects of obesity and how to lose weight

Top Doctors UK/YouTube

1:05

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

KidandParent/YouTube

Screening Tests

Obesity Screening

Obesity screening checks whether extra body fat increases your risk for serious health problems. It uses your BMI (body mass index) to estimate body fat. Most adults and children ages 2 and older should be screened with a BMI at least once a year.

Obesity Screening

Obesity screening checks whether extra body fat increases your risk for serious health problems. It uses your BMI (body mass index) to estimate body fat. Most adults and children ages 2 and older should be screened with a BMI at least once a year.

Obesity screenings check for obesity and overweight in adults and children, starting as early as age 2. In general, having obesity and being overweight both mean that your weight is higher than what is considered healthy for your height:
- Obesity means that you have too much body fat.
- Overweight usually means that you have too much body fat. But the extra weight may come from muscle, bone, and/or holding too much water in your body.
Extra fat from obesity and overweight increases your risk of developing serious, long-lasting health problems, such as:
- Heart and blood vessel diseases, including heart attack and stroke
- High blood cholesterol
- Type 2 diabetes
- Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
- Arthritis
- Certain types of cancer
The more fat you have, the higher your risk of developing these problems. Children who have obesity may develop many of the same health problems as adults with obesity. They are also more likely to have obesity in adulthood and develop serious health problems later in life.
Obesity screening helps find out if too much body fat could be a health concern for you. Measuring body fat is difficult and expensive. So, obesity screening estimates how much body fat you have. The estimate is made with a calculation called a BMI (body mass index).
BMI for adults ages 20 and older is calculated from height and weight information. The result is a number called a BMI score. Higher BMI scores are linked to larger amounts of body fat and a higher risk for certain health problems. For most adults:
- A healthy weight is a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9
- Overweight is a BMI between 25 and 29.9
- Obesity is a BMI of 30 and above
BMI for children over age 2 and teens is also based on weight and height. But age and sex are part of figuring out if a child or teen has too much body fat. That's because the normal amount of body fat is different at each stage of growth. And the normal amount of fat is different for boys and girls.
To adjust for these differences, your child's BMI is compared to standard growth charts for children of their age and sex. The result is called a BMI percentile. For example, if your child's BMI is in the 25th percentile, it means that 25% percent of children the same age and sex have a lower BMI, and 75% percent have a higher BMI.
Because height and weight changes with growth, your child's BMI will be tracked over time to understand if obesity or overweight may be a health problem. For most children and teens:
- A healthy weight is a BMI between the 5^th and 85^th percentile.
- Overweight is a BMI between the 85^th and 94^th percentile.
- Obesity is a BMI in the 95^th percentile or higher.
A BMI is a fairly accurate way to screen most people for too much body fat, but it's not perfect. Your BMI can't tell if your weight is from extra fat or muscle. This means a very muscular person could have a BMI in the overweight range even though they don't have too much body fat.
Also, some people who have a healthy BMI may still have high amounts of body fat. This may be more common in groups that tend to have lower BMI scores, such as Asians and older adults who have lost muscle. Talk with your health care provider if you have questions about how accurate a BMI is for your body type.
An obesity screening is usually part of a routine checkup that includes a physical exam. Your provider will measure your height and weight. That information is usually entered into an online BMI calculator. If you know your height and weight, you can find your BMI online:
- Use this BMI calculator for adults.
- Use this BMI percentile calculator for children and teens.
Your provider may also use other tests to estimate how much body fat you have. These include:
- A waist measurement. Adults who have too much fat around their abdomen (belly) have an increased risk of developing conditions related to obesity. Even if you have a healthy BMI, your risk may be high if your waist size is:
  More than 40 inches for men
  More than 35 inches for women who aren't pregnant
- Skinfold measurements. A skinfold test measures the thickness of pinch of skin and fat at several places on your body. A special tool gently measures skinfolds on your belly, back, thigh, the back of your upper arm, and/or other places on your body. The results are used to estimate how much of your body is fat.
If your obesity screening shows that you may have too much body fat, your provider may ask questions to help find out why. This often includes discussing your:
- Medical history and medicines you take. Some health conditions cause people to gain weight, such as metabolic syndrome, hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovary syndrome (in females only). Your provider may order blood tests to confirm or rule out these and other conditions.
  Many medicines can cause weight gain, too. Examples include:
  Certain antidepressants
  Beta-blockers, which are used to treat high blood pressure
  Steroids, which are often used to treat autoimmune disease
  Certain diabetes medicines
- Eating habits. Obesity and overweight develop over time when you take in more calories than you use. So, your provider will want to know how much you eat and drink. What you eat and drink matters, too. Too much saturated fat and sugar can cause weight gain.
- Physical activity. A lack of physical activity is linked with weight gain. Your provider will want to know how much exercise you get and how much time you spend sitting.
- Sleep habits. Not getting enough sleep or poor-quality sleep can make you more likely to overeat. That's because sleep affects hormones that control hunger.
- Stress levels. Stress can affect your brain and trigger changes in your hormones that make you eat more and store more fat.
- Family history. You're more likely to become obese if close family members have obesity. You may have inherited genes that affect weight. The eating and exercise habits of the people around you can affect your habits and weight, too.
If an obesity screening shows that you have obesity or are overweight, your provider will work with you to develop a treatment plan. The goal of the plan is to reduce your risk of health problems linked to extra body fat.
Your plan will depend on how much weight you need to lose and the cause of your weight gain. Most plans are likely to include lifestyle changes, such as:
- Eating a healthier, lower calorie diet
- Getting more exercise
- Getting enough good-quality sleep
Depending on your BMI and health, you provider may also suggest:
- Support from a dietary or nutritional counselor
- A behavioral weight-loss treatment program
- Prescription weight-loss medicines combined with lifestyle changes
- Weight loss surgery or devices, such as balloons, that are put in the stomach to help you lose weight
If you have questions about obesity screening or treatments to lower your BMI, talk with your provider.
1. Obesity Screening: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jul 05, 2023]

Body Mass Index

Body Mass Index

Also called: BMI, Quetelet Index

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. It is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. The higher your BMI, the higher your risk for certain diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing problems, and certain cancers.

Body Mass Index

Also called: BMI, Quetelet Index

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. It is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. The higher your BMI, the higher your risk for certain diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing problems, and certain cancers.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
kg/(m<sup>2</sup>)
18.5
25
30
35
40
Your result is Healthy.
A BMI of 18 - 25 indicates that you are at a healthy weight for your height. By maintaining a healthy weight, you lower your risk of developing serious health problems.
Related conditions

BMI is calculated the same way for both adults and children. The calculation is based on the following formulas:

Measurement Units

Formula and Calculation

Kilograms and meters (or centimeters)

Formula: weight (kg) / [height (m)]²

With the metric system, the formula for BMI is weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Because height is commonly measured in centimeters, divide height in centimeters by 100 to obtain height in meters.

Example: Weight = 68 kg, Height = 165 cm (1.65 m)
Calculation: 68 ÷ (1.65)² = 24.98

Pounds and inches

Formula: weight (lb) / [height (in)]² x 703

Calculate BMI by dividing weight in pounds (lbs) by height in inches (in) squared and multiplying by a conversion factor of 703.

Example: Weight = 150 lbs, Height = 5’5″ (65″)
Calculation: [150 ÷ (65)²] x 703 = 24.96

The correlation between the BMI and body fatness is fairly strong, but even if 2 people have the same BMI, their level of body fatness may differ.
In general,
- At the same BMI, women tend to have more body fat than men.
- At the same BMI, Blacks have less body fat than do Whites, and Asians have more body fat than do Whites
- At the same BMI, older people, on average, tend to have more body fat than younger adults.
- At the same BMI, athletes have less body fat than do non-athletes.
The accuracy of BMI as an indicator of body fatness also appears to be higher in persons with higher levels of BMI and body fatness. While, a person with a very high BMI (e.g., 35 kg/m²) is very likely to have high body fat, a relatively high BMI can be the results of either high body fat or high lean body mass (muscle and bone). A trained healthcare provider should perform appropriate health assessments in order to evaluate an individual’s health status and risks.
People who have obesity are at increased risk for many diseases and health conditions, including the following:
- All-causes of death (mortality)
- High blood pressure (Hypertension)
- High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (Dyslipidemia)
- Type 2 diabetes
- Coronary heart disease
- Stroke
- Gallbladder disease
- Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint)
- Sleep apnea and breathing problems
- Chronic inflammation and increased oxidative stress
- Some cancers (endometrial, breast, colon, kidney, gallbladder, and liver)
- Low quality of life
- Mental illness such as clinical depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders
- Body pain and difficulty with physical functioning

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Normal BMI for Kids

Body mass index (BMI) is one way of finding out if your child (age 2-19) is at a healthy weight. There is no universal normal range for kids as there is for adults. That's because the normal amount of body fat changes with age and height and also depends on whether the child is a boy or a girl.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body Mass Index

8 women with the same Body Mass Index rating (BMI - 30) but with different weight distribution and abdominal volume, so they have different Body Volume Index(BVI) ratings.

Image by Richard2902 at en.wikipedia

Body Mass Index

A woman's two bare feet standing on a bathroom scale with a glass-topped surface on a tile floor. Toenails are painted red. Image supports content advising readers to set goals regarding improvements to their health and well-being, including maintaining a healthy weight and nutritious diet, and getting adequate exercise

Image by Bill Branson, NIH

Body Mass Index

Image by BruceBlaus

Woman on scale

A woman's two bare feet standing on a bathroom scale with a glass-topped surface on a tile floor. Toenails are painted red. Image supports content advising readers to set goals regarding improvements to their health and well-being, including maintaining a healthy weight and nutritious diet, and getting adequate exercise

Image by TheVisualMD

Weight Loss | How To Calculate BMI | StreamingWell.com

Video by streamingwell/YouTube

Why BMI Is BS

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Obesity and its health risks are a growing problem in the United States. It is estimated that more than two-thirds of adults are either overweight (10 to 30 pounds heavier than recommended) or obese (more than 30 pounts heavier than recommended). The number of overweight and obese school-age children is also on the rise. This is especially alarming given what is known about how obesity increases the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease. A way to measure obesity is the BMI or body mass index, a measurement of weight categories based on height.

Image by TheVisualMD

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

Video by KidandParent/YouTube

Roux en-Y Gastric Bypass, with Introduction on Body Mass Index, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Calculate your own body mass index | Miscellaneous | Heatlh & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 1): An Epidemic for Every Body

Video by UCTVTips/YouTube

Our Supersized Kids

Video by KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Four body types to show classes of body mass index

Drawing of four body types to show classes of body mass index.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Breaking Down Under Pressure

When you’re obese (body mass index of over 30), you greatly raise your risk of developing OA, especially of the knee. Women who are overweight women have four times the risk and overweight men have five times the risk of developing knee OA as people of normal body weight.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body mass index chart

Graph of body mass index showing the various divisions.

Image by InvictaHOG/Wikimedia

Underweight - Body image rating scale for men and women.

Figure 1. Body image rating scale for men and women. Images 1 through 5 represent people who are underweight, images 6 through 9 represent people of normal weight, images 10 through 13 represent overweight people, and images 14 through18 represent obese people (11).

Image by CDC / Ettarh R et al.

Overweight Man Holding Beer Bottle

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral view of head and torso of overweight man with large belly holding beer bottle; the skeleton and internal organs are visible. Regular beer drinkers tend to be overweight or obese, due to the high number of calories alcohol contributes to their diet. A body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat calculated by dividing a person's body weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters, and is considered useful in determining health risks associated with being overweight or obese. A normal body mass index (BMI) is considered to be under 25, while overweight is under 30; anything greater than a value of 30 is considered to be obese. Overweight and obese individuals are at increased risk for many health conditions and diseases such as hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, sleep problems, gallbladder disease, sexual dysfunction, and some cancers.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

Traditionally, obesity has been defined as a weight at least 20% above ideal weight. More recent guidelines call for classifying obesity by using the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated based on your height and weight. However, BMI may classify as obese some people who aren't overweight but who are heavily muscled or big-boned. It also doesn't take into account the person's age. Waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) may be a better indication of disease risk, because they indicate if you have a lot of dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen. Some doctors feel it's possible to be classified as obese and still be physically fit.

Image by TheVisualMD

US Navy 110426-N-00332-114 Students measure the height and body weight of fourth and fifth grade students from Lindenwood Elementary School

NEWPORT NEWS, Va. (April 26, 2011) Logistics Specialist 1st Class Alhaji M. Kabba, a command fitness leader aboard the aircraft carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), measures the height and body weight of a student from Lindenwood Elementary School. Sailors assigned to Theodore Roosevelt spent 10 weeks mentoring the students about the Navy's culture of fitness to prepare them for participation in the Navy Physical Fitness Assessment. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Released)

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Wikimedia

Normal BMI for Kids

TheVisualMD

Body Mass Index

Richard2902 at en.wikipedia

Body Mass Index

Bill Branson, NIH

Body Mass Index

BruceBlaus

Woman on scale

TheVisualMD

4:22

Weight Loss | How To Calculate BMI | StreamingWell.com

streamingwell/YouTube

3:02

Why BMI Is BS

Seeker/YouTube

Body Mass Index (BMI)

TheVisualMD

1:05

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

KidandParent/YouTube

3:55

Roux en-Y Gastric Bypass, with Introduction on Body Mass Index, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

7:21

Calculate your own body mass index | Miscellaneous | Heatlh & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

12:16

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 1): An Epidemic for Every Body

UCTVTips/YouTube

30:00

Our Supersized Kids

KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Four body types to show classes of body mass index

NIDDK Image Library

Breaking Down Under Pressure

TheVisualMD

Body mass index chart

InvictaHOG/Wikimedia

Underweight - Body image rating scale for men and women.

CDC / Ettarh R et al.

Overweight Man Holding Beer Bottle

TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

TheVisualMD

US Navy 110426-N-00332-114 Students measure the height and body weight of fourth and fifth grade students from Lindenwood Elementary School

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Wikimedia

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Also called: Pediatric BMI, Pediatric Quetelet Index, BMI Percentile, BMI-for-age

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. For children and teens, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age. BMI-for-age is the measure that can be used continuously from age 2 to 20 years to screen for obesity, overweight, or underweight.

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Also called: Pediatric BMI, Pediatric Quetelet Index, BMI Percentile, BMI-for-age

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. For children and teens, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age. BMI-for-age is the measure that can be used continuously from age 2 to 20 years to screen for obesity, overweight, or underweight.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{percentile}
5
85
95
Your result is Healthy Weight.
A BMI-for-age between the 5th percentile to less than the 85th percentile indicates that your child is at a healthy weight for the height.
Related conditions

After BMI is calculated for children and teens, it is expressed as a percentile obtained from either a graph or a percentile calculator linked below. These percentiles express a child’s BMI relative to US children who participated in national surveys from 1963-65 to 1988-94. Weight and height change during growth and development, as does their relation to body fatness. Consequently, a child’s BMI must be interpreted relative to other children of the same sex and age.

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States. BMI-for-age weight status categories and the corresponding percentiles were based on expert committee recommendations and are shown in the following table.

BMI-for-age weight status categories and the corresponding percentiles
Weight Status Category	Percentile Range
Underweight	Less than the 5^th percentile
Healthy Weight	5^th percentile to less than the 85^th percentile
Overweight	85^th to less than the 95^th percentile
Obesity	Equal to or greater than the 95^th percentile

The following is an example of how sample BMI numbers would be interpreted for a 10-year-old boy.

The CDC BMI-for-age growth charts are available at: CDC Growth Charts: United States.

Obesity during childhood can harm the body in a variety of ways. Children who have obesity are more likely to have:
- High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
- Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
- Breathing problems, such as asthma and sleep apnea.
- Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.
- Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).
Childhood obesity is also related to:
- Psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.
- Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life.
- Social problems such as bullying and stigma.
1. [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
2. Childhood Obesity Causes & Consequences | Overweight & Obesity | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (14)

Overweight, Underweight, Just Right

One tool that may be used in evaluating body composition for children and teens (age 2-19) is the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated differently for children and teens than for adults because, in children, the normal amount of body fat changes with age and also differs between girls and boys. (Adult BMI calculators don’t take into account age or sex.) There is no universal normal range as there is with BMI for adults. provides BMI and the corresponding BMI-for-age percentile on a BMI-for-age growth chart. It’s important to remember that BMI is not a diagnostic tool. It only indicates the possible presence of a weight problem. If your child’s BMI number is in the unhealthy range, he or she should be taken to a healthcare professional. Further assessments may then be done, such as plotting weight and height on a growth chart, measuring skinfold thickness with a caliper, evaluating physical activity and eating habits, and looking at family history.

Image by TheVisualMD

BMI-for-age – Boys Growth Chart

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States.

Document by CDC

BMI-for-age – Girls Growth Chart

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States.

Document by CDC

Our Supersized Kids

Video by KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Why BMI Is BS

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

Image by TheVisualMD

Obesity Prevention Begins in Childhood

Obesity in children has risen dramatically worldwide. Worldwide, an estimated 1 in 10 children is overweight, a total of 155 million. Of those children, 30-45 million are obese. By 2010, nearly half of the children in North and South America and about 38% of the children in the European Union will be overweight. Photo of Child: Copyright 2007, Emer & Sam

Image by TheVisualMD

A Global Epidemic

Childhood obesity is an epidemic around the globe. In the US, an estimated 17% of children and adolescents ages 2-19 are obese. In the last three decades, the percentage of obese children doubled in children ages 2-5 and tripled in children and adolescents ages 6-19. Up to 80% of obese youth become obese adults, who are at high risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease—the leading cause of death in North America. In the European Union, about 30% of all children are overweight, and over 5 million of them are obese. Some 300,000 children in the EU become obese each year. But obesity is no longer a problem that affects only children in the developed world. The easy availability of cheap, high-calorie, low-nutrition food, along with less-active lifestyles, have made childhood obesity a major health issue in countries all over the world, including China, Brazil, Thailand, South Africa, and many others. Globally, about 10% of all children ages 5-17 are overweight, and 2-3% in that age group are obese, according to the International Obesity Task Force. Obese kids are more likely to be depressed and have low self-esteem, sleep apnea, insulin resistance, and even type 2 diabetes. If your child has a weight problem, you have reason to be concerned. But there are many ways you can help. With your support, your child can get healthy—and stay healthy.

Image by TheVisualMD

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome?

Side view of an overweight (195 lbs) 16-year old boy's stomach.

Image by OctoMocto

Consequences of Childhood Obesity

Consequences of Childhood Obesity : Even though overweight kids tend to have denser bones, they have more bone fractures than nonoverweight children. This may be because being overweight interferes with balance and also because overweight children fall with greater force.

Image by TheVisualMD

Adding to the Burden

Even though overweight kids tend to have denser bones, they have more bone fractures than nonoverweight children. This may be because being overweight interferes with balance and also because overweight children fall with greater force.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obesity and Related Health Problems

Obesity and Related Health Problems : Overweight and obese children are more likely to have gastrointestinal (digestive) disorders, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, constipation, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and gallstones.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fit Food

You want your child to be fit and healthy for a whole lifetime. That’s why it’s so important for you to start helping him or her to develop healthy eating habits now. Changing habits is easier when you’re young. What’s more, tackling overweight early on can prevent many or all of the devastating medical effects of obesity.

Image by TheVisualMD

Child nutrition

child nutrition - Picnic time

Image by dhanelle

Overweight, Underweight, Just Right

TheVisualMD

BMI-for-age – Boys Growth Chart

CDC

BMI-for-age – Girls Growth Chart

CDC

30:00

Our Supersized Kids

KSPS Public TV/YouTube

3:02

Why BMI Is BS

Seeker/YouTube

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

TheVisualMD

Obesity Prevention Begins in Childhood

TheVisualMD

A Global Epidemic

TheVisualMD

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome?

OctoMocto

Consequences of Childhood Obesity

TheVisualMD

Adding to the Burden

TheVisualMD

Obesity and Related Health Problems

TheVisualMD

Fit Food

TheVisualMD

Child nutrition

dhanelle

Waist Circumference Test

Waist Circumference Test

Also called: Waist Size

Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks that come with overweight and obesity. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, you’re at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Waist Circumference Test

Also called: Waist Size

Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks that come with overweight and obesity. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, you’re at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
37
40
Your result is Low risk.
Related conditions
Another way to estimate your potential disease risk is to measure your waist circumference. Excessive abdominal fat may be serious because it places you at greater risk for developing obesity-related conditions, such as Type 2 Diabetes, high blood pressure, and coronary artery disease. Your waistline may be telling you that you have a higher risk of developing obesity-related conditions if you are:
- A man whose waist circumference is more than 40 inches
- A non-pregnant woman whose waist circumference is more than 35 inches
Waist circumference can be used as a screening tool but is not diagnostic of the body fatness or health of an individual. A trained healthcare provider should perform appropriate health assessments in order to evaluate an individual’s health status and risks.
To correctly measure waist circumference:
- Stand and place a tape measure around your middle, just above your hipbones
- Make sure tape is horizontal around the waist
- Keep the tape snug around the waist, but not compressing the skin
- Measure your waist just after you breathe out
1. Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
2. Assessing Your Weight | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
3. Healthy Weight | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
4. Measuring your waist - Heart Matters | BHF [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (1)

Waist Circumference, Male

TheVisualMD

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Also called: WHR

Waist-to-hip ratio is a measurement that compares the size of your hips to the size of your waist. It is an important tool to help determine the overall health risk. People with more weight around their waist are at greater risk of lifestyle-related diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, than those with weight around their hips.

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Also called: WHR

Waist-to-hip ratio is a measurement that compares the size of your hips to the size of your waist. It is an important tool to help determine the overall health risk. People with more weight around their waist are at greater risk of lifestyle-related diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, than those with weight around their hips.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{ratio}
0.8
0.85
Your result is Optimal.
A value in this range has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. It also indicates a "pear-shaped" body type.
Related conditions
Limitations of the waist-to-hip ratio measurement:
- More prone to measurement error because it requires two measurements
- More difficult to measure the hip than the waist
- More complex to interpret, since increased waist-to-hip ratio can be caused by increased abdominal fat or by decreased lean muscle around the hips
- Turning the measurements into a ratio leads to a loss of information: two people with very different BMIs could have the same waist-to-hip ratio
- May be difficult to measure and less accurate in individuals with a BMI of 35 or higher
Strenghts of the waist-to-hip ratio measurement:
- Good correlation with body fat as measured by the most accurate methods
- Inexpensive
- Studies show waist-to-hip ratio predicts development of disease and death in adults
1. National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Am I at a Healthy Weight? [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
2. TheVisualMD & Alexander Tsiaras. TheVisualMD Diet A Scientific Approach to Weight Loss & Vitality. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
3. Medical News Today. Why is the hip-waist ratio important? [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
4. Waist circumference and waist–hip ratio Report of a WHO expert consultation, Geneva, 8-11 December 2008. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
5. Apples & pears : the body shape solution for weight loss and wellness / Marie Savard, with Carol Svec. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
6. Health Jade. Waist Hip Ratio. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (13)

Waist-Hip Ratio

Image illustrating the measurement of the parameters of waist-hip ratio.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from original works by SuicideGirls and FatM1ke

Waist-Hip Ratio

Image illustrating the measurement of the parameters of waist-hip ratio.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

Traditionally, obesity has been defined as a weight at least 20% above ideal weight. More recent guidelines call for classifying obesity by using the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated based on your height and weight. However, BMI may classify as obese some people who aren't overweight but who are heavily muscled or big-boned. It also doesn't take into account the person's age. Waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) may be a better indication of disease risk, because they indicate if you have a lot of dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen. Some doctors feel it's possible to be classified as obese and still be physically fit.

Image by TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

Image by TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

Image by TheVisualMD

Coronal section of a lean body

A coronal section of a woman's lean body, with visible muscle tissue, visceral and subcutaneous fat, and some bones and organs. Image supports content showing the positive effects on health that result from good decision-making and habit-forming practices.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Dr. Mark Liponis on waist-to-hip ratios

Your WHR divides the circumference of your waist by that of your hips. It is a good indication of how much abdominal fat you have. Having a large belly is a sign that you have too much dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen.

Video by TheVisualMD

How do you measure your waist?

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

What Body Shape You Are Says A Lot About Your Weight

Video by Tech Insider/YouTube

The ACAP Recap: Waist Circumference

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

Tri HDL

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

Understanding your weight

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

How to measure your waist

Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Waist-Hip Ratio

Mikael Haggstrom, from original works by SuicideGirls and FatM1ke

Waist-Hip Ratio

TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

TheVisualMD

Coronal section of a lean body

TheVisualMD

1:03

Dr. Mark Liponis on waist-to-hip ratios

TheVisualMD

0:32

How do you measure your waist?

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

2:30

What Body Shape You Are Says A Lot About Your Weight

Tech Insider/YouTube

2:33

The ACAP Recap: Waist Circumference

ACAP Health/YouTube

2:17

Tri HDL

ACAP Health/YouTube

2:31

Understanding your weight

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

0:42

How to measure your waist

Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Cortisol Test

Cortisol Test

Also called: Cortisol Levels

A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva. Cortisol is a hormone that helps your body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

Cortisol Test

Also called: Cortisol Levels

A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva. Cortisol is a hormone that helps your body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/dL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
Normally, the body produces the right amount of cortisol to keep it healthy. Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections.
Related conditions
{"label":"Cortisol (urine) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"If your urine cortisol levels are low, you may have Addison disease.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":55},"text":"Normal values for cortisol in a urine test are 10 to 55 micrograms per day (24 hours).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":55,"max":120},"text":"If your urine test reveals abnormally high levels of cortisol, you may be diagnosed with Cushing syndrome.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/h","code":"ug\/(24.h)","name":"microgram per 24 hour"}],"value":32.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/h
10
55
Your result is Normal.
Normal values for cortisol in a urine test are 10 to 55 micrograms per day (24 hours).
Related conditions
A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva to see if your levels are normal. Cortisol is a hormone that affects almost every organ and tissue in your body. It helps your body:
- Respond to stress (cortisol is sometimes called the "stress hormone")
- Reduce inflammation
- Regulate blood sugar and metabolism (how your body uses food for energy)
- Control blood pressure
Cortisol is made by your adrenal glands, two small glands that sit above the kidneys. A gland in your brain, called the pituitary gland, makes a hormone that tells your adrenal glands how much cortisol to make. If your cortisol levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a disorder of your adrenal glands, a problem with your pituitary gland, or a tumor that makes cortisol.
High levels of cortisol may also happen if you take large doses of certain steroid medicines, such as prednisone, for a long time. And low levels may happen if you stop the medicine suddenly.
Without treatment, cortisol levels that are too high or too low can be very serious.
Other names: urinary cortisol, salivary cortisol, free cortisol, blood cortisol, plasma cortisol
A cortisol test is used to help diagnose medical conditions that cause too much or too little cortisol. These conditions include disorders that affect the adrenal glands:
- Cushing's syndrome is a disorder that happens when your body has too much cortisol over a long period of time.
- Addison disease is a condition in which your adrenal glands are damaged and can't make enough cortisol.
- Secondary adrenal insufficiency is a condition in which your adrenal glands don't make enough cortisol because your pituitary gland isn't working properly.
Cortisol testing is also used to monitor treatment for these conditions.
You may need a cortisol test if you have symptoms of a condition that affects cortisol levels.
- Symptoms of Cushing's syndrome (too much cortisol) may include:
  Weight gain
  Thin arms and legs
  Round face
  Increased fat around the base of the neck or between the shoulder blades
  Easy bruising
  Wide purple streaks on the stomach, breasts, hips, and under the arms
  Muscle weakness
- Common symptoms of Addison disease and adrenal insufficiency (not enough cortisol) may include:
  Long-lasting fatigue
  Muscle weakness
  Loss of appetite
  Weight loss
  Abdominal (belly) pain
A cortisol test often uses a sample of blood drawn at a lab. But the test may also be done on urine or saliva collected at home. Normally, cortisol levels vary during the day, so your provider may order more than one type of test to get more information about your cortisol levels.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Blood samples are usually taken twice during the day--once in the morning when cortisol levels are at their highest, and again around 4 p.m., when levels are much lower.
For a cortisol urine test, your provider may ask you to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a "24-hour urine sample test." For this test, you'll be given a special container and instructions for how to collect and store your urine sample. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test usually includes the following steps:
- To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
- For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
- Store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice during the collection period.
- 24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
- Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
In certain cases, a urine test for cortisol may be done on one sample of urine collected in the morning.
A cortisol saliva test is usually done at home with a kit to collect a saliva sample. Your provider will tell you what time to collect your sample. It's often done at night before you go to bed when cortisol levels are normally lower.
Most kits include a swab and a container to store it. Be careful to follow the instructions that come with your kit. They usually include these general steps:
- Do not eat, drink, brush, or floss your teeth for 30 minutes before the test.
- Wash and dry your hands.
- Open the tube that holds the swab and let the swab fall into your mouth without touching it with your hands.
- Roll the swab in your mouth or hold it under your tongue for about 2 minutes until it is soaked with saliva.
- Spit the swab back into the tube without touching it and close the tube.
- Label the tube with the time you collected the sample.
- Take your saliva sample to your doctor's office or the lab the next day as instructed.
A cortisol test alone can't diagnose the cause of abnormal cortisol levels. If your cortisol level isn't normal, you will usually have more tests to find out what is causing the problem.
High levels of cortisol may be a sign that you have Cushing's syndrome. It may be caused by:
- Taking high doses of certain steroid medicines for a long time to treat conditions, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus
- Tumors in your pituitary gland or other parts of your body that make too much of the hormone that tells your adrenal glands to make cortisol
- Tumors in your adrenal glands that make extra cortisol
Low levels of cortisol may mean you have Addison disease or secondary adrenal insufficiency:
- Common causes of Addison's disease include damage to the adrenal glands from conditions, such as:
  Autoimmune diseases
  Certain infections, such as tuberculosis (TB) and HIV/AIDS
- Common causes of secondary adrenal insufficiency include:
  Autoimmune diseases
  Problems with the pituitary gland
  Traumatic brain injury
The most common cause of low cortisol levels is suddenly stopping steroid medicines after using them for a long time.
If your cortisol results aren't normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Cortisol levels can be affected by:
- Stress
- Pregnancy
- Exercise
- Serious illness
- Hot and cold temperatures
- Certain thyroid diseases
- Obesity
- Certain medicines, such as birth control pills
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your health care provider.
1. Cortisol Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
2. Cortisol (Urine) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
3. Cortisol in Blood Test | HealthLink BC [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
4. Cortisol in Urine Test | HealthLink BC [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (10)

High Cortisol Levels, What Female Symptoms Indicate This?

Video by EmpowHER/YouTube

Endocrinology - Adrenal Gland Hormones

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Pharmacology - Glucocorticoids

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

How High Cortisol Impacts Physiology (and fat loss)

Video by FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

The Complexities of Cortisol

Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease) - an Osmosis preview

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Human Physiology - Cortisol Feedback and Function

Video by Janux/YouTube

Cortisol

The hippocampus is rich in receptors for cortisol. So cortisol is very active in the hippocampus. But sustained high levels of cortisol cause damage to neurons. Cortisol disrupts cellular metabolism of hippocampal neurons and increases the vulnerability of neurons to a variety of insults.5,6 In addition, when cortisol is elevated chronically, there is a reduction in neurogenesis.7 In a nutshell, the damage from cortisol in the hippocampus has been suggested to be an example of sacrificing long-term function (i.e., memory function) for the sake of short-term survival.8

Image by TheVisualMD

Cortisol

Cortisol is a hormone critical to many biological functions, including glucose metabolism, blood pressure, immunity, and thyroid regulation. The steroid hormone is produced by the adrenal glands and its release controlled by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which is produced by the pituitary. Excess cortisol in the system is marked by a group of signs and symptoms known collectively as Cushing syndrome. Cortisol deficiency may be caused by dysfunction of the pituitary, known as secondary adrenal insufficiency; or by dysfunction of the adrenal glands, known as primary adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

0:56

High Cortisol Levels, What Female Symptoms Indicate This?

EmpowHER/YouTube

10:43

Endocrinology - Adrenal Gland Hormones

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

9:10

Pharmacology - Glucocorticoids

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

6:07

How High Cortisol Impacts Physiology (and fat loss)

FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

2:41

The Complexities of Cortisol

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

4:16

How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia

TED-Ed/YouTube

0:52

Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease) - an Osmosis preview

Osmosis/YouTube

12:26

Human Physiology - Cortisol Feedback and Function

Janux/YouTube

Cortisol

TheVisualMD

Cortisol

TheVisualMD

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(mi.U.)/mL
0.45
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The pituitary gland releases TSH into the blood to stimulate the thyroid to make more thyroid hormone. The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of thyroid hormone in the body. In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.
Related conditions
You may need a TSH test if you have symptoms of too much or too little thyroid hormone in your blood.
Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone) is also called overactive thyroid. Having more thyroid hormones than you need speeds up your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Weight loss, even though you may be eating more than usual
- Rapid or irregular heartbeat
- Feeling nervous or irritable
- Trouble sleeping, fatigue
- Shaky hands, muscle weakness
- Sweating or being very sensitive to heat
- Frequent bowel movements (pooping a lot)
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid)
Hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone) is also called underactive thyroid. Not having enough thyroid hormone slows down your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Fatigue
- Weight gain
- Being very sensitive to cold
- Joint and muscle pain
- Dry skin
- Dry, thinning hair
- Heavy or irregular menstrual periods
- Depression
- Constipation
You may also have a TSH test, along with other tests, to help diagnose unusual bumps or lumps on your thyroid that may be thyroid cancer or thyroid nodules (growths on your thyroid that aren't cancer).
Your TSH test results can tell you if your thyroid is making too much or too little thyroid. But the test can't explain why your TSH levels may be too high or too low.
If your test results aren't normal, your provider will probably order other thyroid blood tests to find out what's causing your thyroid problem. These blood tests may include:
- T4 thyroid hormone test
- T3 thyroid hormone test
- Thyroid antibodies test to help diagnose an autoimmune thyroid disorder, such as:
  Graves' disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism
  Hashimoto's disease, that the most common cause of hypothyroidism
In certain cases, an abnormal TSH result may be a sign of a pituitary gland problem, but this doesn't happen often.
1. 004259: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
2. TSH test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
3. TSH [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
4. 004593: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) in Pregnancy | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (28)

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which play key roles in regulating many aspects of metabolism, the rate at which the cells use energy and carry out chemical processes. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid and the hormones it produces, for example, are under control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), which is produced by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

Image by CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid contains spherical follicles that absorb iodine ions from the blood for use in the production of T4 and T3. Iodine deficiency, rare in the U.S., affects two billion people worldwide and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the skull, between the optic nerves. It is often referred to as the endocrine system's \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other glands. The pituitary, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when. The pituitary governs testosterone and estrogen production, as well as ovulation and breast milk production; it also helps regulate growth, blood pressure, maintain proper fluid balance, and other aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Image by MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

The time scale starts with the (LMP), given as day number. Day number 1 corresponds to 0 to 0.99 days from LMP, and Day number 2 corresponds to 1.00 to 1.99 days from LMP and so forth. The time scale ends at whatever is the actual next menstruation, which marks the beginning of the next cycle, which is equivalent to starting all over again from the beginning of the time scale.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Diagram of typical immunoassay home pregnancy test which detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (A) A urine sample is applied to the stick. If pregnant, this should contain hCG. (B) As the sample is absorbed into the stick it goes through free dye-labeled antibodies that recognize and stick to hCG. (C) An anchored set of antibodies stick to and capture hCG molecules (and the attached dye-labeled antibodies), creating the first line. In the "not pregnant" sample no hCG is attached to the dye-labeled antibodies, so they wash past this point and no line appears. (D) A second anchored set of antibodies captures the dye-labeled antibodies, providing a positive control to indicate that the test is working properly.

Image by Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Proptosis and Lid Retraction from Graves Disease : Photograph showing a classic finding of Graves' Disease, proptosis and lid retraction.

Image by Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Graves' disease symptoms

Image by Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the orbits, showing congestion of the retro-orbital space and enlargement of the extraocular muscles (arrows), consistent with the diagnosis of Graves' Ophthalmopathy.

Image by Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam`s apple. Hormones produced by the thyroid gland have an enormous impact on many aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

A Classic Negative Feedback Loop

Image by OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck. The gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid is under the control of a hormone called thyroid-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary gland; the pituitary gland, in turn, takes its orders from the hypothalamus. Thyroid problems usually fall into one of two categories: hypothroidism, when the gland produces too little hormone; or hyperthroidism, when the gland produces too much.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland, which is often referred to as the \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces hormones that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. Hyperthyroidism (when too much hormone is produced) is often caused by an autoimmune disorder called Graves' disease, in which antibodies produced by the immune system over-stimulate the thyroid. The production of thyroid hormones is under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. A goiter is any visible enlargement of the thyroid gland. In the past, goiters were often due to a lack of iodine in the diet (iodized salt has greatly reduced such goiters). Goiters can be present in cases of either hormone overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism).

Image by TheVisualMD

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

What Is High FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

What is FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Video by Janux/YouTube

What is Graves Disease?

Video by TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

Graves' Disease Education

Video by Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Male Sex Hormones

Video by Academic Algonquin/YouTube

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

A normal thyroid cell (Nthy.ori 3-1) adhered to gold surface. Picture taken by a Scanning electron microscope (SEM), University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.

Image by ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

5 different scintigramms taken from thyroids with different syndroms: A) normal thyroid, B) Graves disease, diffuse increased uptake in both thyroid lobes, C) Plummers disease (TMNG, toxic multinodular goitre), D) Toxic adenoma, E) Thyroiditis. Marker 99Tc

Image by Petros Perros

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

TheVisualMD

3:15

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

1:16

What Is High FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

2:46

What is FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

3:38

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Janux/YouTube

2:25

What is Graves Disease?

TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

9:07

Graves' Disease Education

Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

10:15

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

CrashCourse/YouTube

2:30

Male Sex Hormones

Academic Algonquin/YouTube

1:55

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

Petros Perros

Leptin Test

Leptin Test

Also called: LEP

The leptin test measures the levels of leptin in blood. Leptin is a hormone that regulates body weight. It is primarily secreted by fat tissue cells and controls appetite and energy level by signaling the hypothalamus in the brain. This test is used to evaluate body fat metabolism.

Leptin Test

Also called: LEP

The leptin test measures the levels of leptin in blood. Leptin is a hormone that regulates body weight. It is primarily secreted by fat tissue cells and controls appetite and energy level by signaling the hypothalamus in the brain. This test is used to evaluate body fat metabolism.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
ng/mL
4.7
23.7
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your doctor may recommend this test if you experience any of the following:
- Obesity
- A sudden change in weight
- Infertility problems
- Delayed puberty
1. Leptin Blood Test [accessed on Sep 28, 2018]
2. 146712: Leptin, Serum or Plasma | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 28, 2018]
3. Leptin (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
4. Leptin (90367) [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Are Your Hormones Influencing Your Weight? | Earth Lab

Video by BBC Earth Lab/YouTube

thin-outside-fat-inside

Fat-Fat "Fat on the Outside Thin on the Inside" (FOTI) image. shows 2 subjects the first fat fit with reduced amount of internal fat compared with an obese control.

Image by ImagingFat

Visceral Fat _ What Causes a Beer Belly Medical Course (VIDEO)

Fatty tissue in the region of the ABDOMEN. It includes the ABDOMINAL SUBCUTANEOUS FAT and the INTRA-ABDOMINAL FAT.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Overweight man standing

In times of starvation or during a weight-loss regimen, body protein is used to provide energy. Because our bodies do not store protein, functional body proteins such as enzymes and muscle proteins must be broken down to yield amino acids, which can then be used as fuel or to make glucose. Once protein are broken down into amino acids, they can be used as fuel, to make glucose, or to make fatty acids. Excess fatty acids can be stored as triglycerides in the body, thus contributing to weight gain. In a manner of speaking, the body does not want to convert protein to fat. The nutrient is far better suited to the construction and repair of tissues. But when your diet delivers more amino acids than your body needs - a common case among Americans - the excess is stored as glycogen or triglyceride fat. Fat is stored for the purpose of stockpiling energy but, in a sedentary lifestyle, we gain weight because those stockpiles are never called upon. When an oversized hunk of protein (say, 12oz steak instead of a proper 3oz portion) is consumed, insulin arrives in the blood to clear all the excess amino acid. In the presence of insulin, anything you eat is more likely to be converted to body fat.

Image by TheVisualMD

Dietary fat

Facing the Fats : It`s hard to imagine a time when fats were not controversial and did not strike fear in the hearts of dieters. Just the mention of fat-loaded words like butter and bacon can trigger powerful reactions! And yet it has only been in the past 50 years or so that our relationship with fats has become such a problem. Of the three primary macronutrients, fat provides the most energy (measured in calories) by weight. Fats have many other important jobs. Fats are a crucial source of raw materials. Dietary fat is a fundamental building block and our bodies use it in a variety of ways. We use fats to build hormones and neurotransmitters. Fats also aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and play key roles in regulating inflammation, chemical signaling and the metabolism of other nutrients.

Image by TheVisualMD

How Much Fat? Low Fat, Light & Fat Free

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

Visceral fat is found deep inside your abdomen, surrounding your vital organs. It's different from subcutaneous fat, the kind that's just under your skin. Too much visceral fat physically crowds your organs and your diaphragm. This can restrict your organs' blood supply and make it difficult for you to breathe deeply. Visceral fat secretes dangerous hormones and inflammatory chemicals. The blood that circulates through visceral fat goes directly into your liver through the portal vein. That means the substances your visceral fat produces all pour directly into your liver and into your bloodstream. Scientists think this may have important, and damaging, consequences, such as creating systemic inflammation. For many years, adipose (fat) tissue was thought to be a mostly dormant substance with a mainly passive function: storage. But now researchers have found that adipose tissue is, in fact, highly active. Adipose tissue has a metabolic function and acts as an endocrine organ-that is, it produces hormones and secretes them into your bloodstream, through which they travel to affect the function of organs all over your body. In fact, fat tissue produces literally dozens of hormones, including leptin, which controls appetite, and adiponectin, which affects insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels. Because adipose tissue is now known to be so biologically active, researchers think that it could well play an important role in cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and other diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

thin-outside-fat-inside

Coronal Image of a TOFI (thin-outside-fat-inside) and a Normal Control _ MRI Images showing different content of internal fat in two men of a similar size. Coronal Image of a TOFI and a Normal Control _ MRI Images showing different content of internal fat in two men of a similar size.

Image by ImagingFat

The Science of Appetite; Beating Overeating

Want to lose weight but can't stop eating? There's a reason for that. Find out how you can beat the desire to overeat and bring yourself one step closer to being your healthy self!

Image by TheVisualMD

Atherosclerosis Progression in Artery 2 of 4

Atherosclerosis begins when cholesterol, a waxy, fat-like substance, and other molecules in the blood stick to the inner lining of the arteries. High blood cholesterol levels, together with the presence of inflammatory cells, can cause this buildup to continue over a period of years and develop into hard deposits known as plaque.

Image by TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Female

Visceral fat lies deep within the abdomen, surrounding the abdominal organs. It is illustrated well in this female abdomenal cross section as the comparison of fat (highlighted in green) to organs can be seen to be fairly dramatic. Excessive visceral fat appears when an individual consumes more fat than the body can metabolize, forcing it to store the fat around body organs. Visceral fat can easily accumulate around the heart, rendering it less efficient, leading to a multitiude of cardiovascular issues. Having too much of this type of fat has also been linked to diabetes and other health problems. Having more visceral fat than necessary can also add weight to the skeleton, leading to bone and joint problems.

Image by TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Male

Visceral fat lies deep within the abdomen, surrounding the abdominal organs. It is illustrated well in male abdomenal cross section as the comparison of fat (highlighted in green) to organs can be seen to be fairly dramatic. Excessive visceral fat appears when an individual consumes more fat than the body can metabolize, forcing it to store the fat around body organs. Visceral fat can easily accumulate around the heart, rendering it less efficient, leading to a multitiude of cardiovascular issues. Having too much of this type of fat has also been linked to diabetes and other health problems. Having more visceral fat than necessary can also add weight to the skeleton, leading to bone and joint problems.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

This image shows capillaries in fat tissue with a cross section showing red blood cells, pink particles representing blood glucose and purple particles representing insulin. Normally, fat and muscle cells utilize glucose (pink) avoiding glucose build-up in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body Fat Distribution in Male

Male figure revealing common fat distribution sites.. Men store more fat chiefly in the abdomen, which becomes especially apparent with age.

Image by TheVisualMD

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

Triglycerides are a large and varied category of fats found in both plants and animals. Because fats and blood, like oil and water, do not mix, triglycerides (as well as cholesterol) circulate through the body in special parcels called lipoproteins, which are fat-and-protein packages that enable fats to move freely within the bloodstream. Proteins and other components make up the outer shell; fats, in the form of triglycerides and cholesterol, are packed together inside.

Image by TheVisualMD

C-reactive Protein, Fat cells

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. Researchers have found, however, that fat cells also seem to trigger the production of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is why individuals who are overweight or obese tend to have chronically higher levels of CRP.

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A Downward Spiral

Poor sleep and sleep deprivation can increase your appetite. Sleep apnea causes imbalances in the levels of two hormones that are associated with feelings of hunger and satiety: leptin and ghrelin. Leptin, which is produced by fat cells, is an appetite suppressant. When leptin is present at high levels, it normally produces a feeling of satiety—the feeling that you are full and have eaten enough. Ghrelin, which is produced by your stomach and pancreas, is leptin’s counterpart and has the reverse function: it’s an appetite stimulant. Levels of ghrelin increase before a meal and decrease afterwards.

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Sleep deprivation - How Much Sleep Do We Need?

A Downward Spiral : Poor sleep and sleep deprivation can increase your appetite. Sleep apnea causes imbalances in the levels of two hormones that are associated with feelings of hunger and satiety: leptin and ghrelin. Leptin is an appetite suppressant. Ghrelin is an appetite stimulant. Disrupted sleep causes your levels of ghrelin to rise, stimulating your appetite. It also causes levels of leptin, the appetite suppressant, to decrease. OSA can raise your insulin and glucose (blood sugar) levels and damage your ability to process glucose-in some cases to the level of diabetics. Sleep apnea appears to be a risk factor for insulin resistance, a precursor to diabetes, and people with moderate-to-severe sleep apnea may have twice the risk of developing insulin resistance.

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Leptin

Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone, meaning it comes from cells specialized for the storage of fat. The more body fat a person has, the more leptin in the bloodstream. The hormone is essential for regulating body weight and is understood to play a role in appetite, energy production, and metabolism. Since its discovery in 1994, academic and clinical interest in leptin has accelerated with the prevalence of obesity.

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Adipose tissue

Our Fat Helps Keep us Fat : Body fat is not dead weight. Adipose tissue secretes hormones, including leptin, an appetite-control hormone, and adiponectin, which has an anti-inflammatory effect on blood vessels. When we are overweight, our fat tissue lowers blood levels of adiponectin, which increases the risk of heart disease and decreases glucose sensitivity.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Power of Cravings

Your senses conspire to make you desire things you know will do you harm. Why?

Image by TheVisualMD

Sleep Fights Weight Gain

Your appetite control hormones and metabolism are thrown off balance when you don't get enough sleep.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section : Visceral fat is found deep inside your abdomen, surrounding your vital organs. It's different from subcutaneous fat, the kind that's just under your skin. Too much visceral fat physically crowds your organs and your diaphragm. This can restrict your organs' blood supply and make it difficult for you to breathe deeply. Visceral fat secretes dangerous hormones and inflammatory chemicals. The blood that circulates through visceral fat goes directly into your liver through the portal vein. That means the substances your visceral fat produces all pour directly into your liver and into your bloodstream. Scientists think this may have important, and damaging, consequences, such as creating systemic inflammation. For many years, adipose (fat) tissue was thought to be a mostly dormant substance with a mainly passive function: storage. But now researchers have found that adipose tissue is, in fact, highly active. Adipose tissue has a metabolic function and acts as an endocrine organ-that is, it produces hormones and secretes them into your bloodstream, through which they travel to affect the function of organs all over your body. In fact, fat tissue produces literally dozens of hormones, including leptin, which controls appetite, and adiponectin, which affects insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels. Because adipose tissue is now known to be so biologically active, researchers think that it could well play an important role in cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and other diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leptin and ghrelin

Leptin and ghrelin are known as the "hunger hormones". Leptin is a hormone, made by fat cells, that decreases your appetite. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite, and also plays a role in body weight.

Image by Injurymap.com

3:56

Are Your Hormones Influencing Your Weight? | Earth Lab

BBC Earth Lab/YouTube

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ImagingFat

Visceral Fat _ What Causes a Beer Belly Medical Course (VIDEO)

TheVisualMD

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This media may include sensitive content

Overweight man standing

TheVisualMD

Dietary fat

TheVisualMD

How Much Fat? Low Fat, Light & Fat Free

TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

TheVisualMD

thin-outside-fat-inside

ImagingFat

The Science of Appetite; Beating Overeating

TheVisualMD

Atherosclerosis Progression in Artery 2 of 4

TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Female

TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Male

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

TheVisualMD

Body Fat Distribution in Male

TheVisualMD

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

TheVisualMD

C-reactive Protein, Fat cells

TheVisualMD

A Downward Spiral

TheVisualMD

Sleep deprivation - How Much Sleep Do We Need?

TheVisualMD

Leptin

TheVisualMD

Adipose tissue

TheVisualMD

The Power of Cravings

TheVisualMD

Sleep Fights Weight Gain

TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

TheVisualMD

Leptin and ghrelin

Injurymap.com

FTO Genetic Test

FTO Genetic Test

Also called: Fat mass and obesity-associated gene, FTO gene mutations

The fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene is called the “fat gene” because it has been significantly associated with a higher risk of being overweight or obese. This gene causes people to eat more and feel less satisfied than an average person. This test evaluates a sample of the person's blood or saliva to look for mutations (changes) in the FTO gene.

FTO Genetic Test

Also called: Fat mass and obesity-associated gene, FTO gene mutations

The fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene is called the “fat gene” because it has been significantly associated with a higher risk of being overweight or obese. This gene causes people to eat more and feel less satisfied than an average person. This test evaluates a sample of the person's blood or saliva to look for mutations (changes) in the FTO gene.

{"label":"FTO Genetic Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative result means no FTO gene mutations were found. You have the same obesity risk as everyone else. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"One copy ","long":"One copy ","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"People who have one abnormal copy of the FTO gene have an approximately 1.3-fold increased risk of obesity.","conditions":["Overweight","Obesity"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Two copies","long":"Two copies","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"People who have two abnormal copies of the FTO gene have an approximately 1.7-fold increased risk of obesity.","conditions":["Overweight","Obesity"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0},{"positive":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means no FTO gene mutations were found. You have the same obesity risk as everyone else.
Related conditions
1. Genetics Home Reference. FTO gene. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
2. Fawcett KA, Barroso I. The genetics of obesity: FTO leads the way. Trends in Genetics. 2010;26(6):266-274. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2010.02.006. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
3. Frayling TM, Timpson NJ, Weedon MN, et al. A Common Variant in the FTO Gene Is Associated with Body Mass Index and Predisposes to Childhood and Adult Obesity. Science (New York, NY). 2007;316(5826):889-894. doi:10.1126/science.1141634. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
4. Medscape. Obesity, FTO, and Type 2 Diabetes: Overview, Function of FTO, Clinical Implications and Genetic Testing. Author: Ali Torkamani, PhD; Chief Editor: Keith K Vaux, MD. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
5. https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=FTO [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
6. Peng S, Zhu Y, Xu F, Ren X, Li X, Lai M. FTO gene polymorphisms and obesity risk: a meta-analysis. BMC Medicine. 2011;9:71. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-71. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
7. Yi-Cheng Chang, Pi-Hua Liu, Wei-Jei Lee, Tien-Jyun Chang, Yi-Der Jiang, Hung-YuanLi, Shan-Shan Kuo, Kuang-Chin Lee, Lee-Ming Chuang. Common Variation in the Fat Mass and Obesity-Associated (FTO) Gene Confers Risk of Obesity and Modulates BMI in the Chinese Population. Diabetes Aug 2008, 57 (8) 2245-2252; DOI: 10.2337/db08-0377. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
8. Lima RPA, Hayashi DN, Lima KQDF, Gomes NIG, Ribeiro MR, et al. (2017) The Role of Epigenetics in the Etiology of Obesity: A Review. J Clin Epigenet. 3:41 doi: 10.21767/2472-1158.100075 [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
9. Loos RJF, Yeo GSH. The bigger picture of FTO – the first GWAS-identified obesity gene. Nature reviews Endocrinology. 2014;10(1):51-61. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2013.227. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
10. Weight Loss Genetics – FTO variants – Genetic Lifehacks [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
11. rs9939609 - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
12. rs1421085 - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
13. rs1121980 - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
14. rs17817449 - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
15. rs8050136 - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Body Fat Percentage Test

Body Fat Percentage Test

Also called: BFP, Percent Body Fat, PBF

Body fat percentage is a measurement of the fat contained in a person’s body according to that same person’s total body composition. This percentage correlates more accurately with the risk of having certain chronic diseases.

Body Fat Percentage Test

Also called: BFP, Percent Body Fat, PBF

Body fat percentage is a measurement of the fat contained in a person’s body according to that same person’s total body composition. This percentage correlates more accurately with the risk of having certain chronic diseases.

{"label":"Body Fat Percentage Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"EF","long":"Essential Fat","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":6},"text":"Essential fat is the level at which physical and physiological health would be negatively affected, and below which death is certain.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"AVL","long":"Athletic \/ Very Lean","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":14},"text":"The leanest athletes typically compete at levels of about 7-13% for men or 14\u201320% for women; normal people, who don't have so great a muscular mass, should stay into the \"lean\" or \"acceptable\" fitness range in to be healthier.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Lean","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":14,"max":18},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"A","long":"Acceptable","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":18,"max":26},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"O","long":"Overweight","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":26,"max":29},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"O","long":"Obese","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":29,"max":100},"text":"","conditions":["Obesity"]}],"value":16}[{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
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Your result is Lean.
Related conditions
Several methods are available for determining the percentage of fat in your body, such as:
- Measurement of skin folds in different body areas with instruments known as calipers (the most common and easy method).
- Measuring the circumference of certain parts of your body with a flexible measuring tape.
- Hydrostatic weighing, which is a technique where you are submerged under water and weighted.
- Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), which is a technique where X-rays are used to estimate your body fat percentage.
- Whole-body air displacement plethysmography, which is a technique where a special air-chamber is used to calculate your body density.
- 3-D body scan, in which a device is used to generate a 3-D model of your body.
- Other methods in which electrodes are used to pass electricity through your body tissues and then calculate your body fat percentage. This includes techniques such as electrical impedance myography, bioelectrical impedance analysis, and bioimpedance spectroscopy.
The percentage of body fat in a person varies according to their sex and age. As a general rule, body fat percentage can be divided as follows:
- For women:
  Having 40% or more body fat is considered to be obesity.
  From 32% to 40% is considered to be overweight.
  From 25% to 31% is considered to be acceptable.
  From 21% to 24% is considered to be lean.
  From 14% to 20% is considered to be athletic.
  10% to 12% is considered to be essential fat (minimum amount of fat that is necessary for the body to perform its basic functions).
- For men:
  Having 29% or more body fat is considered to be obesity.
  From 26% to 29% is considered to be overweight.
  From 18% to 25% is considered to be acceptable.
  From 14% to 17% is considered to be lean.
  From 6% to 13% is considered to be athletic.
  2% to 4%: is considered to be essential fat (minimum amount of fat that is necessary for the body to perform its basic functions).

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

5:11

What is obesity? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

1:16

Being Overweight vs. Being Obese | Obesity

Howcast/YouTube

Stress

Before / After

Chronic Stress Can Cause Neuron Shrinkage

Interactive by TheVisualMD

5 Things You Should Know About Stress

Everyone feels stressed from time to time, but what is stress? How does it affect your overall health? And what can you do to manage your stress?

Stress is how the brain and body respond to any demand. Any type of challenge—such as performance at work or school, a significant life change, or a traumatic event—can be stressful.

Stress can affect your health. It is important to pay attention to how you deal with minor and major stressors, so you know when to seek help.

Here are five things you should know about stress.

1. Stress affects everyone.

Everyone experiences stress from time to time. There are different types of stress—all of which carry physical and mental health risks. A stressor may be a one-time or short-term occurrence, or it can happen repeatedly over a long time. Some people may cope with stress more effectively and recover from stressful events more quickly than others.

Examples of stress include:

Routine stress related to the pressures of school, work, family, and other daily responsibilities.
Stress brought about by a sudden negative change, such as losing a job, divorce, or illness.
Traumatic stress experienced during an event such as a major accident, war, assault, or natural disaster where people may be in danger of being seriously hurt or killed. People who experience traumatic stress may have very distressing temporary emotional and physical symptoms, but most recover naturally soon after.

2. Not all stress is bad.

In a dangerous situation, stress signals the body to prepare to face a threat or flee to safety. In these situations, your pulse quickens, you breathe faster, your muscles tense, and your brain uses more oxygen and increases activity—all functions aimed at survival and in response to stress. In non-life-threatening situations, stress can motivate people, such as when they need to take a test or interview for a new job.

3. Long-term stress can harm your health.

Coping with the impact of chronic stress can be challenging. Because the source of long-term stress is more constant than acute stress, the body never receives a clear signal to return to normal functioning. With chronic stress, those same lifesaving reactions in the body can disturb the immune, digestive, cardiovascular, sleep, and reproductive systems. Some people may experience mainly digestive symptoms, while others may have headaches, sleeplessness, sadness, anger, or irritability.

Over time, continued strain on your body from stress may contribute to serious health problems, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, and other illnesses, including mental disorders such as depression or anxiety.

4. There are ways to manage stress.

If you take practical steps to manage your stress, you may reduce the risk of negative health effects. Here are some tips that may help you to cope with stress:

Be observant. Recognize the signs of your body’s response to stress, such as difficulty sleeping, increased alcohol and other substance use, being easily angered, feeling depressed, and having low energy.
Talk to your health care provider or a health professional. Don’t wait for your health care provider to ask about your stress. Start the conversation and get proper health care for existing or new health problems. Effective treatments can help if your stress is affecting your relationships or ability to work.
Get regular exercise. Just 30 minutes per day of walking can help boost your mood and improve your health.
Try a relaxing activity. Explore relaxation or wellness programs, which may incorporate meditation, muscle relaxation, or breathing exercises. Schedule regular times for these and other healthy and relaxing activities.
Set goals and priorities. Decide what must get done now and what can wait. Learn to say “no” to new tasks if you start to feel like you’re taking on too much. Try to be mindful of what you have accomplished at the end of the day, not what you have been unable to do.
Stay connected. You are not alone. Keep in touch with people who can provide emotional support and practical help. To reduce stress, ask for help from friends, family, and community or religious organizations.
Consider a clinical trial. Researchers at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and other research facilities across the country are studying the causes and effects of psychological stress as well as stress management techniques.

5. If you’re overwhelmed by stress, ask for help from a health professional.

You should seek help right away if you have suicidal thoughts, are overwhelmed, feel you cannot cope, or are using drugs or alcohol more frequently as a result of stress. Your doctor may be able to provide a recommendation.

Source: National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

Additional Materials (10)

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Coping with stress during a COVID-19

Coping with stress during a COVID-19

Interactive by National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD), Division of Viral Diseases

Meditation and Chromosome showing Telomerase Activity

The stress and strife of daily life can take a toll and even our chromosomes may be affected. Chromosomes are capped at their ends by protective structures called telomeres, which play a key role in cell division. Telomeres shorten, however, every time a cell divides, which ultimately sets a limit on cellular lifespan; the telomeres of individuals under great stress unravel even faster. An enzyme called telomerase, however, helps maintain and repair telomeres and a recent study suggests that intensive meditation training may increase telomerase activity in immune cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Wellness Rule 1: Measure Yourself to Track Your Health

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The Wellness Continuum

Being in good health doesn't happen overnight; it's a journey. Here's your roadmap. Begin with Wellness Rule 1, Measure Yourself to Track Your Health, and continue on to learn how to turn around bad habits one by one. As you start practicing good health habits, you'll find they reinforce one another. By getting enough sleep, for instance, you'll more effectively manage stress and be less likely to overeat.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

A description of scientific research on links between the amygdala and PTSD.

A description of scientific research on links between the amygdala and PTSD.

Image by EternallyOptimistic

This browser does not support the video element.

Inheriting Stress

One effect of stress that is especially concerning to researchers is that some damage may be passed down to the next generation. Evidence is building that some epigenetic changes in gene expression can be inherited. For example, the children of mothers who had chronic stress during pregnancy have higher-than-normal rates of mood and behavior ailments as adults. The offspring of those who lived through a grave famine were found to have altered genes for obesity. These epigenetic effects, caused by stressful life events, have prompted researchers to explore what other stress damage may be inherited.

Video by TheVisualMD

5 Things to Know About Stress

Everyone feels stressed from time to time. It's important to pay attention to how you deal with minor and major stressors, so you know when to seek help.

Image by NIMH

What Does Stress Do To Your Body?

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Practical Steps to Ease Stress and Anxiety During COVID-19 | Susan Albers, PsyD

Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

Acute vs. chronic stress: Signs it's time to seek professional help

Video by Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

90:10 The Single Most Important Thing You Can Do For Your Stress

Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube

Coping with stress during a COVID-19

National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD), Division of Viral Diseases

Meditation and Chromosome showing Telomerase Activity

TheVisualMD

The Wellness Continuum

TheVisualMD

A description of scientific research on links between the amygdala and PTSD.

EternallyOptimistic

0:58

Inheriting Stress

TheVisualMD

5 Things to Know About Stress

NIMH

3:20

What Does Stress Do To Your Body?

Seeker/YouTube

20:11

Practical Steps to Ease Stress and Anxiety During COVID-19 | Susan Albers, PsyD

Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

7:43

Acute vs. chronic stress: Signs it's time to seek professional help

Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

11:01

90:10 The Single Most Important Thing You Can Do For Your Stress

DocMikeEvans/YouTube

Vaccines

Woman receiving a vaccine in her arm

Image by SELF Magazine - Photographer: Heather Hazzan;

Get Shots to Protect Your Health (Adults Ages 19 to 49)

Overview

Adults need to get shots (vaccines) just like kids do. Make sure you're up to date on your shots.

Get a flu vaccine every year. The seasonal flu vaccine is the best way to protect yourself and others from the flu.
Get the Tdap shot to protect from tetanus, diphtheria (“dif-THEER-ee-ah”), and whooping cough (pertussis). Everyone needs to get the Tdap shot once, and pregnant women need a dose during every pregnancy.
After you get a Tdap shot, get a Td shot every 10 years to keep you protected from tetanus and diphtheria.
If you're age 50 or older, find out which other shots you may need. Older adults need shots to protect against diseases like shingles and pneumonia ("noo-MOHN-yah").

Ask your doctor, nurse, or pharmacist about other shots you may need to stay healthy.

Why do I need to get these shots?

Shots (vaccines) help protect you against diseases that can be serious and sometimes deadly. Many of these diseases are common.

Even if you got all your shots as a child, you still need shots as an adult. The protection from some shots can wear off over time. Also, as you get older, you may be at risk for other illnesses, like shingles.

Getting shots doesn't just protect you – it also protects the people around you. Some people in your family or community may not be able to get certain vaccines because of their age or health condition.

Protect yourself and those around you by staying up to date on your shots.

Do I need any other shots to help me stay healthy?

You may need other shots if you:

Didn’t get all of your shots when you were a child
Have a health condition like HIV that makes it harder for your body to fight off infections
Have a health condition like diabetes or heart, lung, or liver disease
Are pregnant
Are a man who has sex with men
Smoke
Spend time with infants, young children, or older adults
Work in a school, hospital, prison, or health clinic
Travel outside the United States

And you may need other shots if you work in a:

School
Daycare
Hospital
Health clinic
Nursing home
Prison

Ask your doctor or nurse if you need any other shots.

Make a Plan

Talk with a doctor, nurse, or pharmacist about getting up to date on your shots.

Make a plan to get your shots.

Schedule an appointment with your doctor or nurse to get the shots you need. You may also be able to get shots at your local pharmacy.

Get a seasonal flu shot every year.

Remember, everyone age 6 months and older needs to get the seasonal flu vaccine every year.

What about cost?

Under the Affordable Care Act, most private insurance plans must cover recommended shots for adults. Depending on your insurance, you may be able to get your shots at no cost to you. Talk to your insurance company to learn more.

If you don’t have insurance, you still may be able to get free shots.

Keep a copy of your vaccination record.

Ask your doctor to print out a record of all the shots you've had. Keep this record in a safe place. You may need it for certain jobs or if you travel outside the United States.

If you still can’t find a record of your shots, talk with your doctor about getting some shots again.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (9)

Woman receiving a vaccine

Woman receiving a vaccine

Image by SELF Magazine / Photographer: Heather Hazzan

Influenza Vaccine

In this 2017 photo, captured inside a clinical setting, a health care provider was placing a bandage on the injection site of a patient, who just received an influenza vaccine. The best way to prevent seasonal flu, is to get vaccinated every year. CDC recommends, everyone 6-months of age and older, get a flu vaccine every season.

Image by CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

Young girl about to receive a vaccine from a medical professional

Young girl about to receive a vaccine from a medical professional

Image by SELF Magazine - Photographer: Heather Hazzan

Vaccination

This photograph showed a nurse in the process of administering a vaccination to a young girl into her left shoulder muscle, while her younger sister observed from behind.

Image by CDC

Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine

Airman 1st Class Kimber Bernau, 59th Medical Wing Family Emergency Clinic medical technician, administers the Pfizer COVID-19 vaccine shot to Tech Sgt. Jason Bailey, Dec. 14, 2020, at Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center, Joint Base San Antonio-Lackland, Texas. The Department of Defense is implementing a standardized and coordinated strategy for prioritizing, distributing, and administering the COVID-19 vaccine through a phased approach to all Active Duty, Reserve, National Guard, and all mission-essential DoD civilian employees and other personnel. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Melody Bordeaux)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Melody Bordeaux

The routine vaccines older adults need

Video by UW Medicine/YouTube

Adult Vaccines and Immunization Update, 2019-2020

Video by JAMA Network/YouTube

Our Best Shot: The Importance of Vaccines for Older Adults

Video by Alliance for Aging Research/YouTube

Why Vaccines Work

Video by Be Smart/YouTube

Woman receiving a vaccine

SELF Magazine / Photographer: Heather Hazzan

Influenza Vaccine

CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

Young girl about to receive a vaccine from a medical professional

SELF Magazine - Photographer: Heather Hazzan

Vaccination

CDC

Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine

U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Melody Bordeaux

2:15

The routine vaccines older adults need

UW Medicine/YouTube

8:50

Adult Vaccines and Immunization Update, 2019-2020

JAMA Network/YouTube

5:14

Our Best Shot: The Importance of Vaccines for Older Adults

Alliance for Aging Research/YouTube

7:23

Why Vaccines Work

Be Smart/YouTube

Influenza Vaccine

Influenza Vaccine, Inactivated or Recombinant

Also called: Afluria Quadrivalent, Fluarix Quadrivalent, FluLaval Quadrivalent, Flucelvax Quadrivalent, Fluzone Quadrivalent, FluMist Quadrivalent, Fluzone High-Dose Quadrivalent

Flu vaccines cause antibodies to develop in the body about two weeks after vaccination. These antibodies provide protection against infection with the viruses that are in the vaccine. CDC recommends everyone 6 months of age and older get vaccinated every flu season.

Influenza Vaccine, Inactivated or Recombinant

Also called: Afluria Quadrivalent, Fluarix Quadrivalent, FluLaval Quadrivalent, Flucelvax Quadrivalent, Fluzone Quadrivalent, FluMist Quadrivalent, Fluzone High-Dose Quadrivalent

Flu vaccines cause antibodies to develop in the body about two weeks after vaccination. These antibodies provide protection against infection with the viruses that are in the vaccine. CDC recommends everyone 6 months of age and older get vaccinated every flu season.

Influenza vaccine can prevent influenza (flu).
Flu is a contagious disease that spreads around the United States every year, usually between October and May. Anyone can get the flu, but it is more dangerous for some people. Infants and young children, people 65 years and older, pregnant people, and people with certain health conditions or a weakened immune system are at greatest risk of flu complications.
Pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus infections, and ear infections are examples of flu-related complications. If you have a medical condition, such as heart disease, cancer, or diabetes, flu can make it worse.
Flu can cause fever and chills, sore throat, muscle aches, fatigue, cough, headache, and runny or stuffy nose. Some people may have vomiting and diarrhea, though this is more common in children than adults.
In an average year, thousands of people in the United States die from flu, and many more are hospitalized. Flu vaccine prevents millions of illnesses and flu-related visits to the doctor each year.
Tell your vaccination provider if the person getting the vaccine:
- Has had an allergic reaction after a previous dose of influenza vaccine, or has any severe, life-threatening allergies
- Has ever had Guillain-Barré Syndrome (also called “GBS”)
In some cases, your health care provider may decide to postpone influenza vaccination until a future visit.
Influenza vaccine can be administered at any time during pregnancy. People who are or will be pregnant during influenza season should receive inactivated influenza vaccine.
People with minor illnesses, such as a cold, may be vaccinated. People who are moderately or severely ill should usually wait until they recover before getting influenza vaccine.
Your health care provider can give you more information.
- Soreness, redness, and swelling where the shot is given, fever, muscle aches, and headache can happen after influenza vaccination.
- There may be a very small increased risk of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) after inactivated influenza vaccine (the flu shot).
Young children who get the flu shot along with pneumococcal vaccine (PCV13) and/or DTaP vaccine at the same time might be slightly more likely to have a seizure caused by fever. Tell your health care provider if a child who is getting flu vaccine has ever had a seizure.
People sometimes faint after medical procedures, including vaccination. Tell your provider if you feel dizzy or have vision changes or ringing in the ears.
As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.
1. Inactivated Influenza VIS | CDC [accessed on Aug 06, 2019]
2. Vaccination: Who Should Do It, Who Should Not and Who Should Take Precautions | CDC [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
3. People at High Risk of Developing Serious Flu–Related Complications | CDC [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
4. Flu Information for Parents with Young Children | CDC [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
5. Influenza Vaccine, Inactivated or Recombinant. MedlinePlus/AHFS® Drug Information. [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]

These FAQs provide a summary of the most important information about Influenza Vaccine, Inactivated or Recombinant. If you would like more information or have any questions, talk to your healthcare provider.

Additional Materials (50)

Influenza A virus

H1N1 Influenza Virus Particles : Colorized transmission electron micrograph showing H1N1 influenza virus particles. Surface proteins on the virus particles are shown in black.

Image by NIAID

Influenza A virus

H1N1 virus : This colorized transmission electron micrograph shows H1N1 influenza virus particles. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)

Image by (NIH) (NIAID)

Woman receiving immunization

This 2006 photograph depicted an adult female healthcare professional dressed in her scrubs, as she was receiving an intramuscular vaccination in her left shoulder muscle from a fellow nurse.

Image by CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Influenza Virus

This 3-dimensional (3D) image illustrates the very beginning stages of an influenza (flu) infection. Most experts think that influenza viruses spread mainly through small droplets containing influenza virus. These droplets are expelled into the air when people infected with the flu, cough, sneeze or talk. Once in the air, these small infectious droplets can land in the mouths or noses of people who are nearby. This image shows what happens after these influenza viruses enter the human body. The viruses attach to cells within the nasal passages and throat (i.e., the respiratory tract). The influenza virus’s hemagglutinin (HA) surface proteins then bind to the sialic acid receptors on the surface of a human respiratory tract cell. The structure of the influenza virus’s HA surface proteins is designed to fit the sialic acid receptors of the human cell, like a key to a lock. Once the key enters the lock, the influenza virus is then able to enter and infect the cell. This marks the beginning of a flu infection.

Image by CDC/ Douglas E. Jordan; Photo credit: Illustrator: Dan Higgins

Influenza Virus

On a dark-blue background, this illustration provides a 3D graphical representation of a generic influenza virion's ultrastructure, and is not specific to a seasonal, avian or 2009 H1N1 virus. A portion of the virion's outer protein coat has been cut away, which reveals the virus' contents, and a key has been included, which identifies these components. See PHIL 11877 for an uncut view of the virion's exterior.

Image by CDC

Sneezing

This 2009 photograph captured a sneeze in progress, revealing the plume of salivary droplets as they are expelled in a large cone-shaped array from this man’s open mouth, thereby, dramatically illustrating the reason one needs to cover his/her mouth when coughing, or sneezing, in order to protect others from germ exposure.

Image by CDC/ Brian Judd; Photo credit: James Gathany

Influenza virus

This negatively-stained transmission electron micrograph (TEM) revealed the presence of a number of influenza virus virions. This virus is a Orthomyxoviridae virus family member.

Image by CDC

Hong Kong flu

This negatively-stained transmission electron micrograph (TEM) revealed the presence of a number of Hong Kong flu virus virions, the H3N2 subtype of the influenza A virus. This virus is a Orthomyxoviridae virus family member, and was responsible for the flu pandemic of 1968-1969, which infected an estimated 50,000,000 people in the United States, killing 33,000. Note the proteinaceous coat, or capsid, surrounding each virion, and the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase spikes, which differ in terms of their molecular make-up from strain to strain.

Image by CDC

Influenza A virus

This negatively-stained transmission electron micrograph (TEM) revealed the presence of a number of Hong Kong flu virus virions, the H3N2 subtype of the influenza A virus. This virus is a Orthomyxoviridae virus family member, and was responsible for the flu pandemic of 1968-1969, which infected an estimated 50,000,000 people in the United States, killing 33,000. Note the proteinaceous coat, or capsid, surroundind each virion, and the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase spikes, which differ in terms of their molecular make-up from strain to strain.

Image by CDC

Influenza A Virus

This negatively-stained transmission electron micrograph (TEM) depicted a small grouping of a number of influenza A virions, which also revealed at this very high magnification, the neuraminidase and hemagglutinin "spikes" protruding from the virions' proteinaceous capsid coats. At its core, the genome consists of eight single-stranded segments of a negative-sense RNA ((-) ssRNA). Influenza A virions can be observed as being both spherical and filamentous in nature. Each strand is enclosed in, or "encapsidated" inside the viral nucleoprotein, thereby, forming what is known as the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particle.

Image by CDC

Influenza Virus

This negative-stained transmission electron micrograph (TEM) depicts the ultrastructural details of an influenza virus particle, or "virion". A member of the taxonomic family Orthomyxoviridae, the influenza virus is a single-stranded RNA organism.

Image by CDC

H1N1 versus H5N1 pathology

Different sites and outcomes of H1N1 versus H5N1 influenza infections.

Image by TimVickers

Symptoms of Influenza

Image by Mikael Haggstrom

Cold or Flu

The flu and the common cold are both respiratory illnesses but they are caused by different viruses. Because these two types of illnesses have similar flu-like symptoms, it can be difficult to tell the difference between them based on symptoms alone. In general, the flu is worse than the common cold, and symptoms such as fever, body aches, extreme tiredness, and dry cough are more common and intense. Colds are usually milder than the flu. People with colds are more likely to have a runny or stuffy nose. Colds generally do not result in serious health problems, such as pneumonia, bacterial infections, or hospitalizations. Because colds and flu share many symptoms, it can be difficult (or even impossible) to tell the difference between them based on symptoms alone. Special tests that usually must be done within the first few days of illness can be carried out, when needed to tell if a person has the flu. In general, the flu is worse than the common cold, and symptoms such as fever, body aches, extreme tiredness, and dry cough are more common and intense. Colds are usually milder than the flu. People with colds are more likely to have a runny or stuffy nose. Colds generally do not result in serious health problems, such as pneumonia, bacterial infections, or hospitalizations. CDC

Image by niaid

Influenza Virus

Influenza (flu) virus proteins in the act of self-replication. Viral nucleoprotein (blue) encapsidates [encapsulates] the RNA genome (green). The influenza virus polymerase (orange) reads and copies the RNA genome. In the background is an image of influenza virus ribonucleoprotein complexes observed using cryo-electron microscopy.

Image by Carragher Wilson and Potter labs

WHO: Influenza, an Unpredictable Threat

Video by World Health Organization (WHO)/YouTube

5 common flu vaccine excuses | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

How Flu Viruses Attack National Geographic

Video by maia86magnoly/YouTube

Flu Vaccine for Children & Flu Shot Side Effects

Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

The Flu Vaccine is Effective

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Influenza animation - flu virus mechanism

Video by David Hager/YouTube

What is influenza?

Video by World Health Organization (WHO)/YouTube

Flu Attack! How A Virus Invades Your Body | Krulwich Wonders | NPR

Video by NPR/YouTube

Influenza: Get the (Antigenic) Drift

Video by NIAID/YouTube

How The Flu Shot Works (And Why You Should Get It)

Video by Seeker/YouTube

The Flu Vaccine 101

Video by Science Filmmaking Tips/YouTube

You Should Get a Flu Shot

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Why does being pregnant put me at a higher risk for flu?

Video by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services/YouTube

Preventing Flu During Pregnancy Could Reduce Autism Risk - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Three types of flu | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

What is the flu? | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

When flu viruses attack! | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

What is Influenza? - Pig Flu - Bird Flu - Human Flu?

Video by Super Scienced/YouTube

Cold vs. Flu: What's The Difference?

Video by Seeker/YouTube

SwineFlu Influenza H1N1 Mechanism of Action MOA Animation

Video by Scientific Animations/YouTube

Avian Influenza

This photograph depicts a microbiologist in the Influenza Branch at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, while she was conducting an experiment inside a biological safety cabinet (BSC) within the Biosafety Level 3-enhanced laboratory. The airflow within the BSC helps prevent any airborne virus from escaping the confines of the cabinet, and as part of her personal protective equipment, she was wearing a powered air purifying respirator (PAPR), which was filtering the air that she was breathing.

Image by CDC

Swine Influenza

Main symptoms of swine influenza

Image by LadyofHats

Avian Influenza

Description: This transmission electron micrograph (TEM), taken at a magnification of 150,000x, revealed the ultrastructural details of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virion, a type of bird flu virus which is a subtype of avian influenza A. At this magnification, one may note the stippled appearance of the roughened surface of the proteinaceous coat encasing the virion.

Image by Cynthia Goldsmith/ Jackie Katz

Swine Influenza

Illustration of antigenic shift _ Swine influenza symptoms on swine

Image by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)

Influenza virus attaches to host membrane (with labels)

Influenza A infects a host cell when hemagglutinin grips onto glycans on its surface. Neuraminidase, an enzyme that chews sugars, helps newly made virus particles detach so they can infect other cells. Related to 213. Featured in the March 2006, issue of Findings in "Viral Voyages."

Image by National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Woman receiving nasal flu vaccine

This 2009 image depicts a healthcare practitioner as he was administering the H1N1 live attenuated intranasal vaccine (LAIV) to an Indian female recipient. Using a small syringe, he was delivering the vaccine mist into the woman’s right nostril.

Image by CDC/ Dr. Bill Atkinson; Photo credit: James Gathany

Flu Vaccine: Myths and Facts | UCLA Health

Video by UCLA Health/YouTube

The flu vaccine: explained

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Dr. Wendy Sue Swanson Explains the 2019/2020 Flu Vaccine Recommendations

Video by American Academy of Pediatrics/YouTube

Flu Virus Rotation

The flu (influenza) is large family of viruses that affects birds and mammals and tends to be seasonal, usually beginning in late fall and ending in early spring. Like the common cold (caused by a different family of viruses), respiratory flu infection is widespread, affecting tens of millions in the U.S. each year. Some flu tests detect the influenza virus, while other tests detect the presence of antibodies produced by the body's immune system. There are different types and strains of influenza (including those known as bird or swine flu). Influenza (the flu) is a viral respiratory infection that affects 30 to 50 million Americans and is usually seasonal, beginning in late fall and disappearing in early spring. It is a common respiratory illness that affects 30 to 50 million Americans, especially the very young, elderly, those who are pregnant, with compromised immune systems or pre-existing lung disease each season.

Image by TheVisualMD

Influenza Vaccine

In this 2017 photo, captured inside a clinical setting, a health care provider was placing a bandage on the injection site of a child, who had just received a seasonal influenza vaccine. Children younger than 5-years-old, and especially those younger than 2-years-old, are at high risk of developing serious flu-related complications. A flu vaccine offers the best defense against flu, and its potentially serious consequences, and can also reduce the spread of flu to others.

Image by CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

Influenza Vaccine

In this 2017 photo, captured inside a clinical setting, a health care provider was placing a bandage on the injection site of a child, who had just received a seasonal influenza vaccine. Children younger than 5-years-old, and especially those younger than 2-years-old, are at high risk of developing serious flu-related complications. A flu vaccine offers the best defense against flu, and its potentially serious consequences, and can also reduce the spread of flu to others.

Image by CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

Flu Shots 101

Video by CBS New York/YouTube

Temp Time

A service member conducts a temperature check during a flu vaccination event for Army family members and military retirees at Fort Bliss, Texas, Oct. 9, 2020. This year’s event included the temperature checks as well as social distancing and masks due to the coronavirus pandemic.

Image by Michelle Gordon

Now’s Still a Good Time to Get Your Flu Vaccine

Background image of a crowd of pedestrians walking with an image of calendar with the words "Today" and "Get Flu Vaccine" on it in the foreground.

Image by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Influenza A virus

NIAID

Influenza A virus

(NIH) (NIAID)

Woman receiving immunization

CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Influenza Virus

CDC/ Douglas E. Jordan; Photo credit: Illustrator: Dan Higgins

Influenza Virus

CDC

Sneezing

CDC/ Brian Judd; Photo credit: James Gathany

Influenza virus

CDC

Hong Kong flu

CDC

Influenza A virus

CDC

Influenza A Virus

CDC

Influenza Virus

CDC

H1N1 versus H5N1 pathology

TimVickers

Symptoms of Influenza

Mikael Haggstrom

Cold or Flu

niaid

Influenza Virus

Carragher Wilson and Potter labs

14:03

WHO: Influenza, an Unpredictable Threat

World Health Organization (WHO)/YouTube

7:58

5 common flu vaccine excuses | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:48

How Flu Viruses Attack National Geographic

maia86magnoly/YouTube

1:18

Flu Vaccine for Children & Flu Shot Side Effects

Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

4:10

The Flu Vaccine is Effective

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

4:13

Influenza animation - flu virus mechanism

David Hager/YouTube

2:40

What is influenza?

World Health Organization (WHO)/YouTube

3:39

Flu Attack! How A Virus Invades Your Body | Krulwich Wonders | NPR

NPR/YouTube

2:53

Influenza: Get the (Antigenic) Drift

NIAID/YouTube

3:35

How The Flu Shot Works (And Why You Should Get It)

Seeker/YouTube

3:11

The Flu Vaccine 101

Science Filmmaking Tips/YouTube

6:48

You Should Get a Flu Shot

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

0:41

Why does being pregnant put me at a higher risk for flu?

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services/YouTube

1:44

Preventing Flu During Pregnancy Could Reduce Autism Risk - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

8:16

Three types of flu | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

12:47

What is the flu? | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

7:12

When flu viruses attack! | Infectious diseases | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:24

What is Influenza? - Pig Flu - Bird Flu - Human Flu?

Super Scienced/YouTube

4:53

Cold vs. Flu: What's The Difference?

Seeker/YouTube

2:15

SwineFlu Influenza H1N1 Mechanism of Action MOA Animation

Scientific Animations/YouTube

Avian Influenza

CDC

Swine Influenza

LadyofHats

Avian Influenza

Cynthia Goldsmith/ Jackie Katz

Swine Influenza

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)

Influenza virus attaches to host membrane (with labels)

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Woman receiving nasal flu vaccine

CDC/ Dr. Bill Atkinson; Photo credit: James Gathany

5:11

Flu Vaccine: Myths and Facts | UCLA Health

UCLA Health/YouTube

4:38

The flu vaccine: explained

Osmosis/YouTube

1:15

Dr. Wendy Sue Swanson Explains the 2019/2020 Flu Vaccine Recommendations

American Academy of Pediatrics/YouTube

Flu Virus Rotation

TheVisualMD

Influenza Vaccine

CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

Influenza Vaccine

CDC/ Robert Denty; Photo credit: Scott Housley

2:58

Flu Shots 101

CBS New York/YouTube

Temp Time

Michelle Gordon

Now’s Still a Good Time to Get Your Flu Vaccine

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Tdap Vaccine

Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccine

Also called: Tdap Vaccine, Adacel®, Boostrix®

Tdap vaccine can protect adolescents and adults from tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis. And, Tdap vaccine given to pregnant women can protect newborn babies against pertussis.

Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccine

Also called: Tdap Vaccine, Adacel®, Boostrix®

Tdap vaccine can protect adolescents and adults from tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis. And, Tdap vaccine given to pregnant women can protect newborn babies against pertussis.

Tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis are very serious diseases. Tdap vaccine can protect us from these diseases. And, Tdap vaccine given to pregnant women can protect newborn babies against pertussis.
TETANUS (Lockjaw) is rare in the United States today. It causes painful muscle tightening and stiffness, usually all over the body.
- It can lead to tightening of muscles in the head and neck so you can’t open your mouth, swallow, or sometimes even breathe. Tetanus kills about 1 out of 10 people who are infected even after receiving the best medical care.
DIPHTHERIA is also rare in the United States today. It can cause a thick coating to form in the back of the throat.
- It can lead to breathing problems, heart failure, paralysis, and death.
PERTUSSIS (Whooping Cough) causes severe coughing spells, which can cause difficulty breathing, vomiting, and disturbed sleep.
- It can also lead to weight loss, incontinence, and rib fractures. Up to 2 in 100 adolescents and 5 in 100 adults with pertussis are hospitalized or have complications, which could include pneumonia or death.
These diseases are caused by bacteria. Diphtheria and pertussis are spread from person to person through secretions from coughing or sneezing. Tetanus enters the body through cuts, scratches, or wounds.
Before vaccines, as many as 200,000 cases of diphtheria, 200,000 cases of pertussis, and hundreds of cases of tetanus, were reported in the United States each year. Since vaccination began, reports of cases for tetanus and diphtheria have dropped by about 99% and for pertussis by about 80%.
- A person who has ever had a life-threatening allergic reaction after a previous dose of any diphtheria, tetanus or pertussis containing vaccine, OR has a severe allergy to any part of this vaccine, should not get Tdap vaccine. Tell the person giving the vaccine about any severe allergies.
- Anyone who had coma or long repeated seizures within 7 days after a childhood dose of DTP or DTaP, or a previous dose of Tdap, should not get Tdap, unless a cause other than the vaccine was found. They can still get Td.
- Talk to your doctor if you:
  have seizures or another nervous system problem,
  had severe pain or swelling after any vaccine containing diphtheria, tetanus or pertussis,
  ever had a condition called Guillain Barré Syndrome (GBS),
  aren’t feeling well on the day the shot is scheduled.
With any medicine, including vaccines, there is a chance of side effects. These are usually mild and go away on their own. Serious reactions are also possible but are rare.
Most people who get Tdap vaccine do not have any problems with it.
Mild problems following Tdap:
(Did not interfere with activities)
- Pain where the shot was given (about 3 in 4 adolescents or 2 in 3 adults)
- Redness or swelling where the shot was given (about 1 person in 5)
- Mild fever of at least 100.4°F (up to about 1 in 25 adolescents or 1 in 100 adults)
- Headache (about 3 or 4 people in 10)
- Tiredness (about 1 person in 3 or 4)
- Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach ache (up to 1 in 4 adolescents or 1 in 10 adults)
- Chills, sore joints (about 1 person in 10)
- Body aches (about 1 person in 3 or 4)
- Rash, swollen glands (uncommon)
Moderate problems following Tdap:
(Interfered with activities, but did not require medical attention)
- Pain where the shot was given (up to 1 in 5 or 6)
- Redness or swelling where the shot was given (up to about 1 in 16 adolescents or 1 in 12 adults)
- Fever over 102°F (about 1 in 100 adolescents or 1 in 250 adults)
- Headache (about 1 in 7 adolescents or 1 in 10 adults)
- Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach ache (up to 1 or 3 people in 100)
- Swelling of the entire arm where the shot was given (up to about 1 in 500).
Severe problems following Tdap:
(Unable to perform usual activities; required medical attention)
- Swelling, severe pain, bleeding, and redness in the arm where the shot was given (rare).
Problems that could happen after any vaccine:
- People sometimes faint after a medical procedure, including vaccination. Sitting or lying down for about 15 minutes can help prevent fainting, and injuries caused by a fall. Tell your doctor if you feel dizzy, or have vision changes or ringing in the ears.
- Some people get severe pain in the shoulder and have difficulty moving the arm where a shot was given. This happens very rarely.
- Any medication can cause a severe allergic reaction. Such reactions from a vaccine are very rare, estimated at fewer than 1 in a million doses, and would happen within a few minutes to a few hours after the vaccination.
As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a serious injury or death.
The safety of vaccines is always being monitored.
What should I look for?
- Look for anything that concerns you, such as signs of a severe allergic reaction, very high fever, or unusual behavior.
- Signs of a severe allergic reaction can include hives, swelling of the face and throat, difficulty breathing, a fast heartbeat, dizziness, and weakness. These would usually start a few minutes to a few hours after the vaccination.
What should I do?
- If you think it is a severe allergic reaction or other emergency that can’t wait, call 9-1-1 or get the person to the nearest hospital. Otherwise, call your doctor.
- Afterward, the reaction should be reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). Your doctor might file this report, or you can do it yourself through the VAERS website, or by calling 1-800-822-7967.
VAERS does not give medical advice.
1. Tdap (Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis) Vaccine Information Statement (VIS). [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
2. Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccine. MedlinePlus/AHFS® Drug Information. [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]

These FAQs provide a summary of the most important information about Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccine. If you would like more information or have any questions, talk to your healthcare provider.

Additional Materials (23)

DTaP Vaccine - Vaccines and Your Baby - The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (6 of 14)

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

Whooping cough explainer

Video by News Direct/YouTube

Tetanus

This neonate is displaying a bodily rigidity produced by Clostridium tetani exotoxin, called "neonatal tetanus". Neonatal tetanus occurs in infants born without protective passive immunity, because the mother is not immune. It usually occurs through infection of the unhealed umbilical stump, particularly when the stump is cut with an unsterile instrument.

Image by PD-USGov-HHS-CDC

Clostridium tetani bacteria

This photomicrograph depicts a group of Clostridium tetani bacteria, responsible for causing tetanus in humans. Note that some of these organisms had entered their endospore phase, displaying the classic tennis racket morphology.

Image by CDC

Tetanus - Prevention

Image by Blake Patterson

Tetanus - Causes and Transmission

Rusty barbed wire is a potential source for tetanus

Image by Timothy Allen

Vaccination

This photograph showed a nurse in the process of administering a vaccination to a young girl into her left shoulder muscle, while her younger sister observed from behind.

Image by CDC

Diptheria is deadly. Protect your child by immunisation

Diptheria is deadly. Protect your child by immunisation

Image by Artist : J H Dowd : The National Archives (United Kingdom)

Infectious Diseases A Z Why pregnant women need Tdap vaccine

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis (DTap)

Immunizations for more than 20 diseases have been created in order to prevent the ailments before the patient acquires them. Several of the preventable disease immunizations are packaged together into single vaccines such as the Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis (Tdap) shot. (U.S. Air Force Graphic/Airman 1st Class Charles Dickens)

Image by U.S. Air Force Graphic/Airman 1st Class Charles Dickens

Photographed here in this 2006 image, was a adolescent girl in the process of receiving an intramuscular immunization in her left shoulder muscle. The vaccination was being administered by a qualified female healthcare practitioner, who was stabilizing the injection site with her free hand.

Why Do Pre-teens and Adolescents Need Immunizations? CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend that pre-teens get several vaccines at their 11 or 12 year old check-up. Tetanus-diphtheria-acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap), Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4), Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, for girls these vaccines prevent serious, sometimes life-threatening diseases. Immunity from some childhood vaccines can decrease over time, so people need to get another dose of the vaccine during their pre-teen years. Also, as children move into adolescence, they are at greater risk of catching certain diseases, like meningitis and HPV. If your child did not get these vaccines at age 11 or 12, schedule an appointment to get them now.

Image by CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Vaccination of young adolescent boy

Why Do Pre-teens and Adolescents Need Immunizations? CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend that pre-teens get several vaccines at their 11 or 12 year old check-up.- Tetanus-diphtheria-acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap)- Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4)- Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, for girls. These vaccines prevent serious, sometimes life-threatening diseases. Immunity from some childhood vaccines can decrease over time, so people need to get another dose of the vaccine during their pre-teen years. Also, as children move into adolescence, they are at greater risk of catching certain diseases, like meningitis and HPV. If your child did not get these vaccines at age 11 or 12, schedule an appointment to get them now.

Image by CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

This photograph showed a nurse in the process of administering a vaccination into the left shoulder muscle of a 15-year old female basketball player, while three of her teammates observed.

Why Do Pre-teens and Adolescents Need Immunizations?CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend that pre-teens get several vaccines at their 11 or 12 year old check-up.- Tetanus-diphtheria-acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap)- Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4)- Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, for girlsThese vaccines prevent serious, sometimes life-threatening diseases. Immunity from some childhood vaccines can decrease over time, so people need to get another dose of the vaccine during their pre-teen years. Also, as children move into adolescence, they are at greater risk of catching certain diseases, like meningitis and HPV. If your child did not get these vaccines at age 11 or 12, schedule an appointment to get them now.

Image by CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Parents' Guide to Childhood Immunizations

The Parents’ Guide to Childhood Immunizations helps parents and caregivers learn about the role vaccines play in helping keep children healthy. The color booklet includes a glossary and list of resources and is illustrated with children’s artwork.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

2019 Combined Recommended Immunization Schedule for Persons Aged 0 through 18 years

See which vaccines your child needs from birth through age 6 in this parent-friendly immunization schedule.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Information For Parents: Diphtheria and the Vaccine (Shot) to Prevent It

The best way to protect against diphtheria is by getting the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis shot (called DTaP). Doctors recommend that all children get the shot.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Tdap: Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis Vaccine

Video by HHS Office of Population Affairs/YouTube

What You Should Know About The Tdap Vaccine | CVS Health

Video by CVS Pharmacy/YouTube

Dr. Pamela Rockwell’s Flu and Tdap Vaccine Recommendation to Pregnant Patients

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Addressing Patient Tdap Vaccine Safety Concerns: Nurse-Midwife Carol Hayes

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Healthy Pregnancy Tips From the CDC

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Which Adults Need a Tdap Vaccine?

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

Mayo Clinic Minute: The ABCs of the DTaP vaccine

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

3:52

DTaP Vaccine - Vaccines and Your Baby - The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (6 of 14)

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

0:58

Whooping cough explainer

News Direct/YouTube

Tetanus

PD-USGov-HHS-CDC

Clostridium tetani bacteria

CDC

Tetanus - Prevention

Blake Patterson

Tetanus - Causes and Transmission

Timothy Allen

Vaccination

CDC

Diptheria is deadly. Protect your child by immunisation

Artist : J H Dowd : The National Archives (United Kingdom)

1:45

Infectious Diseases A Z Why pregnant women need Tdap vaccine

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis (DTap)

U.S. Air Force Graphic/Airman 1st Class Charles Dickens

Photographed here in this 2006 image, was a adolescent girl in the process of receiving an intramuscular immunization in her left shoulder muscle. The vaccination was being administered by a qualified female healthcare practitioner, who was stabilizing the injection site with her free hand.

CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Vaccination of young adolescent boy

CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

This photograph showed a nurse in the process of administering a vaccination into the left shoulder muscle of a 15-year old female basketball player, while three of her teammates observed.

CDC/ Judy Schmidt; Photo credit: James Gathany

Parents' Guide to Childhood Immunizations

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

2019 Combined Recommended Immunization Schedule for Persons Aged 0 through 18 years

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Information For Parents: Diphtheria and the Vaccine (Shot) to Prevent It

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

1:07

Tdap: Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis Vaccine

HHS Office of Population Affairs/YouTube

1:01

What You Should Know About The Tdap Vaccine | CVS Health

CVS Pharmacy/YouTube

0:25

Dr. Pamela Rockwell’s Flu and Tdap Vaccine Recommendation to Pregnant Patients

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:48

Addressing Patient Tdap Vaccine Safety Concerns: Nurse-Midwife Carol Hayes

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:45

Healthy Pregnancy Tips From the CDC

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:56

Which Adults Need a Tdap Vaccine?

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

1:02

Mayo Clinic Minute: The ABCs of the DTaP vaccine

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine

Also called: Gardasil®, Gardasil® 9

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine can prevent infection with some types of human papillomavirus. The vaccine is given to individuals 9 through 45 years of age to help protect against diseases caused by nine high-risk types of HPV (Gardasil 9).

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine

Also called: Gardasil®, Gardasil® 9

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine can prevent infection with some types of human papillomavirus. The vaccine is given to individuals 9 through 45 years of age to help protect against diseases caused by nine high-risk types of HPV (Gardasil 9).

HPV (human papillomavirus) vaccine can prevent infection with some types of human papillomavirus.
HPV infections can cause certain types of cancers, including:
- cervical, vaginal, and vulvar cancers in women
- penile cancer in men
- anal cancers in both men and women
- cancers of tonsils, base of tongue, and back of throat (oropharyngeal cancer) in both men and women
HPV infections can also cause anogenital warts.
HPV vaccine can prevent over 90% of cancers caused by HPV.
HPV is spread through intimate skin-to-skin or sexual contact. HPV infections are so common that nearly all people will get at least one type of HPV at some time in their lives. Most HPV infections go away on their own within 2 years. But sometimes HPV infections will last longer and can cause cancers later in life.
Tell your vaccination provider if the person getting the vaccine:
- Has had an allergic reaction after a previous dose of HPV vaccine, or has any severe, life-threatening allergies
- Is pregnant—HPV vaccine is not recommended until after pregnancy
In some cases, your health care provider may decide to postpone HPV vaccination until a future visit.
People with minor illnesses, such as a cold, may be vaccinated. People who are moderately or severely ill should usually wait until they recover before getting HPV vaccine.
Your health care provider can give you more information.
- Soreness, redness, or swelling where the shot is given can happen after HPV vaccination.
- Fever or headache can happen after HPV vaccination.
People sometimes faint after medical procedures, including vaccination. Tell your provider if you feel dizzy or have vision changes or ringing in the ears.
As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.
1. Vaccine Information Statement | HPV | VIS | CDC [accessed on Aug 06, 2021]
2. GARDASIL 9 (human papillomavirus 9-valent vaccine, recombinant) injection, suspension [accessed on Oct 14, 2019]
3. GARDASIL (human papillomavirus quadrivalent (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) vaccine, recombinant) injection, suspension [accessed on Oct 14, 2019]
4. Human Papillomavirus 9 Valent (Types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, 58) Vaccine, Recombinant. AIDSinfo/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [accessed on Oct 14, 2019]
5. Gardasil 9. FDA Vaccines. [accessed on Apr 25, 2019]
6. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination: What Everyone Should Know. CDC National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
7. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine . MedlinePlus/AHFS® Drug Information. [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
8. FDA NEWS RELEASE: FDA approves expanded use of Gardasil 9 to include individuals 27 through 45 years old [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]

These FAQs provide a summary of the most important information about Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine. If you would like more information or have any questions, talk to your healthcare provider.

Additional Materials (47)

HPV Vaccine for Preteens and Teens

HPV vaccination is recommended at ages 11-12 to protect against cancers caused by HPV infection.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

HPV Adolescent Vaccine Safety and Effectiveness

HPV vaccination provides safe, effective, and long-lasting protection against cancers caused by HPV.

Document by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Cervical Cancer and HPV

The human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause several types of cancer. For example, almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV. HPV vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer incidences around the world by two-thirds. See also https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/infectious-agents/hpv-fact-sheet.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

The human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause several types of cancer. For example, almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV. HPV vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer incidences around the world by two-thirds. See also https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/infectious-agents/hpv-fact-sheet.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

The human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause several types of cancer. For example, almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV. HPV vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer incidences around the world by two-thirds.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

The human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause several types of cancer. For example, almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV. HPV vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer incidences around the world by two-thirds. See also https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/infectious-agents/hpv-fact-sheet.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Improving HPV Vaccination Rates Will Help Save Lives

The HPV vaccine Gardasil 9® protects against infection with nine HPV types: the two low-risk HPV types that cause most genital warts, plus the seven high-risk HPV types that cause most HPV-related cancers.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Preventing HPV Infection with HPV Vaccination

The HPV vaccine Gardasil 9® protects against infection with nine HPV types: the two low-risk HPV types that cause most genital warts, plus the seven high-risk HPV types that cause most HPV-related cancers.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Cervical Cancer and the HPV Virus

HPV is the most common virus that infects the reproductive tract and Cervical cancer is by far the most common disease caused by it.

Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.

Vaccines

Thanks to a vaccine, one of the most terrible diseases in history – smallpox – no longer exists outside the laboratory. Over the years, vaccine have prevented countless cases of disease and saved millions of lives.

Image by Courtesy photo

HPV Vaccine

About 80 million people are infected with HPV right now in the United States. Vaccines are currently available for both males and females to help prevent the virus, which can be linked to various cancers, such as cervical cancer.

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Benjamin W. Stratton

The HPV Vaccine, and Why Your Kids Should Get It: Healthcare Triage #4

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Should You Get the HPV Vaccine?

Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube

How does the HPV vaccine work?

Video by Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

HPV in the spotlight as a cause of oral cancers

Video by News Direct/YouTube

Mayo Clinic Minute: Protect your child with HPV vaccine

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

HPV & Cervical Cancer | Parents

Video by Parents/YouTube

Talking with Parents Who Refuse HPV Vaccine – One Pediatrician’s View

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

HPV Vaccine: My Recommendation as a Doctor and a Parent

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

The HPV Vaccine | Why Parents Really Choose to Refuse

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

How the HPV vaccine works

Video by WHO Regional Office for Europe/YouTube

HPV vaccine: Help your kids prevent cancer

Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

Does the HPV Vaccine Prevent Cancer? - Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Can the HPV Vaccine Cause Infertility? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Why Do 11-12 Year Olds Need the HPV Vaccine? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

What Diseases Are Caused by HPV? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Do Boys Need the HPV Vaccine? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Is My Child Too Young to Get the HPV Vaccine? - Answers from a Pediatrician

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Can a single injection prevent cervical cancer? | NHS Behind the headlines

Video by NHS/YouTube

Who Should Be Getting the HPV Vaccine Now?

Video by Medscape/YouTube

How the HPV vaccine works

Video by Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

Should You Get The HPV Vaccine?

Video by Seeker/YouTube

FDA OKs HPV vaccine to age 45

Video by UW Medicine/YouTube

Are There Different HPV Vaccines?

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

HPV vaccination for teenagers

Video by Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

What is HPV: Your questions about HPV and the HPV vaccine answered | Cancer Research UK

Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Can I Still Get HPV Vaccine if I’m Older?

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

HPV Vaccination and Cervical Cancer Prevention Talk

Video by Singapore Cancer Society/YouTube

The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination and Cervical Cancer

Video by Singapore Cancer Society/YouTube

A boys' guide to the HPV vaccine

Video by Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

HPV Vaccination and Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

Video by NEJMvideo/YouTube

Dr. Nita Lee on the HPV Vaccine & Cervical Cancer

Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube

If I already had the HPV vaccine, do I need the HPV-9 vaccine?

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

HPV vaccine (Gardasil®9) explained for parents and guardians – short clip 1

Video by Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

HPV vaccination: Risk factors, sexual history shouldn't guide decisions about it

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

HPV vaccine (Gardasil®9) explained for parents and guardians – short clip 3

Video by Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

Merck’s 9-Valent HPV Vaccine, GARDASIL®9 ...

Video by BusinessWire/YouTube

HPV Vaccine for Preteens and Teens

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

HPV Adolescent Vaccine Safety and Effectiveness

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Cervical Cancer and HPV

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

HPV and Cancer

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Improving HPV Vaccination Rates Will Help Save Lives

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Preventing HPV Infection with HPV Vaccination

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Cervical Cancer and the HPV Virus

Scientific Animations, Inc.

Vaccines

Courtesy photo

HPV Vaccine

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Benjamin W. Stratton

6:52

The HPV Vaccine, and Why Your Kids Should Get It: Healthcare Triage #4

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

8:47

Should You Get the HPV Vaccine?

DocMikeEvans/YouTube

1:31

How does the HPV vaccine work?

Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

0:33

HPV in the spotlight as a cause of oral cancers

News Direct/YouTube

1:00

Mayo Clinic Minute: Protect your child with HPV vaccine

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

7:48

HPV & Cervical Cancer | Parents

Parents/YouTube

1:31

Talking with Parents Who Refuse HPV Vaccine – One Pediatrician’s View

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:31

HPV Vaccine: My Recommendation as a Doctor and a Parent

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

4:45

The HPV Vaccine | Why Parents Really Choose to Refuse

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

2:48

How the HPV vaccine works

WHO Regional Office for Europe/YouTube

1:28

HPV vaccine: Help your kids prevent cancer

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

0:47

Does the HPV Vaccine Prevent Cancer? - Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:52

Can the HPV Vaccine Cause Infertility? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:53

Why Do 11-12 Year Olds Need the HPV Vaccine? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:54

What Diseases Are Caused by HPV? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:46

Do Boys Need the HPV Vaccine? – Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

0:45

Is My Child Too Young to Get the HPV Vaccine? - Answers from a Pediatrician

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

1:27

Can a single injection prevent cervical cancer? | NHS Behind the headlines

NHS/YouTube

1:51

Who Should Be Getting the HPV Vaccine Now?

Medscape/YouTube

3:05

How the HPV vaccine works

Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

3:48

Should You Get The HPV Vaccine?

Seeker/YouTube

2:51

FDA OKs HPV vaccine to age 45

UW Medicine/YouTube

2:26

Are There Different HPV Vaccines?

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

3:20

HPV vaccination for teenagers

Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

1:45

What is HPV: Your questions about HPV and the HPV vaccine answered | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

3:09

Can I Still Get HPV Vaccine if I’m Older?

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

1:14:38

HPV Vaccination and Cervical Cancer Prevention Talk

Singapore Cancer Society/YouTube

1:59

The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination and Cervical Cancer

Singapore Cancer Society/YouTube

1:53

A boys' guide to the HPV vaccine

Cancer Council Victoria/YouTube

1:57

HPV Vaccination and Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

NEJMvideo/YouTube

3:58

Dr. Nita Lee on the HPV Vaccine & Cervical Cancer

UChicago Medicine/YouTube

1:51

If I already had the HPV vaccine, do I need the HPV-9 vaccine?

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

1:19

HPV vaccine (Gardasil®9) explained for parents and guardians – short clip 1

Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

2:52

HPV vaccination: Risk factors, sexual history shouldn't guide decisions about it

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

0:55

HPV vaccine (Gardasil®9) explained for parents and guardians – short clip 3

Australian Government Department of Health/YouTube

5:44

Merck’s 9-Valent HPV Vaccine, GARDASIL®9 ...

BusinessWire/YouTube

Vision

Visual Test

Image by Paul Diaconu

Keep an Eye on Your Vision Health

Going to the doctor, going to the dentist—all part of taking care of your health. But going to the eye doctor? Also important! Eye exams at every age and life stage can help keep your vision strong.

Many people think their eyesight is just fine, but then they get that first pair of glasses or contact lenses and the world comes into clearer view—everything from fine print to street signs.

Improving your eyesight is important—about 11 million Americans over age 12 need vision correction—but it’s just one of the reasons to get your eyes examined. Regular eye exams are also an important part of finding eye diseases early and preserving your vision.

Only Your Eye Doctor Knows for Sure

Eye diseases are common and can go unnoticed for a long time—some have no symptoms at first. A comprehensive dilated eye exam by an optometrist or ophthalmologist (eye doctor) is necessary to find eye diseases in the early stages when treatment to prevent vision loss is most effective.

During the exam, visual acuity (sharpness), depth perception, eye alignment, and eye movement are tested. Eye drops are used to make your pupils larger so your eye doctor can see inside your eyes and check for signs of health problems. Your eye doctor may even spot other conditions such as high blood pressure or diabetes, sometimes before your primary care doctor does.

Vision Care Can Change Lives

Early treatment is critically important to prevent some common eye diseases from causing permanent vision loss or blindness:

Cataracts (clouding of the lens), the leading cause of vision loss in the United States
Diabetic retinopathy (causes damage to blood vessels in the back of the eye), the leading cause of blindness in American adults
Glaucoma (a group of diseases that damages the optic nerve)
Age-related macular degeneration (gradual breakdown of light-sensitive tissue in the eye)

Of the estimated 93 million US adults at high risk for vision loss, only half visited an eye doctor in the past 12 months. Regular eye care can have a life-changing impact on preserving the vision of millions of people.

Start Early

Though people tend to have more vision problems as they get older, children need eye exams to ensure healthy vision, too. But only 39% of preschool children have had their vision tested, which is needed to diagnose eye diseases.

Amblyopia (reduced vision because the eye and brain aren’t working together properly) is the most common cause of vision loss in children—2 to 3 out of 100 children. Amblyopia needs to be treated promptly to help avoid vision loss.

Eye Exams: How Often?

Children’s eyes should be checked regularly by an eye doctor or pediatrician. The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends vision screening for all children at least once between age 3 and 5 years to detect amblyopia or risk factors for the disease.
People with diabetes should have a dilated eye exam every year.
Some people are at higher risk for glaucoma and should have a dilated eye exam every 2 years:
- African Americans 40 years and older
- All adults older than 60, especially Mexican Americans
- People with a family history of glaucoma

Other Reasons to See Your Eye Doctor

If you have any of the following eye problems, don’t wait for your next appointment—visit your eye doctor as soon as possible:

Decreased vision
Draining or redness of the eye
Eye pain
Double vision
Floaters (tiny specks that appear to float before your eyes)
Circles (halos) around lights
Flashes of light

Diabetes and Your Eyes

Diabetic retinopathy is a common complication of diabetes. High blood sugar damages the blood vessels in the retina (a light-sensitive part of the eye), where scarring can cause permanent vision loss.

Diabetic retinopathy is also one of the most preventable causes of vision loss and blindness. Early detection and treatment can prevent or delay blindness due to diabetic retinopathy in 90% of people with diabetes, but 50% or more of them don’t get their eyes examined or are diagnosed too late for effective treatment.

People with diabetes are also at higher risk for other eye diseases, including glaucoma and cataracts. If you have diabetes, an eye exam every year is necessary to protect and preserve your eyesight and eye health.

Looking Ahead

Due to our aging population, the number of blind and visually impaired people in the United States is estimated to double by 2030 and triple by 2050. Encouraging people to take care of their vision health as part of their overall health and wellness could significantly reduce that number and improve quality of life for millions of Americans.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (11)

Eye Care

newarta/Pixabay

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Doctors use a slit-lamp exam to look for eye defects.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

Eye Injury Prevention Month - Sunglasses

NIH Image Gallery from Bethesda, Maryland, USA/Wikimedia

0:43

Healthy Vision Tip: Get a Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

1:57

Eye Care & Vision Problems : What Causes Eye Twitching?

ehowhealth/YouTube

15:09

How Women’s Eye Health is Different From Men | Eye Doctor Explains

Eye School with Dr. D/YouTube

1:40

Children's Eye Care | Retinoblastoma, Micro and Anophthalmia Burlington NC

Carolina Eye Prosthetics/YouTube

4:28

Eye Care Tips

SingHealth/YouTube

2:19

Comprehensive Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

3:24

Animation: Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Dilated Eye Exam

Dilated Eye Exam

Also called: Comprehensive Dilated Eye Exam, Dilated Fundus Exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss. Learn what happens during and after a dilated eye exam and how often you need one.

Dilated Eye Exam

Also called: Comprehensive Dilated Eye Exam, Dilated Fundus Exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss. Learn what happens during and after a dilated eye exam and how often you need one.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{ratio}
0.02
0.04
0.125
0.32
0.8
Your result is Normal vision.
US: 20/25 to 20/12 (Metric: 6/7.5 to 6/4)
Visual acuity is expressed as a decimal or a fraction. 1 = US 20/20 or metric 6/6 is considered optimal vision.
The top number refers to the distance you stand from the chart. This is often 20 feet (6 meters).
The bottom number indicates the distance at which a person with normal eyesight could read the same line you correctly read.
Related conditions
{"label":"Visual field reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"The peripheral vision is normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be due to diseases or central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as tumors that damage or press on (compress) the parts of the brain that deal with vision.","conditions":["Diabetes","Glaucoma","High blood pressure","Macular degeneration","Multiple sclerosis","Optic glioma","Overactive thyroid","Pituitary gland disorders","Retinal detachment","Stroke","Temporal arteritis"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The peripheral vision is normal.
Related conditions
{"label":"Eye muscle function reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result indicates normal movement of the eyes in all directions.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"An abnormal result reveals restricted or abnormal eye movement, such as shaking of the eyes, misalignment, saccadic dysfunction (overshooting or undershooting of the eye movements), mechanical restrictions, or double vision.","conditions":["Amblyopia","Diplopia","Duane retraction syndrome","Eye injury","Nystagmus","Strabismus","Myasthenia gravis","Thyroid eye disease"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result indicates normal movement of the eyes in all directions.
Related conditions
{"label":"Pupil dilation reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result means the status of your optic nerve and retina is in good shape.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"An abnormal result may reveal various problems with your optic nerve and retina, including inflammation or injury, a retinal tear or detachment, clouding of the lens or an ocular tumor.","conditions":["Diabetic retinopathy","Macular degeneration","Cataract","Glaucoma","Eye cancer"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means the status of your optic nerve and retina is in good shape.
Related conditions
{"label":"Pupil response reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Pass","long":"Pass","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A pass or normal result means that the pupils dilate (get larger) when room light is dimmed; the pupils are round and equal in size, in both bright and dim light; and the pupils quickly and symmetrically constrict to a bright light directed into either of the eyes and when the bright light swings between the two eyes.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Refer","long":"Refer","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"A refer or non-pass result means that the test revealed unequal or sluggish response to light or that the pupils are unequal in size or not round. Further testing may be needed.","conditions":["Anisocoria (unequal pupil size)","Relative afferent pupillary defect","Adie syndrome","Argyll Robertson pupil","Horner syndrome"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Pass.
A pass or normal result means that the pupils dilate (get larger) when room light is dimmed; the pupils are round and equal in size, in both bright and dim light; and the pupils quickly and symmetrically constrict to a bright light directed into either of the eyes and when the bright light swings between the two eyes.
Related conditions
{"label":"Eye pressure reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"In general, the eye can see fine at a low pressure, though the risk of blurred vision increases significantly with eye pressure under 6 mm Hg.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":21},"text":"A normal result means your eye pressure is within the normal range. However, the thickness of your cornea can affect measurements. A corneal thickness measurement (pachymetry) is needed to get a correct pressure measurement.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":21,"max":50},"text":"Elevated eye pressure with no other symptoms is ocular hypertension. Left untreated, high eye pressure may cause glaucoma and permanent vision loss in some individuals.","conditions":["Glaucoma","Hyphema (blood in the front chamber of the eye)","Inflammation in the eye","Injury to the eye or head"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"value":15.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
10
21
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means your eye pressure is within the normal range. However, the thickness of your cornea can affect measurements. A corneal thickness measurement (pachymetry) is needed to get a correct pressure measurement.
Related conditions
How often you need a dilated eye exam depends on your risk for eye disease. Talk to your doctor about what’s right for you.
Get a dilated eye exam every 1 to 2 years if you:
- Are over age 60
- Are African American and over age 40
- Have a family history of glaucoma
If you have diabetes or high blood pressure, ask your doctor how often you need an exam. Most people with diabetes or high blood pressure need to get a dilated eye exam at least once a year.
The exam includes:
- A visual acuity test to check how clearly you see. Your doctor will ask you to read letters that are up close and far away.
- A visual field test to check your peripheral (side) vision. Your doctor will test how well you can see objects off to the sides of your vision without moving your eyes.
- An eye muscle function test to check for problems with the muscles around your eyeballs. Your doctor will move an object around and ask you to follow it with your eyes.
- A pupil response test to check how light enters your eyes. Your doctor will shine a small flashlight into your eyes and check how your pupils react to the light.
- A tonometry test to measure the pressure in your eyes. Your doctor will use a machine to blow a quick puff of air onto your eye, or gently touch your eye with a special tool. Don’t worry — it doesn’t hurt!
- Dilation to check for problems with the inner parts of your eye. Your doctor will give you some eye drops to dilate (widen) your pupil. This helps the doctor see inside your eye.
Depending on your needs, your doctor may include other tests too. Ask your doctor if you have questions.
For a few hours after a dilated eye exam, your vision may be blurry and you may be sensitive to light. Ask a friend or family member to drive you home from your appointment.
If your eye doctor finds refractive errors in your vision, you may get a prescription for eyeglasses or contact lenses to help you see more clearly.
Bring your sunglasses!
Your eyes may be sensitive to light for a few hours after your exam. Sunglasses can help, so bring them if you have them! Your eye doctor may also have disposable sunglasses they can give you.
If your eye doctor finds signs of an eye disease, you can talk about treatment options and decide what’s right for you. Learn more about these common eye diseases:
- Diabetic eye disease
- Age-related macular degeneration
- Cataract
- Glaucoma
If you’re seeing clearly and there are no signs of eye disease, you’re all set until your next exam. Make an appointment for your next dilated eye exam before you leave the office — that way, you won’t forget!

Additional Materials (50)

Comprehensive Dilated Eye Exam

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Animation: Detecting age-related macular degeneration through a dilated eye exam.

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Animation: Detecting diabetic retinopathy through a dilated eye exam

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

What are dilating eye drops?

Video by EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

Dilated fundus examination

Diagram of the Eye Before and After Dilated Eye Exam

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Pupillary response

Pupillary response : Animation that illustrates the pupillary light reflex. When the light is turned on, the pupil reacts by constricting.

Image by Greyson Orlando

Right Eyeball

3D visualization based on scanned human data of the right eyeball.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tangier disease

Diffuse hazy opacity of the right cornea in the patient with Tangier disease

Image by National Eye Institute

Pupil

The pupil is the central transparent area (showing as black). The grey/blue area surrounding it is the iris. The white outer area is the sclera, the central transparent part of which is the cornea.

Image by ROTFLOLEB

Mydriasis

Mydriasis, pupillary response

Image by OpenStax College

Intraocular lens

Cataract surgery performed, IOL inserted. Note incision right of dilated pupil.

Image by Janke

Drawing of a woman having her eyes examined by a doctor using a machine

See your eye doctor for a dilated eye exam every year. Early treatment of eye problems can help save your sight.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Two-sided Adie's pupils of unknown etiology identified by an ophthalmologist

Two-sided Adie's pupils of unknown etiology identified by an ophthalmologist

Image by Casper

Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

The patient was a four-year-old female who was first seen three months before with a two day history of swelling of the upper lid of the left eye and lower lid of the right eye. This was apparently due to some skin eruption. The patient was also thought to have congenital glaucoma and the sclerae were noted to be blue. The corneas also protruded anteriorly and it was thought the patient might possibly have keratoconus. The patient was thought to have the syndrome of blue sclerotics with a high myopic astigmatism. Incidentally, the parents were first cousins. Generally, the patient had a brachycephaly, there was no nystagmus and the heart was normal. The patient was thought to possibly have osteogenesis imperfecta. She was also thought to have the typical physique of Marfan's, but the lenses were not dislocated. She had blue sclerae ([1], [2]) and keratoconus and she was -6.00 to -8.00 diopters myopic. It appeared that the patient had type VI Ehler's Danlos syndrome on the basis of the blue sclera, high myopia and keratoconus.

Image by National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

Maj. Ivy Madson, 99th Air Base Squadron optometry flight commander, uses a Slit Lamp to examine the interior of the eye during an exam for Airman 1st Class Hunter, 18th Reconnaissance Squadron Airman, Jan. 13, 2015, at Creech Air Force Base, Nevada. The Creech Medical Aid Station now offers optometry services to all personnel assigned to Creech AFB Tuesdays from 7:30 a.m. to 3 p.m. (Last names have been withheld for security purposes). (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Mydriasis

Mydriasis, pupillary response. Dilated pupils after an optometrist appointment.

Image by Nutschig at en.wikipedia

Drawing of an eye with a dilated pupil

None

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Child's Eye Exam

Lenses placed in a trial frame help determine eyeglass prescription.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

Capt. Luanne Danes uses a light to check the anterior segment of Master Sgt. Timothy Vanderhoff's eye during his visit to the Optometry Clinic Nov. 19, 2009, Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. Captain Danes is looking for healthy structure of the eye and ensuring no corneal disease is present. Captain Danes, officer in charge of Optometry, is assigned to the 354th Medical Operation Squadron. Sergeant Vanderhoff, crew chief, is assigned to the 168th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

U.S. Navy Lt. Patricia Salazar examines a patient's eyes at a Continuing Promise medical clinic set up by staff assigned to the hospital ship USNS Comfort in Paita, Peru

Image by Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Dilated fundus examination - Before

The same eye as File:Result of Dilated fundus examination.JPG, but before examination

Image by Nicko va

Pupil

Dilated and Undilated Pupil - Portions of the retina that can be seen through an undilated versus a dilated pupil.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Dilated fundus examination - After

Result of Dilated fundus examination

Image by Nicko va

Dilated fundus examination

This is my dilated pupil, an hour or two after getting drops put in them so the optometrist could examine my retinas. Pupil dilated using the anticholinergic drug tropicamide.

Image by grendel|khan and Lady Byron

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Baby Eye Exam

Maj. Renee Vincent shows Taylor, 1, an ophthalmoscope during an exam. The 341st Medical Group has a total of 21 technicians and 24 nurses serving approximately 10,000 beneficiaries at Malmstrom. Major Vincent is the 341st Missile Wing’s pediatric advisor, commander of the 341st Medical Operations Squadron’s Maternal Child Flight, and a certified pediatric nurse practitioner for the 341st MDG. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Marcus McDonald)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Marcus McDonald

Optical Coherence Tomography

A detailed cross-sectional image of the back of the eye is obtained using an optical coherence tomography (OCT).

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Iris (anatomy)

Image by Shanon

Fundus Photography

An eye care professional takes fundus autofluorescence photographs to study the retina.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Drawing of an eye with a dilated pupil

Dilated eye

Image by NIDDK Image Library

An undilated pupil and dilated pupil

Dilating your pupil lets more light into your eye — just like opening a door lets light into a dark room. Dilation helps your eye doctor check for many common eye problems, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Woman checking her glasses

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with age-related macular degeneration

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with cataract

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with diabetic rethinopathy

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with glaucoma

Vision with glaucoma

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

A dilated eye exam is the best thing you can do for your eye health. It’s the only way to check for eye diseases early on, when they’re easier to treat — and before they cause vision loss.

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

2:19

Comprehensive Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

1:56

Animation: Detecting age-related macular degeneration through a dilated eye exam.

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

1:53

Animation: Detecting diabetic retinopathy through a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

1:12

What are dilating eye drops?

EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

Dilated fundus examination

National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Pupillary response

Greyson Orlando

Right Eyeball

TheVisualMD

Tangier disease

National Eye Institute

Pupil

ROTFLOLEB

Mydriasis

OpenStax College

Intraocular lens

Janke

Drawing of a woman having her eyes examined by a doctor using a machine

NIDDK Image Library

Two-sided Adie's pupils of unknown etiology identified by an ophthalmologist

Casper

Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Mydriasis

Nutschig at en.wikipedia

Drawing of an eye with a dilated pupil

NIDDK Image Library

Child's Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Dilated fundus examination - Before

Nicko va

Pupil

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Dilated fundus examination - After

Nicko va

Dilated fundus examination

grendel|khan and Lady Byron

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Baby Eye Exam

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Marcus McDonald

Optical Coherence Tomography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Iris (anatomy)

Shanon

Fundus Photography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Drawing of an eye with a dilated pupil

NIDDK Image Library

An undilated pupil and dilated pupil

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Woman checking her glasses

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with age-related macular degeneration

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with cataract

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with diabetic rethinopathy

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Vision with glaucoma

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Healthy Eyes

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Get a dilated eye exam

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Slit-Lamp Exam

Slit-Lamp Exam

Also called: Biomicroscopy, Slit Lamp Exam, Slit Lamp Test

A slit lamp exam is an eye examination using an instrument that combines a low-power microscope with a light source that makes a narrow beam of light. The instrument may be used to examine the retina, optic nerve, and other parts of the eye.

Slit-Lamp Exam

Also called: Biomicroscopy, Slit Lamp Exam, Slit Lamp Test

A slit lamp exam is an eye examination using an instrument that combines a low-power microscope with a light source that makes a narrow beam of light. The instrument may be used to examine the retina, optic nerve, and other parts of the eye.

{"label":"Slit-Lamp Exam Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result indicates that the eyelashes, eyelids, and lining of the eyelids (conjunctiva) look normal. All of the structures inside the eye are found to be normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal findings may include infections, diabetic complications, remnants of previous inflammatory problems, extreme allergies and cataracts.","conditions":["Cataract","Injury to the cornea","Dry eye syndrome","Retinal detachment","Retinal vessel occlusion","Retinitis pigmentosa","Uveitis"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result indicates that the eyelashes, eyelids, and lining of the eyelids (conjunctiva) look normal. All of the structures inside the eye are found to be normal.
Related conditions
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003880.htm [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
2. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/slit-lamp-eye-exam [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
3. https://www.verywellhealth.com/eye-exam-tests-and-procedures-3421854 [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Fleck dystrophy

Fleck corneal dystrophy. Appearance of the cornea by slit-lamp biomicroscopy (left image) and by confocal microscopy (right image) (Courtesy Dr. Charles N. McGhee). Klintworth Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases

Image by Klintworth GK

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

Maj. Ivy Madson, 99th Air Base Squadron optometry flight commander, uses a Slit Lamp to examine the interior of the eye during an exam for Airman 1st Class Hunter, 18th Reconnaissance Squadron Airman, Jan. 13, 2015, at Creech Air Force Base, Nevada. The Creech Medical Aid Station now offers optometry services to all personnel assigned to Creech AFB Tuesdays from 7:30 a.m. to 3 p.m. (Last names have been withheld for security purposes). (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Cystinosis

Slit-lamp photographs of three-year-old patient with nephropathic cystenosis before (left) and after (right) cysteamine eyedrop therapy. Treatment targeting metabolic defect dramatically dissolves painful crystals in the eye's cornea.

Image by NIH Clinical Center Location: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

How is a cataract detected?

Slit lamp image of the cornea, iris and lens (showing mild cataract)

Image by Baristoprak~commonswiki

Lisch nodules

Lisch nodules on surface of iris. The patient was a 14-year-old male with pulsating exophthalmos of the left eye and poor vision of this highly myopic left eye. There was also some ptosis of the left eye with mild puffiness. Upward gaze of the left eye was limited. Slit lamp examination showed multiple, slightly raised nodules of the right iris.

Image by National Eye Institute

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease : Slit lamp photograph showing retinal detachment in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Stress female student studying

Young female in a green shirt, viewed from the back at left, concentrating on work materials at a desk with a lamp lamp. Computer monitor, phone and bulletin board are visible, as are stacks of books and papers. Image supports content about identifying harmful patterns in your life, including work-related stress, so you can plan to replace them with more beneficial patterns

Image by TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of a cataract?

Slit lamp camera view of Cataract in Human Eye

Image by Rakesh Ahuja, MD

Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy

The cornea is particularly opaque in the anterior stroma by slit-lamp biomicroscopy.

Image by Klintworth GK

Ocular tonometry

Goldmann mires : Semicircles seen during Goldmann tonometry through slit lamp

Image by Manimury

Cystinosis

The patient was a 4 1/2-year-old male who looked about 2 1/2 years old at his first visit. He was admitted to the hospital because of poor growth and polydipsia. The patient was admitted to the hospital in uremia and coma. An examination of the cornea showed the surface and the immediate subepithelial region to be studded with golden-brown, fine scintillating particles, uniformly distributed throughout the entire cornea, but possibly sparing the most peripheral zone ([1]). The stroma appeared to be clear, but the posterior surface of the cornea showed the same type of particles in the lower nasal quadrant, although sparser than was the case on the surface. There were apparently also some crystals in the conjunctiva. The tentative diagnosis was cystinosis or Fanconi's syndrome, but unlike the other cases reported, the crystals appeared to be at the anterior and posterior surfaces and not in the stroma. The patient was seen again at age 8 years old, when he was back in the hospital. The cornea still contained crystals ([2]). The only noteworthy event in the recent history was a nosebleed of 20 hours duration. His non-protein nitrogen was 140 and he appeared very pale, but he was lively and alert. He had a persistent anemia and potassium depletion. Presumably both the anemia and the hemorrhagic diathesis were attributed to uremia. The patient died in the hospital. Noteworthy was the fact that his three siblings all showed clear corneas without crystals. However, the youngest was age three months and when she was examined again at age two years, she had abundant crystals and nephropathic cystinosis.

Image by National Eye Institute

What are the risks of cataract surgery?

Royal Australian Navy Lt. Elizabeth Livingstone and Singapore army Maj. Paul Zhao, both doctors embarked aboard the Military Sealift Command hospital ship USNS Mercy (T-AH 19), perform cataract surgery on a Vietnamese patient aboard Mercy during a Pacific Partnership 2010 visit to Quy Nhon, Vietnam. Pacific Partnership is the fifth in a series of annual U.S. Pacific Fleet humanitarian and civic assistance endeavors to strengthen regional partnerships.

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Eddie Harrison

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Fundoscopic (Ophthalmoscopic) Exam

Dr. (Maj.) Michael Bogaard, 509th Medical Operations Squadron optometrist, uses a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope to perform an eye assessment on Senior Airman Jeffrey Afemon, 509th MDOS public health technician, in the optometry clinic at Whiteman Air Force Base, Mo., Sept. 4, 2013. The ophthalmoscope helps focus the light inside the patient’s eye and provides an image that the doctor uses to judge the health of the retina.

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Nick Wilson/Released

Slit lamp photograph showing c in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

Slit lamp photograph showing retinal detachment in Von Hippel-Lindau disease.

Image by National Eye Institute/National Institutes of Health

Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs.

Lisch nodules are numerous nodules of dendritic melanocytes in aggregates within the iris. They are brown-yellow, round shape, raised papules as seen with slit lamp examination in the iris of patients with Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs. Similar nodules are also found in Watson syndrome which is in addition characterized by macrocephaly, pulmonary stenosis, short status and low intelligence. No treatment is required but a close follow-up of main diseases is mandatory for avoiding any serious complications.

Image by Dimitrios Malamos

Ocular tonometry

The PASCAL Dynamic Contour Tonometer

Image by Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Slit Lamp Exam and Techniques

Video by iSEE/YouTube

Slit Lamp Examination (Biomicroscopy) in English

Video by TheIACLE/YouTube

Slit Lamp Exam

Video by Brian Nelson/YouTube

Fleck dystrophy

Klintworth GK

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Slit Lamp Exam

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Adawn Kelsey/Released

Cystinosis

NIH Clinical Center Location: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

How is a cataract detected?

Baristoprak~commonswiki

Lisch nodules

National Eye Institute

Von Hippel-Lindau Disease

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Stress female student studying

TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of a cataract?

Rakesh Ahuja, MD

Congenital stromal corneal dystrophy

Klintworth GK

Ocular tonometry

Manimury

Cystinosis

National Eye Institute

What are the risks of cataract surgery?

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Eddie Harrison

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Fundoscopic (Ophthalmoscopic) Exam

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Nick Wilson/Released

Slit lamp photograph showing c in Von Hippel-Lindau disease

National Eye Institute/National Institutes of Health

Neurofibromatosis type 1(>90% of cases) together with scattered café au lait pigmented skin lesions and multiple neurifibromas (superficial or deep) in skin or other organs.

Dimitrios Malamos

Ocular tonometry

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

4:58

Slit Lamp Exam and Techniques

iSEE/YouTube

13:20

Slit Lamp Examination (Biomicroscopy) in English

TheIACLE/YouTube

7:10

Slit Lamp Exam

Brian Nelson/YouTube

Eye Examinations

Eye Examinations

Also called: Eye Exams, Routine Eye Examination, Standard Ophthalmic Exam, Vision Tests

A standard eye exam is a series of tests done to check your vision and the health of your eyes. Key elements of an eye examination include dilation, tonometry, visual field test and a visual acuity test.

Eye Examinations

Also called: Eye Exams, Routine Eye Examination, Standard Ophthalmic Exam, Vision Tests

A standard eye exam is a series of tests done to check your vision and the health of your eyes. Key elements of an eye examination include dilation, tonometry, visual field test and a visual acuity test.

Eye examinations tend to follow a certain pattern: After talking with your doctor about the type and severity of your symptoms, both eyes will usually be tested to measure the visual acuity (sharpness of sight). Then the doctor will look at your eyes from the outside, take a closer look at them using a slit lamp, and measure the intraocular pressure (the pressure inside the eyeball). Eye drops are given before some tests to dilate (enlarge) the pupil of the eye for a certain amount of time. This makes it easier for the doctor to see the back of the eye. Depending on the symptoms and any other medical conditions you may have, the eye examination might be carried out differently and additional tests might be done.
Structure of the eye
1. Standard eye exam: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 03, 2018]

Additional Materials (41)

Sclera (White of the Eye)

Human eye revealing sclera

Image by agnesliinnea

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

The prognosis for individuals with TSC is highly variable and depends on the severity of symptoms. Those individuals with mild symptoms usually do well and have a normal life expectancy, while paying attention to TSC-specific issues. Individuals who are severely affected can suffer from severe mental retardation and persistent epilepsy.

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Eye diagram — side view

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI)

Pupil Response

Dilated and Undilated Pupil - Portions of the retina that can be seen through an undilated versus a dilated pupil.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Low Vision

What is Low Vision Infographic. Information on low vision: causes, numbers, what we can do, and vision rehabilitation.

Image by National Eye Institute

Human Eye

Anatomy of the human eye with corneal cross-section

Image by National Eye Institute

Dilated Pupil

My friend had a scratch down her eye and had to have it dilated at hospital for three days with drops.

Image by Sophie Riches

Eye Drops

Eye drops ophthalmology service Hospital Douala Cameroun

Image by Happi Raphael/Wikimedia

Retinography

Self made ophtalmogram of the retina of the right eye. It shows the optic disc as a bright area on the right (nasal side) where blood vessels converge. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula. The grey, more diffuse spot in the centre is a shadow artifact.

Image by Ske.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration Projected Statistics

Image by National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

Capt. Luanne Danes uses a light to check the anterior segment of Master Sgt. Timothy Vanderhoff's eye during his visit to the Optometry Clinic Nov. 19, 2009, Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. Captain Danes is looking for healthy structure of the eye and ensuring no corneal disease is present. Captain Danes, officer in charge of Optometry, is assigned to the 354th Medical Operation Squadron. Sergeant Vanderhoff, crew chief, is assigned to the 168th Aircraft Maintenance Squadron. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

U.S. Navy Lt. Patricia Salazar examines a patient's eyes at a Continuing Promise medical clinic set up by staff assigned to the hospital ship USNS Comfort in Paita, Peru

Image by Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Eye Examination

Eye Examination

Image by 12019

Infant Eye cross section

Cross-section of the healthy eye of an infant, showing a retina that is in perfect condition, having never been exposed to smoke-borne toxins that would compromise circulation and result in retinal damage. Image supports content showing the health benefits of smoke cessation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cornea

Cornea - transparent covering over the eye

Image by www.keratomania.com Eye diagram by Chabacano via Wikimedia Commons

anatomy of the human eye, iris, cornea, pupil

Image by skeeze

Animation: Dilated Eye Exam

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Iris (anatomy)

Image by Shanon

Pupil

Dilated and Undilated Pupil - Portions of the retina that can be seen through an undilated versus a dilated pupil.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

How is glaucoma detected?

The PASCAL Dynamic Contour Tonometer

Image by Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Optical Coherence Tomography

A detailed cross-sectional image of the back of the eye is obtained using an optical coherence tomography (OCT).

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

Image by CDC

Dry Eye

Diffuse lissamine green staining in a person with severe dry eye.

Image by Jesse Vislisel, MD and Brice Critser, CRA

Tear Production

Cornea - Structures involved in tear production.

Image by National Eye Institute

Eyeglasses on display

Eyeglasses are displayed at the optometry clinic March 11, 2016, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. The clinic hosts an internship program open to students including primary care, ocular disease and two specialty clinics, lasting two months each. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Image by OpenStax

Eye movements elevators

Eye movements elevators

Image by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist

Treating Amblyopia

In addition to patching the eye, one hour of “near” work, or close-up work, such as coloring, is part of the treatment for amblyopia.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

This image shows deposits of cholesterol on the back of an eye affected by Coats’ Disease. The rare, congenital disease, only found in about one in 100,000 people, is caused by abnormal blood vessel development behind the retina. The affected blood vessels leak blood content into the eye leading to partial or complete retinal detachment if not treated. (Courtesy photo)

Image by Courtesy photo

Checking an elderly patient's eyes

U.S. Air Force Capt. Eric Noll, an optometrist with the 354th Medical Group, Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, checks a patient’s eyesight at Tata Primary and Secondary School during Pacific Angel 18-3 in Luganville, Espiritu Santo Island, Vanuatu, July 16, 2018. The optometry team handed out 228 pairs of eye glasses and 534 pairs of sunglasses during the first two days of the clinic. Now entering its eleventh year Operation PAC ANGEL ensures that the region’s militaries are prepared to work together to address humanitarian crises. (U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker

Eye Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Brett Ringger, an optometrist from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, tests a patient’s vision at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air National Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Lee County High School in Beattyville, Ky., June 23, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by Photo by: Lt. Col. Dale Greer | VIRIN: 180623-Z-VT419-0083.JPG; www.airforcemedicine.af.mil

Vision Test

U.S. Air Force Maj. Brett Ringger, an optometrist from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, tests a patient’s vision at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air National Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Lee County High School in Beattyville, Ky., June 23, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Vision Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Robert Groves, an optometrist from the New Hampshire Air National Guard’s 157th Air Refueling Wing, conducts a vision exam at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eyeglasses selection

U.S. Air Force Master Sgt. Julie Brown (left), a medic from the Texas Air National Guard’s 136th Airlift Wing, helps Lindsey Howard of Richmond, Ky., select frames for a new pair of eyeglasses at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eye Exam

U.S. Air Force Maj. Robert Groves, an optometrist from the New Hampshire Air National Guard’s 157th Air Refueling Wing, examines a patient’s eyes at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Estill County High School in Irvine, Ky., June 21, 2018. The clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Optometry

U.S. Air Force Senior Airman Dane Mendelsohn, a medic from the Kentucky Air National Guard’s 123rd Airlift Wing, screens an optometry patient at a health-care clinic being operated by the Air Guard and U.S. Navy Reserve at Breathitt County High School in Jackson, Ky., June 20, 2018. The Jackson clinic is one of four that comprised Operation Bobcat, a 10-day mission to provide military medical troops with crucial training in field operations and logistics while offering no-cost health care to the residents of Eastern Kentucky. The clinics, which operated from June 15-24, offered non-emergent medical care; sports physicals; dental cleanings, fillings and extractions; eye exams and no-cost prescription eye glasses. (U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer)

Image by U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Visual Test

Visual Test - Comprehensive Eye exam

Image by Paul Diaconu

Slit Lamp test

Slit Lamp test - Comprehensive Eye exam

Image by Paul Diaconu

Presbyopia

Presbyopia - Visual Test

Image by Tumisu

Eye Exam

Eye Exam

Image by David Mark

Sclera (White of the Eye)

agnesliinnea

Slit Lamp Photo of Eye

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Zachary Hada/Released

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Eye diagram — side view

National Eye Institute (NEI)

Pupil Response

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Low Vision

National Eye Institute

Human Eye

National Eye Institute

Dilated Pupil

Sophie Riches

Eye Drops

Happi Raphael/Wikimedia

Retinography

Ske.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Eye exam

U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Christopher Boitz

Eye exam

Petty Officer 1st Class Brian A. Goyak, U.S. Navy

Eye Examination

12019

Infant Eye cross section

TheVisualMD

Cornea

www.keratomania.com Eye diagram by Chabacano via Wikimedia Commons

anatomy of the human eye, iris, cornea, pupil

skeeze

3:24

Animation: Dilated Eye Exam

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Iris (anatomy)

Shanon

Pupil

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

How is glaucoma detected?

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Optical Coherence Tomography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Help protect yourself from getting and spreading Pink Eye (conjunctivitis)

CDC

Dry Eye

Jesse Vislisel, MD and Brice Critser, CRA

Tear Production

National Eye Institute

Eyeglasses on display

U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

OpenStax

Eye movements elevators

Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist

Treating Amblyopia

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Routine eye exam, rare diagnosis

Courtesy photo

Checking an elderly patient's eyes

U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Kelsey Tucker

Eye Exam

Photo by: Lt. Col. Dale Greer | VIRIN: 180623-Z-VT419-0083.JPG; www.airforcemedicine.af.mil

Vision Test

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Vision Exam

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eyeglasses selection

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Eye Exam

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Optometry

U.S. Air National Guard photo by Lt. Col. Dale Greer

Visual Test

Paul Diaconu

Slit Lamp test

Paul Diaconu

Presbyopia

Tumisu

Eye Exam

David Mark

Visual Acuity Test

Visual Acuity Test

Also called: Snellen Test

A visual acuity test is an eye exam that checks the smallest letters you can read on a standardized chart (Snellen chart) or a card held 20 feet (6 meters) away. Visual acuity refers to your ability to recognize the shapes and details of the things you see.

Visual Acuity Test

Also called: Snellen Test

A visual acuity test is an eye exam that checks the smallest letters you can read on a standardized chart (Snellen chart) or a card held 20 feet (6 meters) away. Visual acuity refers to your ability to recognize the shapes and details of the things you see.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
0.02
0.04
0.125
0.32
0.8
Your result is Normal Vision.
US: 20/25 to 20/12 (Metric: 6/7.5 to 6/4)
Visual acuity is expressed as a decimal or a fraction. 1 = US 20/20 or metric 6/6 is considered optimal vision.
The top number refers to the distance you stand from the chart. This is often 20 feet (6 meters).
The bottom number indicates the distance at which a person with normal eyesight could read the same line you correctly read.
Related conditions
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0027947/ [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
2. Visual acuity test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
3. http://www.icoph.org/downloads/visualstandardsreport.pdf [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
4. Visual acuity - Wikipedia [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
5. Visual Acuity: What is 20/20 Vision? [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]
6. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/el/isd/ks/Visual_Acuity_Standards_1.pdf [accessed on Sep 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Snellen Eye Chart vs Prescription Glasses

Getting things in focus.

Image by David Travis/Unsplash

The Snellen Chart

The Snellen chart for visual acuity presents a limited number of Roman letters in lines of decreasing size. The line with letters that subtend 5 minutes of an arc from 20 feet represents the smallest letters that a person with normal acuity should be able to read at that distance. The different sizes of letters in the other lines represent rough approximations of what a person of normal acuity can read at different distances. For example, the line that represents 20/200 vision would have larger letters so that they are legible to the person with normal acuity at 200 feet.

Image by CNX Openstax

Saccadic Eye Movements

Saccades are rapid, conjugate movements of the eyes to survey a complicated visual stimulus, or to follow a moving visual stimulus. This image represents the shifts in gaze typical of a person studying a face. Notice the concentration of gaze on the major features of the face and the large number of paths traced between the eyes or around the mouth.

Image by CNX Openstax

Pituitary Tumor

The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone within the cranial floor, placing it immediately inferior to the optic chiasm. If the pituitary gland develops a tumor, it can press against the fibers crossing in the chiasm. Those fibers are conveying peripheral visual information to the opposite side of the brain, so the patient will experience “tunnel vision”—meaning that only the central visual field will be perceived.

Image by CNX Openstax

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

If the head is turned in one direction, the coordination of that movement with the fixation of the eyes on a visual stimulus involves a circuit that ties the vestibular sense with the eye movement nuclei through the MLF.

Image by CNX Openstax

Muscles Controlled by the Accessory Nerve

The accessory nerve innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, both of which attach to the head and to the trunk and shoulders. They can act as antagonists in head flexion and extension, and as synergists in lateral flexion toward the shoulder.

Image by CNX Openstax

Human Eye

Detailed Illustration of the cross section of the Human Eye - 1:posterior segment of eyeball 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:canal of Schlemm 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscle 15:inferior rectus muscle 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and veins 18:optic disc19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina

Image by Chabacano

Dilated fundus examination

Diagram of the Eye Before and After Dilated Eye Exam

Image by National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Macular

Cross-sectional view in grayscale of right human eye

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

What is Presbyopia?

Image by National Eye Institute, NIH

Age Related Macular degeneration - What are some low vision devices?

A scene as it might be viewed by a person with age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

The Visual System: How Your Eyes Work

Video by National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

Your Baby - Visual Development - Birth to One Month

Video by movementlesson/YouTube

Bionic Eye Cures Blindness

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Vision Simulation

Video by Light12434/YouTube

What is Vision Impairment? - Vision Awareness Training Part One

Video by ouhnhs/YouTube

Low Vision

Video by EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

Structure and working of Human Eye

Video by Enliveeducation/YouTube

Visual Acuity Test with Snellen Eye Chart Exam | Cranial Nerve 2 Assessment Nursing

Video by RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

How to Check Your Patient's Visual Acuity

Video by dkcalgary/YouTube

Visual Acuity in 5 min

Video by Nick Smith/YouTube

Testing Your Visual Acuity

Video by University of Rochester/YouTube

Part 2: Visual Acuity Exam

Video by ALiEM Educational Videos/YouTube

Visual Acuity - OPHTHALMOLOGY - Ep 4

Video by UBC Medicine - Educational Media/YouTube

Snellen Eye Chart vs Prescription Glasses

David Travis/Unsplash

The Snellen Chart

CNX Openstax

Saccadic Eye Movements

CNX Openstax

Pituitary Tumor

CNX Openstax

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Muscles Controlled by the Accessory Nerve

CNX Openstax

Human Eye

Chabacano

Dilated fundus examination

National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Macular

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

What is Presbyopia?

National Eye Institute, NIH

Age Related Macular degeneration - What are some low vision devices?

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

2:20

The Visual System: How Your Eyes Work

National Eye Institute, NIH/YouTube

5:40

Your Baby - Visual Development - Birth to One Month

movementlesson/YouTube

3:13

Bionic Eye Cures Blindness

Seeker/YouTube

2:04

Vision Simulation

Light12434/YouTube

11:26

What is Vision Impairment? - Vision Awareness Training Part One

ouhnhs/YouTube

4:11

Low Vision

EyeSmart — American Academy of Ophthalmology/YouTube

5:16

Structure and working of Human Eye

Enliveeducation/YouTube

2:09

Visual Acuity Test with Snellen Eye Chart Exam | Cranial Nerve 2 Assessment Nursing

RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube

12:25

How to Check Your Patient's Visual Acuity

dkcalgary/YouTube

4:58

Visual Acuity in 5 min

Nick Smith/YouTube

2:17

Testing Your Visual Acuity

University of Rochester/YouTube

2:53

Part 2: Visual Acuity Exam

ALiEM Educational Videos/YouTube

2:14

Visual Acuity - OPHTHALMOLOGY - Ep 4

UBC Medicine - Educational Media/YouTube

Visual Field Test

Visual Field Test

Also called: Perimetry, Tangent screen exam, Automated perimetry exam, Goldmann visual field exam, Humphrey visual field exam

A visual field test is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumors or other neurological deficits.

Visual Field Test

Also called: Perimetry, Tangent screen exam, Automated perimetry exam, Goldmann visual field exam, Humphrey visual field exam

A visual field test is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumors or other neurological deficits.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The peripheral vision is normal.
Related conditions
1. Visual field: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Visual field test - Wikipedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. Visual Field Testing for Glaucoma and Other Eye Problems [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (28)

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

This image shows an eye fundus viewed through a retinal camera, with signs of macular degeneration

Image by Tmhlee

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinal Disparity

Because of the interocular distance, which results in objects of different distances falling on different spots of the two retinae, the brain can extract depth perception from the two-dimensional information of the visual field.

Image by CNX Openstax

Advanced age-related macular degeneration

A fundus photo showing advanced age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

A fundus photo showing.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Perimetry, a visual field test

Image by Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG)

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

A medical illustration depicting macular degeneration.

Image by BruceBlaus

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration Projected Statistics

Image by National Eye Institute

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Age-Related Macular Degeneration information at-a-glance.

Image by NEHEP

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration

Image by Ralf Roletschek

Human Head Showing Visual Pathway

3D visualization of the visual pathway based on scanned human data. Electrical nerve impulses travel from the eyes to the occipital lobe in the back of the brain via millions of nerves that make up the \"visual pathway.\" The white matter of the brain is made up of millions of nerve extensions (axons) which connect nerve fibers to other nerve fibers, target tissues or organs. In this illustration, bundles of axons in the white matter (colored blue and red) are seen radiating from the eyes to the visual centers of the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Topographic Mapping of the Retina onto the Visual Cortex

The visual field projects onto the retina through the lenses and falls on the retinae as an inverted, reversed image. The topography of this image is maintained as the visual information travels through the visual pathway to the cortex.

Image by CNX Openstax

Ventral and Dorsal Visual Streams

From the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe, visual processing continues in two streams—one into the temporal lobe and one into the parietal lobe.

Image by CNX Openstax

Brain Revealing Visual Pathway

3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of a superior view of the brain revealing the visual pathway and superior sagittal sinus. Electrical nerve impulses travel from the eyes to the occipital lobe in the back of the brain via millions of nerves fibers that make up the \"visual pathway\".

Image by TheVisualMD

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

Image by Eric Wiessner

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Muscle and Nerve of Human Eye

3D visualization of the nerves associated with the human eye. Several different nerve types serve the special functions of the structures associated with sight. The optic nerves are paired bundles of fibers that send visual signals from the retina to the brain. The oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerves control voluntary movements of the eye muscles and eyelids in addition to controlling pupil dilation and lens focusing.

Image by TheVisualMD

Macula of Retina

Instead of getting those crazy eye drops to dilate your eyes so the doctor can look at your retina, they just take a high-resolution digital picture. Much faster and easier. And they keep them on record so they can compare photos from year to year and better diagnose potential problems. The bright spot in the middle is the optic nerve (the blind spot); the darker spot next to the optic nerve is the macula, a small crater in the retina with a higher density of rods and cones, making it the best seeing portion of the eye.

Image by derivative work: Chmee2 (talk) Left_Retina.jpg: Hey Paul

Retina

This image schematically represents optic pathways from each of the 4 quadrants of view for both eyes simultaneously.

Image by Original uploader was Ratznium at en.wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

Connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves controlling eye movement keep the eyes centered on a visual stimulus, even though the head is moving. During head movement, the eye muscles move the eyes in the opposite direction as the head movement, keeping the visual stimulus centered in the field of view.

Image by CNX Openstax

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from human data. Anteriolateral view of a partially sectioned eye, as well as associated eye muscles. As well as being protected by the bony orbital cavity of the skull, the eyeball is anchored in place by several thin strap muscles that attach to virtually every one of its sides except the front. These muscles tug in concert, allowing the eye to move in any direction to track objects. The clear cornea covers and protects the front exterior of the eye while the colored iris dilates and constricts to insure the proper amount of light is striking the back of the eye. The lens contorts to focus the incoming light back to the retina, which covers roughly the entire back half of the eye. Special cells embedded within the retina are responsible for the sensation of light: the cones, for color perception, and rods, for black and white perception. Electrical nerve impulses are channeled into the optic nerve at the back of the eye to the visual cortex in the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Eye

Detailed Illustration of the Anatomy of the Human Eye

Image by A Hoofring ncbi/nlm/nih

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

If the head is turned in one direction, the coordination of that movement with the fixation of the eyes on a visual stimulus involves a circuit that ties the vestibular sense with the eye movement nuclei through the MLF.

Image by CNX Openstax

Visual Neural Pathways and Visual Field Defects

Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

Visual field processing | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

How to Take a Visual Field Examination? - Sheryl S. Wizov, COA

Video by WillsEye GlaucomaApp/YouTube

Visual Pathway and Lesions

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

What is Glaucoma? Explained using Animation.

Video by Devin Prabhakar/YouTube

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

Tmhlee

Advanced age-related macular degeneration with fibrosis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinal Disparity

CNX Openstax

Advanced age-related macular degeneration

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Perimetry, a visual field test

Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG)

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

BruceBlaus

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

National Eye Institute

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

NEHEP

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Ralf Roletschek

Human Head Showing Visual Pathway

TheVisualMD

Topographic Mapping of the Retina onto the Visual Cortex

CNX Openstax

Ventral and Dorsal Visual Streams

CNX Openstax

Brain Revealing Visual Pathway

TheVisualMD

The optic disc, optic cup, and macula of a healthy 24 year old female (healthy rim tissue with a deep cup).

Eric Wiessner

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Muscle and Nerve of Human Eye

TheVisualMD

Macula of Retina

derivative work: Chmee2 (talk) Left_Retina.jpg: Hey Paul

Retina

Original uploader was Ratznium at en.wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to the brain.

TheVisualMD

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

TheVisualMD

Human Eye

A Hoofring ncbi/nlm/nih

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

5:29

Visual Neural Pathways and Visual Field Defects

PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

4:10

Visual field processing | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

4:00

How to Take a Visual Field Examination? - Sheryl S. Wizov, COA

WillsEye GlaucomaApp/YouTube

6:12

Visual Pathway and Lesions

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

1:10

What is Glaucoma? Explained using Animation.

Devin Prabhakar/YouTube

Color Vision Testing

Color Vision Testing

Also called: Color Blindness Test, Color Perception Test, Ishihara Color Test

Eye care professionals use a variety of tests to diagnose color blindness. These tests can quickly diagnose specific types of color blindness. People with color blindness aren’t aware of differences among colors that are obvious to the rest of us.

Color Vision Testing

Also called: Color Blindness Test, Color Perception Test, Ishihara Color Test

Eye care professionals use a variety of tests to diagnose color blindness. These tests can quickly diagnose specific types of color blindness. People with color blindness aren’t aware of differences among colors that are obvious to the rest of us.

{"label":"Color Vision Testing Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"You should be able to distinguish between all colors.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"RGCB","long":"Red-Green Color\u00a0Blindness","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"<p>The most common types of hereditary color blindness are due to the loss or limited function of red cone (known as protan) or green cone (deutran) photopigments. This kind of color blindness is commonly referred to as red-green color blindness.<\/p>","conditions":["Protanomaly","Protanopia","Deuteranomaly","Deuteranopia"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"BYCB","long":"Blue-Yellow Color\u00a0Blindness","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"<p>Blue-yellow color blindness is rarer than red-green color blindness. Blue-cone (tritan) photopigments are either missing or have limited function. <\/p>","conditions":["Tritanomaly","Tritanopia"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"CCB","long":"Complete color\u00a0blindness","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"<p>People with complete color blindness (monochromacy) don\u2019t experience color at all and the clearness of their vision (visual acuity) may also be affected. <\/p>","conditions":["Cone monochromacy","Rod monochromacy or achromatopsia"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"borderline":1},{"borderline":2}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
You should be able to distinguish between all colors.
Related conditions
The most common types of color blindness are inherited. They are the result of defects in the genes that contain the instructions for making the photopigments found in cones. Some defects alter the photopigment’s sensitivity to color, for example, it might be slightly more sensitive to deeper red and less sensitive to green. Other defects can result in the total loss of a photopigment. Depending on the type of defect and the cone that is affected problems can arise with red, green, or blue color vision.
Red-green color blindness
The most common types of hereditary color blindness are due to the loss or limited function of red cone (known as protan) or green cone (deutran) photopigments. This kind of color blindness is commonly referred to as red-green color blindness.
- Protanomaly: In males with protanomaly, the red cone photopigment is abnormal. Red, orange, and yellow appear greener and colors are not as bright. This condition is mild and doesn’t usually interfere with daily living. Protanomaly is an X-linked disorder estimated to affect 1 percent of males.
- Protanopia: In males with protanopia, there are no working red cone cells. Red appears as black. Certain shades of orange, yellow, and green all appear as yellow. Protanopia is an X-linked disorder that is estimated to affect 1 percent of males.
- Deuteranomaly: In males with deuteranomaly, the green cone photopigment is abnormal. Yellow and green appear redder and it is difficult to tell violet from blue. This condition is mild and doesn’t interfere with daily living. Deuteranomaly is the most common form of color blindness and is an X-linked disorder affecting 5 percent of males.
- Deuteranopia: In males with deuteranopia, there are no working green cone cells. They tend to see reds as brownish-yellow and greens as beige. Deuteranopia is an X-linked disorder that affects about 1 percent of males.
Blue-yellow color blindness
Blue-yellow color blindness is rarer than red-green color blindness. Blue-cone (tritan) photopigments are either missing or have limited function.
- Tritanomaly: People with tritanomaly have functionally limited blue cone cells. Blue appears greener and it can be difficult to tell yellow and red from pink. Tritanomaly is extremely rare. It is an autosomal dominant disorder affecting males and females equally.
- Tritanopia: People with tritanopia, also known as blue-yellow color blindness, lack blue cone cells. Blue appears green and yellow appears violet or light grey. Tritanopia is an extremely rare autosomal recessive disorder affecting males and females equally.
Complete color blindness
People with complete color blindness (monochromacy) don’t experience color at all and the clearness of their vision (visual acuity) may also be affected.
There are two types of monochromacy:
- Cone monochromacy: This rare form of color blindness results from a failure of two of the three cone cell photopigments to work. There is red cone monochromacy, green cone monochromacy, and blue cone monochromacy. People with cone monochromacy have trouble distinguishing colors because the brain needs to compare the signals from different types of cones in order to see color. When only one type of cone works, this comparison isn’t possible. People with blue cone monochromacy, may also have reduced visual acuity, near-sightedness, and uncontrollable eye movements, a condition known as nystagmus. Cone monochromacy is an autosomal recessive disorder.
- Rod monochromacy or achromatopsia: This type of monochromacy is rare and is the most severe form of color blindness. It is present at birth. None of the cone cells have functional photopigments. Lacking all cone vision, people with rod monochromacy see the world in black, white, and gray. And since rods respond to dim light, people with rod monochromacy tend to be photophobic – very uncomfortable in bright environments. They also experience nystagmus. Rod monochromacy is an autosomal recessive disorder.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

What It's Like To Be Color Blind

Video by BuzzFeed Multiplayer/YouTube

Colorblind - A Colorful Guide to Colorblindness (infographic) V1

Video by gleiberkid/YouTube

How Many Colors Can We See?

Video by SciShow/YouTube

This Is What Color Blind People See With These Viral Glasses

Video by Tech Insider/YouTube

Chromosome X&Y (23) - Colour Blindness

Video by The Royal Institution/YouTube

How Vision Tests Work | Living Healthy Chicago

Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

Colorblindness

An Ishihara test image as seen by subjects with normal color vision and by those with a variety of color deficiencies.

Image by Eddau processed File:Ishihara 2.svg by User:Sakurambo,

Ishihara Plate 9

Ishihara Plate 9

Image by Unknown

Tritanopia color-blind

How tritanopia color-blind people see the world.

Image by Tohaomg

Cone Cells

Illustration of Cone cell structure in the retina

Image by Ivo Kruusamagi

Rod Cells

Illustration of Rod cell structure in the retina

Image by Madhero88

Rod Cells

Cross section of the retina. Rods are visible at far right.

Image by Cajal , Anka Friedrich (talk) , vectorisation by chris

Cone Cells

Seeing red. A. Light from the sun hits the apple. Some wavelengths are blocked by the chemicals in the apple's skin. B. Reflected wavelengths pass through the pupil and excite the cone cells at the back of the eye. C. The cones send a coded message to the brain about the wavelengths entering the eye. In this example, the L-cones are very excited, the M-cones are a little bit excited and the S cones are hardly excited at all. The brain translates this code into a sensation of "red".

Image by Wade A and Benjamin A

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia. Test for color blindness.

Image by Dan-yell / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ishihara-Test.svg

Ishihara 3

Ishihara colourblindness test No 3

Image by en:Shinobu Ishihara (died January 3, 1963)/Wikimedia

Ishihara 1

Ishihara Plate No. 1 (Number 12). Used to for the en:Ishihata test of color blindness.

Image by Nicoguaro/Wikimedia

Rough gray and white representation of a test chart so that people with complete color blindness can also get an impression of the test.

Image by Barbarossa at Dutch Wikipedia/Wikimedia

Ishihara 19

Image by /Wikimedia

Red-green colour blindness, do you have it?

Video by Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

2:38

What It's Like To Be Color Blind

BuzzFeed Multiplayer/YouTube

2:47

Colorblind - A Colorful Guide to Colorblindness (infographic) V1

gleiberkid/YouTube

2:35

How Many Colors Can We See?

SciShow/YouTube

3:43

This Is What Color Blind People See With These Viral Glasses

Tech Insider/YouTube

2:23

Chromosome X&Y (23) - Colour Blindness

The Royal Institution/YouTube

3:32

How Vision Tests Work | Living Healthy Chicago

LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube

Colorblindness

Eddau processed File:Ishihara 2.svg by User:Sakurambo,

Ishihara Plate 9

Unknown

Tritanopia color-blind

Tohaomg

Cone Cells

Ivo Kruusamagi

Rod Cells

Madhero88

Rod Cells

Cajal , Anka Friedrich (talk) , vectorisation by chris

Cone Cells

Wade A and Benjamin A

Ishihara Plate for testing on Deuteranopia

Dan-yell / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ishihara-Test.svg

Ishihara 3

en:Shinobu Ishihara (died January 3, 1963)/Wikimedia

Ishihara 1

Nicoguaro/Wikimedia

Rough gray and white representation of a test chart so that people with complete color blindness can also get an impression of the test.

Barbarossa at Dutch Wikipedia/Wikimedia

Ishihara 19

/Wikimedia

6:29

Red-green colour blindness, do you have it?

Demystifying Medicine/YouTube

Eye Pressure Test

Eye Pressure Test

Also called: Intraocular Pressure (IOP) Measurement, Tonometry

Eye pressure, also called intraocular pressure (IOP), is a measurement of the fluid pressure inside the eye. Measuring it is like measuring blood pressure using a method called tonometry. Having eye pressure that’s too low or too high can damage your vision.

Eye Pressure Test

Also called: Intraocular Pressure (IOP) Measurement, Tonometry

Eye pressure, also called intraocular pressure (IOP), is a measurement of the fluid pressure inside the eye. Measuring it is like measuring blood pressure using a method called tonometry. Having eye pressure that’s too low or too high can damage your vision.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
10
21
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means your eye pressure is within the normal range. However, the thickness of your cornea can affect measurements. A corneal thickness measurement (pachymetry) is needed to get a correct pressure measurement.
Related conditions
1. Tonometry: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Eye Pressure Testing - American Academy of Ophthalmology [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. What is low eye pressure and does it cause any damage to your eyes? - American Academy of Ophthalmology [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
4. Five Common Glaucoma Tests | Glaucoma Research Foundation [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
5. High Eye Pressure and Glaucoma | Glaucoma Research Foundation [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
6. Tonometry: Purpose, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
7. IOP and Tonometry - EyeWiki [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
8. Tonometry [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
9. Intraocular pressure - Wikipedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Ocular tonometry

Manimury

Ocular tonometry

Tonywirthlin at English Wikipedia

Vestibulo-ocular Reflex

CNX Openstax

Neuro-ocular syphilis

CDC/ Susan Lindsley

6:01

SVC Insight - Tonometry

Linda Young/YouTube

Tonometer

U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Ceaira Tinsley/Released

Schirmer Test

Schirmer Test

Also called: Basal Secretion Test, Dry Eye Test, Tearing Test

A Schirmer test tells your eye doctor how quickly your eyes make tears. Your eye doctor will put a small piece of paper on the edge of your eyelid and see how long it takes for your body to make tears.

Schirmer Test

Also called: Basal Secretion Test, Dry Eye Test, Tearing Test

A Schirmer test tells your eye doctor how quickly your eyes make tears. Your eye doctor will put a small piece of paper on the edge of your eyelid and see how long it takes for your body to make tears.

{"label":"Schirmer test reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"S","long":"Severe","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"Wetting of less than 5 mm is indicative of deficient tear production, but is not necessarily diagnostic of Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome.","conditions":["Dry eye","Aging","Blepharitis","Climate change","Corneal ulcer","Corneal infection","Eye infection","Laser vision correction (LASIK)","Leukemia","Lymphoma","Rheumatoid arthritis","Sj\u00f6gren syndrome","Vitamin A deficiency"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":10},"text":"Less than 10 mm of moisture indicates you probable have dry eye syndrome.","conditions":["Dry eye","Aging","Blepharitis","Climate change","Corneal ulcer","Corneal infection","Eye infection","Laser vision correction (LASIK)","Leukemia","Lymphoma","Rheumatoid arthritis","Sj\u00f6gren syndrome","Vitamin A deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":15},"text":"More than 10 mm of moisture on the filter paper after 5 minutes is a sign of normal tear production. Both eyes normally release the same amount of tears.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":30},"text":"If your eyes produce more than 10 to 15 mm of moisture, further tests may also be required to determine the cause of your watery eyes.","conditions":["Watery eyes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm","code":"mm","name":"millimeter"}],"value":12.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm
5
10
15
Your result is Normal.
More than 10 mm of moisture on the filter paper after 5 minutes is a sign of normal tear production. Both eyes normally release the same amount of tears.
Related conditions
1. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/dry-eye/testing-dry-eye [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003501.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315974.php [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.hopkinssjogrens.org/disease-information/diagnosis-sjogrens-syndrome/schirmers-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
5. https://www.healthline.com/health/schirmers-test#results [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schirmer%27s_test [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Also called: TBUT

A tear break-up time (TBUT) test checks how long your tear film (layer of tears on your eyes) lasts after you blink. If your tear film does not last long, you may have dry eye.

Tear Break-Up Time Test

Also called: TBUT

A tear break-up time (TBUT) test checks how long your tear film (layer of tears on your eyes) lasts after you blink. If your tear film does not last long, you may have dry eye.

{"label":"Tear Break-Up Time Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"s","code":"s","name":"second - time"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"A short tear break-up time is a sign of a poor tear film and the longer it takes the more stable the tear film.","conditions":["Dry eye"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Marginal","long":"Marginal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":10},"text":"A short tear break-up time is a sign of a poor tear film and the longer it takes the more stable the tear film.","conditions":["Dry eye"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":15},"text":"Tear film break-up time (TBUT) is a method for determining the stability of the tear film and checking evaporative dry eye. Generally, >10 seconds is thought to be normal. ","conditions":[]}],"value":12.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
s
5
10
Your result is Normal.
Tear film break-up time (TBUT) is a method for determining the stability of the tear film and checking evaporative dry eye. Generally, >10 seconds is thought to be normal.
Related conditions
1. https://nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/dry-eye/testing-dry-eye [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000426.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3570579/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Ophthalmoscopy

Ophthalmoscopy

Also called: Funduscopy, Retinal Examination

Ophthalmoscopy is an exam that uses a magnifying lens and a light to check the fundus of the eye (back of the inside of the eye, including the retina and optic nerve). Ophthalmoscopy may be used to check for eye problems, such as glaucoma, macular degeneration, eye cancer, optic nerve problems, or eye injury.

Ophthalmoscopy

Also called: Funduscopy, Retinal Examination

Ophthalmoscopy is an exam that uses a magnifying lens and a light to check the fundus of the eye (back of the inside of the eye, including the retina and optic nerve). Ophthalmoscopy may be used to check for eye problems, such as glaucoma, macular degeneration, eye cancer, optic nerve problems, or eye injury.

{"label":"Ophthalmoscopy Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"The retina, blood vessels, and the optic disc appear normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be seen on ophthalmoscopy with a variety of conditions.","conditions":["CMV retinitis","Diabetes","Glaucoma","High blood pressure","Loss of sharp vision due to macular degeneration","Melanoma of the eye","Optic nerve problems","Retinal tear or retinal detachment"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
The retina, blood vessels, and the optic disc appear normal.
Related conditions
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003881.htm [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]
2. https://www.verywellhealth.com/eye-exam-tests-and-procedures-3421854 [accessed on Feb 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

ophthalmoscopy video

Video by CHECT UK/YouTube

Approach to Fundoscopy / Ophthalmoscopy

Video by Stanford Medicine 25/YouTube

Veterinary Medicine

"GUANTANAMO BAY, Cuba %u2013 Army Sgt. Ardicio Galvao, an animal care non-commissioned officer at the Guantanamo Bay Veterinary Treatment Facility, performs an eye examination on a kitten up for adoption.

Image by The National Guard

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Retinoblastoma (Rb) is a rapidly developing cancer that develops from the immature cells of aretina, the light-detecting tissue of the eye and is the most common malignant tumor of the eye in children.

Image by Tero Kivela

ophtalmogram of the retina, optic nerve, fovea and macula. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula.

Self made ophtalmogram of the retina of the right eye. It shows the optic disc as a bright area on the right (nasal side) where blood vessels converge. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula. The grey, more diffuse spot in the centre is a shadow artifact.

Image by Ske.

Diabetic retinopathy - Diabetic Eye Disease NIDDK

Proliferative retinopathy Description: Proliferative retinopathy, an advanced form of diabetic retinopathy, occurs when abnormal new blood vessels and scar tissue form on the surface of the retina.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinitis

Fundus, photograph-CMV retinitis

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age Related Macular degeneration - How is AMD detected?

Description: A fundus photo showing intermediate age-related macular degeneration.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Fluorescein angiography

Fluorescein retinography of a 33 years old patient (right eye), showing the optical disc at the inferior right quadrant and the macula lutea at the inferior left quadrant (darker spot). No anomalies detected.

Image by Mekhahertz

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Macular Degeneration

Image by Ralf Roletschek

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Ocular fundus aspect of retinoblastoma

Image by Aerts, I, Lumbroso-Le Rouic, L, Marion Gauthier-Villars, M, Brisse, H, Doz, F, Desjardins, L. Retinoblastoma.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis

Fundus photograph of CMV retinitis

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

This image shows an eye fundus viewed through a retinal camera, with signs of macular degeneration

Image by Tmhlee

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

Retinal image of a left eye via Optos Optomap.

Image by Modified by Overand - Original by Judgesurreal777

In background retinopathy, a slight deterioration in the small blood vessels of the retina, portions of the vessels may swell and leak fluid into the surrounding retinal tissue.

Retinopathy in fundus of eye

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Optic Nerve

Healthy optic nerve

Image by Esteve.olm

Leber Congenital Amaurosis

Retina Photo of LCA : Retina photo of a patient with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), an inherited retinal disease that causes severe visual impairment early in childhood. Special gene testing is necessary to determine if the patient has the RPE65-associated type of the disease.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health.

Retinopathy of Prematurity (Small Animation)

Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)

Image by National Eye Institute/NIH

central retinal artery

Image by self

Drusen

Drusen in Optical Coherence Tomography

Image by Ipoliker

Chloroquine retinopathy

Chloroquine retinopathy in the left eye of a 55-year-old woman who had taken chloroquine for rheumatoid arthritis for more than 4 years, with an estimated total dose of 365 gr (250 mg daily). She first presented with a history of gradually decreasing visual acuity without any other symptoms approximately two years earlier. The latest examination revealed that her visual acuity was 30/200 right eye and 60/200 left eye. Left image shows typical bull's eye sign and right image is the fluorescien angiogram of the same eye showing increased fluorescence in the macular area and round-shaped blocked fluorescence in the central fovea.

Image by Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Cone dystrophy

Fundus of cone rod dystrophy : Fundus of a 34 year-old patient with cone rod dystrophy due to Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7 (SCA7). Note that the macular area, and also the mid periphery, are atrophic.

Image by Christian P Hamel

Bardet-Biedl syndrome

Bardet-Biedl syndrome : Fundus of a 31 year-old patient with Bardet Biedl syndrome. The peripheral retina does not show any large lesion but the macula is atrophic.

Image by Beales PL, Elcioglu N, Woolf AS, Parker D, Flinter FA

Diabetic Retinopathy

Fundus photo showing scatter laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Central retinal vein occlusion

Branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) Color fundus photograph of the left eye shows occlusion of the superotemporal branch of retinal vein resulting in intraretinal hemorrhages and retinal exudates in the corresponding sector of retina.

Image by Kim Baxter, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Wellcome Images

Infant Eye cross section

Cross-section of the healthy eye of an infant, showing a retina that is in perfect condition, having never been exposed to smoke-borne toxins that would compromise circulation and result in retinal damage. Image supports content showing the health benefits of smoke cessation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chorioretinitis

Chorioretinitis AIDS : Photograph taken of the back of the eye of an AIDS patient with chorioretinitis, which is an inflammation of the retina and choroid (thin pigmented vascular coat of the eye).

Image by NCI

Drusen

Macular Soft Drusen : Fundus image of macular soft Drusen in the right eye of a 70 year old male

Image by Ipoliker

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

Image by enableuser

Smoking and the eye

The effects of cigarette smoke have been associated with many ailments, including two sight-threatening eye conditions. Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. The yellow or off-white deposits, called drusen, that form beneath the retinal layer are a common sign that macular degeneration is in progress. Right, an eye with a cataract. The lens of the eye is usually crystal clear to allow unobstructed vision. Cataract also means \"waterfall.\" Doctors have likened the difficulty of seeing through a lens with a cataract to trying to see clearly through a rushing waterfall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

The prognosis for individuals with TSC is highly variable and depends on the severity of symptoms. Those individuals with mild symptoms usually do well and have a normal life expectancy, while paying attention to TSC-specific issues. Individuals who are severely affected can suffer from severe mental retardation and persistent epilepsy.

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Retinitis pigmentosa

Fundus of patient with retinitis pigmentosa, end stage: Fundus of patient with retinitis pigmentosa, end stage (Pigment deposits are present all over the retina. Retinal vessels are very thin and optic disc is pale.

Image by Christian Hamel

Retinopathy - Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts from a mutation in the CTC1 gene, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Image by Tero Kivela, MD, FEBO

Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. Right, an eye with a cataract.

This image features two sight-threatening eye conditions. Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. The yellow or off-white deposits, called drusen, that form beneath the retinal layer are a common sign that macular degeneration is in progress. Right, an eye with a cataract. The lens of the eye is usually crystal clear to allow unobstructed vision. Cataract also means \"waterfall.\" Doctors have likened the difficulty of seeing through a lens with a cataract to trying to see clearly through a rushing waterfall.

Image by TheVisualMD

Presumed Ocular Histoplasmosis Syndrome

Retinal photograph of ocular histoplasmosis

Image by Wickedthought

Neuro-ocular syphilis

This funduscopic image reveals the effects of late neuro-ocular syphilis on the optic disk and retina. Note the typical features of neuro-ocular syphilis, which includes severe optic nerve atrophy, and chorioretinitis, or inflammation of the choroidal and neural layers of the retina.

Image by CDC/ Susan Lindsley

Fundus Photography

An eye care professional takes fundus autofluorescence photographs to study the retina.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Complications of diabetes mellitus

Diabetes and Small Vessel Disease : High levels of blood glucose damage the smallest vessels in your body, the capillaries, just as they do the larger vessels. One cause of this damage may be the high levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that glucose creates inside capillary cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-section of retina, close-up of the photoreceptors

DHA and vision

Image by TheVisualMD

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

Eye with cross section revealing diabetic retinopathy; the damaged retina due to diabetes. The visible damaged includes yellow patches of fatty deposits and tiny dark dots, or microaneurysms.

Image by TheVisualMD

DiabeticRetinopathy

Diabetic Retinopathy

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014

Macula of Retina

photograph of the retina of the human eye, with overlay diagrams showing the positions and sizes of the macula, fovea, and optic disc

Image by National Eye Institute of the NIH

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from human data. Anteriolateral view of a partially sectioned eye, as well as associated eye muscles. As well as being protected by the bony orbital cavity of the skull, the eyeball is anchored in place by several thin strap muscles that attach to virtually every one of its sides except the front. These muscles tug in concert, allowing the eye to move in any direction to track objects. The clear cornea covers and protects the front exterior of the eye while the colored iris dilates and constricts to insure the proper amount of light is striking the back of the eye. The lens contorts to focus the incoming light back to the retina, which covers roughly the entire back half of the eye. Special cells embedded within the retina are responsible for the sensation of light: the cones, for color perception, and rods, for black and white perception. Electrical nerve impulses are channeled into the optic nerve at the back of the eye to the visual cortex in the brain.

Image by TheVisualMD

Month 1

A newborn sleeps 12-20 hours per day, but don't let that fool you: your baby will go through enormous transformations in his first month. Your womb was safe, warm, dark, and quiet. Now your baby has to adapt to the outside world, full of bright lights, noises, and unfamiliar sensations.

Image by TheVisualMD

Retina close-up

A picture of a patient’s retina is displayed at the optometry clinic March 11, 2016, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Mont. The clinic is the only one in Montana that has a retinal imagining device called an Optos, used to look at the retina without diluting it. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Macula of Retina

Animation of Optic cup and macula - 3D motion parallax -The optic cup and macula of a healthy 24 year old female. Image is released to wikimedia commons with patient consent. GIF displays a three dimensional view of the cup via motion parallax. Imaged with a non-mydriatic fundus camera at Pacific University College of Optometry.

Image by Eric Wiessner

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy.

Image by National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

Image showing diabetic retinopathy , a condition caused by diabetes and affects the capillaries of the retina causing eventual blindness unless treated.

Image by TheVisualMD

Retina showing reticular pseudodrusen - early age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

A new clinical study led by the National Eye Institute (NEI), part of the National Institutes of Health, will follow 500 people over five years to learn more about the natural history of early age-related macular degeneration (AMD). By using the latest technologies to visualize structures within the eye and measure their function, researchers hope to identify biomarkers of disease progression, well before it advances to late-stage disease and causes vision loss. AMD is the leading cause of vision impairment and blindness among people age 50 and older in the United States.

Image by NIH Image Gallery

Hypotrichosis with juvenile macula dystrophy

ophthalmoscopy left eye of a 5-year-old boy with HJMD

Image by BazokaSmurf

9:33

ophthalmoscopy video

CHECT UK/YouTube

8:56

Approach to Fundoscopy / Ophthalmoscopy

Stanford Medicine 25/YouTube

Veterinary Medicine

The National Guard

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Tero Kivela

ophtalmogram of the retina, optic nerve, fovea and macula. The spot to the left (temporal side) of the centre is the macula.

Ske.

Diabetic retinopathy - Diabetic Eye Disease NIDDK

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Retinitis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Age Related Macular degeneration - How is AMD detected?

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Fluorescein angiography

Mekhahertz

Age-Related Macular Degeneration Overview

Ralf Roletschek

Retinoblastoma - Treatment Option Overview

Aerts, I, Lumbroso-Le Rouic, L, Marion Gauthier-Villars, M, Brisse, H, Doz, F, Desjardins, L. Retinoblastoma.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Macular degeneration - Charles Bonnet syndrome (Visual Hallucinations)

Tmhlee

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

Modified by Overand - Original by Judgesurreal777

In background retinopathy, a slight deterioration in the small blood vessels of the retina, portions of the vessels may swell and leak fluid into the surrounding retinal tissue.

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Optic Nerve

Esteve.olm

Leber Congenital Amaurosis

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health.

Retinopathy of Prematurity (Small Animation)

National Eye Institute/NIH

central retinal artery

self

Drusen

Ipoliker

Chloroquine retinopathy

Doctors:Xiaoyun Ma, Liang Yan, Linping He Dongyi He, Hao Lu from Shanghai, China

Cone dystrophy

Christian P Hamel

Bardet-Biedl syndrome

Beales PL, Elcioglu N, Woolf AS, Parker D, Flinter FA

Diabetic Retinopathy

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Central retinal vein occlusion

Kim Baxter, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Wellcome Images

Infant Eye cross section

TheVisualMD

Chorioretinitis

NCI

Drusen

Ipoliker

Ocular larva migrans granuloma via toxocara canis infection from newborn puppies

enableuser

Smoking and the eye

TheVisualMD

Tuberous Sclerosis - What is the prognosis?

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Retinitis pigmentosa

Christian Hamel

Retinopathy - Cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts. Exudative retinopathy and vitreos hemorrhage: A fundus photograph of a child with cerebroretinal microangiopathy with calcifications and cysts, in which red vitreous bleeding and yellowish lipid under a detached retina are seen.

Tero Kivela, MD, FEBO

Left, an eye that shows signs of macular degeneration. Right, an eye with a cataract.

TheVisualMD

Presumed Ocular Histoplasmosis Syndrome

Wickedthought

Neuro-ocular syphilis

CDC/ Susan Lindsley

Fundus Photography

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Complications of diabetes mellitus

TheVisualMD

Cross-section of retina, close-up of the photoreceptors

TheVisualMD

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

TheVisualMD

DiabeticRetinopathy

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014

Macula of Retina

National Eye Institute of the NIH

Partially Sectioned Human Eye Exposing front and back of the eye including the Retina

TheVisualMD

Month 1

TheVisualMD

Retina close-up

U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Jaeda Tookes

Macula of Retina

Eric Wiessner

Fundus photo showing focal laser surgery for diabetic retinopathy

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

Eye with Diabetic Retinopathy

TheVisualMD

Retina showing reticular pseudodrusen - early age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

NIH Image Gallery

Hypotrichosis with juvenile macula dystrophy

BazokaSmurf

Retinoscopy

Retinoscopy

Also called: Ret, Shadow Test, Skiametry, Skiascopy

Retinoscopy is an objective determination of the refractive state of the eye (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism). By using a retinoscope, the amount of correction and the power of lens needed can be determined.

Retinoscopy

Also called: Ret, Shadow Test, Skiametry, Skiascopy

Retinoscopy is an objective determination of the refractive state of the eye (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism). By using a retinoscope, the amount of correction and the power of lens needed can be determined.

Retinoscopy is an accurate objective measurement of the refractive state of the eye, such as the degree of nearsightedness, farsightedness or astigmatism. It uses light reflected off the back of the eye and hand-held lenses to measure refractive error.
A retinoscopy can be especially useful in determining refractive error in very young children and infants or people with special needs, as it requires minimal cooperation.
1. https://www.aapos.org/terms/conditions/95 [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
2. https://nei.nih.gov/health/errors [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5646585/ [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
4. https://www.aao.org/young-ophthalmologists/yo-info/article/retinoscopy-101 [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
5. https://www.allaboutvision.com/eye-exam/expect.htm [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
6. https://www.lybrate.com/lab-test/retinoscopy [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
7. https://www.northrangeeyecare.com/your-eye-health/eye-exams/common-tests/retinoscope/ [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]
8. https://www.slideshare.net/laxmieyeinstitute/retinoscopy-and-its-principles [accessed on Feb 14, 2019]

Additional Materials (17)

B&L Retinoscope

Bausch & Lomb Copeland Streak Retinoscope

Image by Janee

Retinoscopy of the eye (Ophthalmology)

Video by Tim Root/YouTube

Performing a Retinoscopy

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Determining Eyeglass Prescription

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Refractive Error Fact Sheet

Refractive errors occur when the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing directly on the retina. The length of the eyeball (longer or shorter), changes in the shape of the cornea, or aging of the lens can all cause refractive errors.

Document by National Eye Institute

Nearsightedness Fact Sheet

Nearsightedness, also known as myopia, is a common type of refractive error where close objects appear clearly, but distant objects appear blurry.

Document by National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

An eye care professional conducts a pediatric eye exam on a child.

Image by National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

An eye care professional performs retinoscopy to determine the child’s refractive error (eyeglass prescription).

Image by National Eye Institute

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s right eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition. Note the eye chart in the background, which is known as an E chart, or a tumbling E chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s left eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This woman was pictured in her doctor’s office, while undergoing an eye exam. Using an ophthalmoscope, the doctor was looking inside the interior of the patient’s left eyeball, in order to see if any intraocular damage had occurred, as a result of this patient's diabetic condition. Note the eye chart in the background, which is known as an E chart, or a tumbling E chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Eye exam

The woman pictured here, was undergoing an eye exam, whereupon, she was testing her visual acuity, by covering her left eye, and reading from a door-mounted eye chart, which used numbers as its symbols. Note that this eye chart was intended to be used with the patient standing at a distance of 10 feet from the chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

The woman pictured here, was undergoing an eye exam, whereupon, she was testing her visual acuity, by covering her left eye, and reading from a door-mounted eye chart, which used numbers as its symbols. The clinician was pointing to each of the various numbers, and the patient was reciting the highlighted number. Note that this eye chart was intended to be used with the patient standing at a distance of 10 feet from the chart.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination, being conducted by a female physician, who was using a handheld ophthalmoscope, enabling her to see into the patient’s left eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination from a female physician, who was using a hand-held ophthalmoscope to see into her right eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

This seated young female patient was in the process of receiving an eye examination from a male clinician, who was using a hand-held ophthalmoscope to see into her right eye.

Image by CDC/ Amanda Mills

Middle schoolers receive health screenings

A 52nd Aerospace Medicine Squadron optometrist, uses lenses to perform a retinoscopy on a Spangdahlem Middle School student during a school health screening on Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, Nov. 7, 2014. The screenings are held once a year to assess the weight, height, eyesight and hearing of students. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released

B&L Retinoscope

Janee

4:43

Retinoscopy of the eye (Ophthalmology)

Tim Root/YouTube

Performing a Retinoscopy

National Eye Institute

Determining Eyeglass Prescription

National Eye Institute

Refractive Error Fact Sheet

National Eye Institute

Nearsightedness Fact Sheet

National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

National Eye Institute

Pediatric Eye Exam

National Eye Institute

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Eye exam

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Retinoscopy

CDC/ Amanda Mills

Middle schoolers receive health screenings

U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Christopher Ruano/Released

Glossary of Health Terms

Staying Afloat

Image by TheVisualMD

Definitions of Health Terms: General Health

Being healthy is about more than diet and exercise. It is also about understanding how your body works and what it needs to stay healthy. You can start by learning these general health terms.

Basal Body Temperature

Basal body temperature is your temperature at rest when you wake up in the morning. This temperature rises slightly around the time of ovulation. Keeping track of this temperature and other changes such as cervical mucus may help you figure out when you are ovulating. Take your temperature before you get out of bed every morning. Since the change during ovulation is only about 1/2 degree F (1/3 degree C), you should use a sensitive thermometer such as a basal body thermometer.

Blood Alcohol Content

Blood alcohol content, or blood alcohol concentration (BAC), is the amount of alcohol in a given volume of blood. For medical and legal purposes, BAC is expressed as grams of alcohol in a 100 milliliter sample of blood.

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as your heart pumps blood. It includes two measurements. "Systolic" is your blood pressure when your heart beats while pumping blood. "Diastolic" is your blood pressure when the heart is at rest between beats. You usually see blood pressure numbers written with the systolic number above or before the diastolic number. For example, you might see 120/80.

Blood Type

There are four major blood types: A, B, O, and AB. The types are based on substances on the surface of the blood cells. Besides blood types, there is the Rh factor. It is a protein on red blood cells. Most people are Rh-positive; they have Rh factor. Rh-negative people don't have it. Rh factor is inherited though genes.

Body Mass Index

Body Mass Index (BMI) is an estimate of your body fat. It is calculated from your height and weight. It can tell you whether you are underweight, normal, overweight, or obese. It can help you gauge your risk for diseases that can occur with more body fat.

Body Temperature

Body temperature is a measure of your body’s level of heat.

Cervical Mucus

Cervical mucus comes from the cervix. It collects in the vagina. Tracking the changes in your mucus during your cycle, along with changes in your basal body temperature, may help you figure out when you are ovulating.

Galvanic Skin Response

Galvanic skin response is a change in electrical resistance of the skin. It can occur in response to emotional arousal or other conditions.

Heart Rate

Heart rate, or pulse, is how many times your heart beats in a period of time — usually a minute. The usual pulse for an adult is 60 to 100 beats per minute after resting for at least 10 minutes.

Height

Your height is the distance from the bottom of your feet to the top of your head when you are standing up straight.

Inhaler Usage

An inhaler is a device that sprays medicine through your mouth to your lungs.

Menstruation

Menstruation, or period, is normal vaginal bleeding that happens as part of a woman's monthly cycle. Keeping track of your cycles helps you figure out when the next one will come, whether you missed one, and if there is a problem with your cycles.

Ovulation Test

Ovulation is the release of an egg from a woman's ovary. Ovulation tests detect a rise in a hormone level that happens just before ovulation. This can help you figure out when you will ovulate, and when you are most likely to get pregnant.

Respiratory Rate

Respiratory rate is your rate of breathing (inhalation and exhalation) within a certain time. It is usually stated as breaths per minute.

Sexual Activity

Sexuality is part of being human and plays a role in healthy relationships. Keeping track of your sexual activity can help you watch for sexual problems and fertility problems. It can also help you learn about your risk for sexually transmitted diseases.

Spotting

Spotting is light vaginal bleeding that is not your period. It could be between periods, after menopause, or during pregnancy. There can be many different causes; some are serious and some are not. Contact your health care provider if you have spotting; call right away if you are pregnant.

UV Exposure

Ultraviolet (UV) rays are an invisible form of radiation from sunlight. They can help your body form vitamin D naturally. But they can pass through your skin and damage your skin cells, causing sunburn. UV rays can also cause eye problems, wrinkles, skin spots, and skin cancer.

Weight (Body Mass)

Your weight is the mass or quantity of your heaviness. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.

Source: MedlinePlus

Additional Materials (2)

The Search for Balance

We are born with many natural mechanisms to help us maintain a stable environment within our bodies. The processes that regulate our body temperature, blood pressure and immune response are all good examples of how we are built to keep conditions relatively constant and balanced within. Your brain's hypothalamus commands most of these reactions to environmental factors or other challenges. The state of balance your body is constantly striving for is called homeostasis.

Image by TheVisualMD

Embrace Joy

Have you had enough of winter? Are you ready for the golden days of spring and summer? The shorter days from December to March can bring the curtain down on our moods and well-being. Some people experience a distinct form of depression in winter, Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). The disorder is rooted in the interplay between our natural circadian rhythms, the brain chemical melatonin, and the warmth and light of the sun. Melatonin is secreted by the brain's pineal gland, highlighted above in red. The absence of sunlight triggers melatonin production, so most melatonin is naturally produced at night when we are sleeping. When someone is in darkness for longer than usual, it can result in an overproduction of melatonin, which can lead to symptoms of depression. People affected by SAD want to shut down, and spend far more time sleeping. They crave sweet and starchy foods, so many gain weight during the winter. What else is affected by sunlight and warmth? Our circadian rhythms, which control our sleep-wake cycle among other daily cycles. In sleep studies, the moods of many subjects seem to follow the circadian clock, being at the lowest most depressed level when the body's temperature is lowest, and improving as temperature increases. For most SAD sufferers, the return of sunlight and warmer temperatures brings the return of energy and a positive outlook on life.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Search for Balance

TheVisualMD

Embrace Joy

TheVisualMD

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