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Obesity and Cancer Risk

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Obesity and Cancer Risk

Obesity and Cancer

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

What Is Obesity?

Overweight vs. Obese

Image by TheVisualMD

What Is Obesity?

Obesity is a disease in which a person has an unhealthy amount and/or distribution of body fat. Compared with people of healthy weight, those with overweight or obesity are at greater risk for many diseases, including diabetes, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and at least 13 types of cancer, as well as having an elevated risk of death from all causes.

To determine if someone has obesity, researchers commonly use a measure known as the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s weight (in kilograms) by their height (in meters) squared (commonly expressed as kg/m²). BMI provides a more accurate measure of obesity than weight alone, and for most people it is a good (although imperfect) indicator of body fatness.

The National Heart Lung and Blood Institute has a BMI calculator for adults. The standard weight categories based on BMI for adults ages 20 years or older are:

BMI in kg/m²	Weight Category
Below 18.5	Underweight
18.5 to 24.9	Healthy
25.0 to 29.9	Overweight
30.0 to 39.9	Obese
40.0 or higher	Severely obese

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has a BMI percentile calculator for children and teens. Overweight and obesity for people younger than 20 years old, whose BMI can change significantly as they grow, are based on CDC’s BMI-for-age growth charts.

BMI	Weight Category
BMI-for-age below the sex-specific 5th percentile	Underweight
BMI-for-age at or above the sex-specific 5th percentile, but less than the 85th percentile	Healthy
BMI-for-age at or above the sex-specific 85th percentile, but less than the 95th percentile	Overweight
BMI-for-age at or above the sex-specific 95th percentile	Obese
BMI-for-age at or above 120% of the sex-specific 95th percentile*	Severe obesity
*Based on recommendations from experts

Measurements that reflect the distribution of body fat are sometimes used along with BMI as indicators of obesity and disease risks. These measurements include waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio (the waist circumference divided by the hip circumference), waist-to-height ratio, and fat distribution as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA) or imaging with CT or PET.

These measures are used because the distribution of fat is increasingly understood to be relevant to disease risks. In particular, visceral fat—fat that surrounds internal organs—seems to be more dangerous, in terms of disease risks, than overall fat or subcutaneous fat (the layer just under the skin).

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (10)

1:48

Obesity Risk Factors | Obesity

Howcast/YouTube

1:50

Health Problems Caused by Obesity | Obesity

Howcast/YouTube

5:11

What is obesity? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

12:16

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 1): An Epidemic for Every Body

UCTVTips/YouTube

9:03

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 2): Sickeningly Sweet

UCTVTips/YouTube

8:04

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 3): Hunger and Hormones- A Vicious Cycle

UCTVTips/YouTube

7:14

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 4): Sugar - A Sweet Addiction

UCTVTips/YouTube

6:58

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 5): Generation XL

UCTVTips/YouTube

7:22

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 6): A Fast-Paced Fast Food Life

UCTVTips/YouTube

8:36

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 7): Drugs Cigarettes Alcohol...and Sugar?

UCTVTips/YouTube

How Common Is It?

Childhood Obesity by Country

Image by TheVisualMD

How Common Are Obesity and Severe Obesity?

Obesity and severe obesity have become more common in the United States in recent years.

In 2011, 27.4% of adults ages 18 or older had obesity or severe obesity.
By contrast, in 2020, 31.9% of adults ages 18 or older had obesity or severe obesity.

The percentage of children and adolescents ages 2–19 years with obesity or severe obesity has also increased.

In 2011–2012, 16.9% of 2–19-year-olds had obesity and 5.6% had severe obesity.
By contrast, in 2017–2018, 19.3% of 2–19-year-olds had obesity and 6.1% had severe obesity.

According to the CDC, the prevalence of obesity in the United States differs among racial and ethnic groups. In 2020, the proportions of adults ages 18 years or older with obesity or severe obesity were:

Non-Hispanic Black, 41.6%
American Indian/Alaska Native, 38.8%
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 38.5%
Hispanic, 36.6%
Non-Hispanic White, 30.7%
Asian, 11.8%

In 2017–2018, the proportions of obesity among children and adolescents ages 2–19 years were:

Mexican American, 26.9%
Hispanic, 25.6%
Non-Hispanic Black, 24.2%
Non-Hispanic White, 16.1%
Non-Hispanic Asian, 8.7%

The prevalence of obesity has increased more quickly recently, possibly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. CDC has state-level estimates of adult obesity prevalence in the United States.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (3)

1:00

Obesity: How can we reduce obesity rates? | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

2:20

Overweight World - Obesity Facts and Statistics

The Infographics Show/YouTube

7:13

The Obesity Epidemic

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

Obesity and Cancer Risk

Cancers Associated with Overweight and Obesity

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Learn About Obesity and Cancer Risk

Doctors can’t always explain why one person gets cancer and another doesn’t. But research has shown that certain risk factors may increase a person’s chance of getting cancer. One risk factor is obesity, or having too much body fat.

Many studies have found links between obesity and certain types of cancer. Most of these studies have compared differences between large groups of people who developed cancer with those who didn’t. Many of these studies found that people who develop certain types of cancer are more likely to be obese than those who don’t develop these cancers.

That doesn’t mean obesity is the cause of these cancers. People who are obese or overweight may differ from lean people in ways other than their body fat. It’s possible that these other differences might explain different cancer risks.

Yet, studies have consistently linked obesity with an increased risk for several types of cancer. Researchers are now exploring what biological mechanisms might link obesity and cancer.

Source: NIH News in Health

Additional Materials (2)

1:08

Obesity and cancer: How can extra body fat cause cancer? | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

1:29

How does obesity cause cancer? | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Obesity and Cancer

Obesity-associated morbidity

Image by CDC

Obesity and Cancer

Being overweight or having obesity increases your risk of getting cancer.

You may be surprised to learn that being overweight or having obesity are linked with a higher risk of getting 13 types of cancer. These cancers make up 40% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States each year.

Many things are associated with cancer, but avoiding tobacco use and keeping a healthy weight are two of the most important steps you can take to lower your risk of getting cancer.

What Is Obesity?

Weight that is higher than what is considered a healthy weight for a given height is called overweight or obesity.

Body mass index (BMI) is used as a screening tool for overweight and obesity. For adults, a person with a BMI from 25.0 to 29.9 is considered overweight. A person with a BMI that is 30.0 or higher has obesity.

For children and teens, BMI is calculated the same way, but interpreted in a different way. BMI for children is often compared to the average BMI of other children in the same age range.

Which Cancers Are Related to Obesity?

Being overweight and having obesity are linked with a higher risk of getting 13 kinds of cancer. These cancers include—

Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus.
Breast (in women who have gone through menopause).
Colon and rectum.
Uterus.
Gallbladder.
Upper stomach.
Kidneys.
Liver.
Ovaries.
Pancreas.
Thyroid.
Meningioma (a type of brain cancer).
Multiple myeloma.

Other risk factors can also contribute to these cancers. Some of these risk factors are hormone levels, changes (called mutations) in genes, long-lasting infections, and tobacco and alcohol use. Being overweight or having obesity doesn’t mean that someone will definitely get cancer. But it does mean that they are more likely to get cancer than if they kept a healthy weight.

How Can Obesity Cause Cancer?

Overweight and obesity can cause changes in the body that help lead to cancer. These changes can include long-lasting inflammation and higher than normal levels of insulin, insulin-like growth factor, and sex hormones. The risk of cancer increases with the more excess weight a person gains and the longer a person is overweight.

How Can I Lower My Risk?

You can achieve a healthy weight by making healthy lifestyle choices. You can reduce your risk of obesity-related cancer by following a healthy eating plan and getting regular physical activity.

How Can Doctors Help Their Patients Keep a Healthy Weight?

Health care providers can help patients keep a healthy weight in several ways. For example, they can—

Measure patients’ weight, height, and BMI.
Explain that keeping a healthy weight can lower a person’s cancer risk.
Connect patients and families with community services that provide healthy food and ways to be active.
Encourage adult patients to participate in behavioral interventions recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. These interventions are designed to help patients lose 5% or more of their weight through dietary changes and increased physical activity.
Screen for obesity in children and teens who are 6 years old or older. If needed, refer them to behavioral interventions to help them lose weight.

How Many People Have Obesity or Cancers Linked to Obesity?

Many people in the United States have obesity. Recent surveys have found that about 42% of adults and about 19% of children have obesity. Adults with obesity have a higher risk of many serious diseases and health conditions, including cancer, than people with a healthy weight.

From 2005 to 2014, most cancers associated with overweight and obesity increased in the United States, while cancers associated with other factors decreased. During this time, the rate of new cancers associated with overweight and obesity (except colorectal cancer) increased 7%, while the rate of new cancers not associated with overweight and obesity dropped 13%. (The rate of new cases of colorectal cancer dropped 23% during this time. Screening tests can prevent this cancer.)

The Data Visualizations tool makes it easy for anyone to explore and use data from United States Cancer Statistics, the official government statistics on cancer. U.S. Cancer Statistics includes the latest cancer data for 100% of the US population. The Data Visualizations tool provides data on the rates of new obesity-associated cancers among males and females in the United States. For example—

More than 650,000 obesity-associated cancers occur in the United States each year, including more than 200,000 among men and 450,000 among women.
Breast cancer after menopause is the most common obesity-associated cancer among women. Colorectal cancer is the most common obesity-associated cancer among men.
More than 90% of new obesity-related cancers occur in men and women who are 50 years old or older.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (4)

3:46

ACS Grantee Links Obesity & Colon Cancer

American Cancer Society/YouTube

1:21

How does obesity cause cancer?

MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube

4:42

Cancer and Wellness

TheVisualMD

Five Hidden Dangers of Obesity

TheVisualMD

What Is the Relationship Between Obesity and Cancer?

What You Need to Know About Obesity and Cancer

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

What Is Known About the Relationship Between Obesity and Cancer?

Nearly all of the evidence linking obesity to cancer risk comes from large cohort studies, a type of observational study. However, data from observational studies cannot definitively establish that obesity causes cancer. That is because people with obesity or overweight may differ from people without these conditions in ways other than their body fat, and it is possible that these other differences—rather than their body fat—explain their increased cancer risk.

An International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group concluded that there is consistent evidence that higher amounts of body fat are associated with an increased risk of a number of cancers. The table below shows the risks reported in representative studies.

Cancer type (reference)	Compared with people without obesity or overweight, this cancer is
Endometrial	7 times as likely in people with severe obesity* 2–4 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Esophageal adenocarcinoma	4.8 times as likely in people with severe obesity 2.4–2.7 times as likely in people with obesity 1.5 times as likely in people with overweight
Gastric cardia	2 times as likely in people with obesity
Liver	2 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Kidney	2 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Multiple myeloma	1.1–1.2 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Meningioma	1.5 times as likely in people with obesity 1.2 times as likely in people with overweight
Pancreatic	1.5 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Colorectal	1.3 times as likely in people with obesity
Gallbladder	1.6 times as likely in people with obesity 1.2 times as likely in people with overweight
Breast Postmenopausal Premenopausal**	1.2–1.4 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight 1.2 times as likely for every 5-unit increase in BMI 0.8 times as likely in people with obesity or overweight
Ovarian***	1.1 times as likely for every 5-unit increase in BMI
Thyroid	1.3 times as likely in people with obesity 1.26 times as likely in people with overweight
BMI = body mass index. Risk for type I endometrial cancer Hormone receptor–positive premenopausal breast cancer **Higher BMI is associated with a slight increase in the risk of ovarian cancer overall, particularly in women who have never used menopausal hormone therapy. The association differs by ovarian cancer subtypes, with strongest risk increases observed for rare, non-serous subtypes.

People who have a higher BMI at the time their cancer is diagnosed or who have survived cancer have higher risks of developing a second, unrelated cancer (a second primary cancer).

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (3)

2:19

Kath's story: "I wasn’t aware of the link between obesity and cancer"

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

7:50

Obesity and Cancer Risk

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

3:22

Obesity and Endometrial Cancer – Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

How Can Obesity Increase Cancer Risk?

Cardiovascular and Skeletal Body Systems of an Obese Person

Image by TheVisualMD

How Might Obesity Increase the Risk of Cancer?

Several possible mechanisms have been suggested to explain how obesity might increase the risks of some cancers.

Fat tissue (also called adipose tissue) produces excess amounts of estrogen, high levels of which have been associated with increased risks of breast, endometrial, ovarian, and some other cancers.
People with obesity often have increased blood levels of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). High levels of insulin, a condition known as hyperinsulinemia, is due to insulin resistance and precedes the development of type 2 diabetes, another known cancer risk factor. High levels of insulin and IGF-1 may promote the development of colon, kidney, prostate, and endometrial cancers.
People with obesity often have chronic inflammatory conditions such as gallstones or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. These conditions can cause oxidative stress, which leads to DNA damage and increases the risk of biliary tract and other cancers.
Fat cells produce hormones called adipokines that can stimulate or inhibit cell growth. For example, the level of an adipokine called leptin in the blood increases with increasing body fat, and high levels of leptin can promote aberrant cell proliferation. Another adipokine, adiponectin, is less abundant in people with obesity than in people with a healthy weight and may have antiproliferative effects that protect against tumor growth.
Fat cells may also have direct and indirect effects on other cell growth and metabolic regulators, including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AMP-activated protein kinase.

Other possible mechanisms by which obesity could affect cancer risk include impaired tumor immunity and changes in the mechanical properties of the scaffolding tissue that surrounds developing tumors.

In addition to biological effects, obesity can lead to difficulties in screening and management. For example, women with overweight or obesity have an increased risk of cervical cancer compared with women of healthy weight, likely due to less effective cervical cancer screening in these individuals.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (1)

3:24

What Can Fat Cells Teach Us About Cancer?

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube

Overweight and Obesity Screening

Overweight / Normal Weight

Weight Loss (Men vs Women)

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Overweight and Obesity Screening

Children and adults should be screened at least annually to see if they have a high or increasing body mass index (BMI), which allows doctors to recommend healthy lifestyle changes to prevent overweight and obesity.

Screening for a high or increasing body mass index (BMI)

To screen for overweight and obesity, doctors measure BMI using calculations that depend on whether you are a child or an adult. After reading the information below, talk to your doctor or your child’s doctor to determine if you or your child has a high or increasing BMI.

Children: A healthy weight is usually when your child’s BMI is at the 5th percentile up to the 85th percentile, based on growth charts for children who are the same age and sex.
Adults: A healthy weight for adults is usually when your BMI is 18.5 to less than 25.

Body mass index (BMI) is used to determine if you or your child are underweight, healthy, or overweight or obese. Children are underweight if their BMI is below the 5th percentile, healthy weight if their BMI is between the 5th to less than the 85th percentile, overweight if their BMI is the 85th percentile to less than the 95th percentile, and obese if their BMI is the 95th percentile or above. Adults are underweight if their BMI is below 18.5, healthy weight if their BMI is 18.5 to 24.9, overweight if their BMI is 25 to 29.9, and obese if their BMI is 30 or above. *A child’s BMI percentile is calculated by comparing your child’s BMI to growth charts for children who are the same age and sex as your child.

Healthy lifestyle changes to prevent overweight and obesity

If your BMI indicates you are getting close to being overweight, or if you have certain risk factors, your doctor may recommend you adopt healthy lifestyle changes to prevent you from becoming overweight and obese. Changes include healthy eating, being physically active, aiming for a healthy weight, and getting healthy amounts of sleep.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

Additional Materials (3)

31:12

Healthy Foods and Obesity Prevention (HBO: The Weight of the Nation)

HBODocs/YouTube

7:05

The effects of obesity and how to lose weight

Top Doctors UK/YouTube

1:05

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

KidandParent/YouTube

Screening Tests

Obesity Screening

Obesity screening checks whether extra body fat increases your risk for serious health problems. It uses your BMI (body mass index) to estimate body fat. Most adults and children ages 2 and older should be screened with a BMI at least once a year.

Obesity Screening

Obesity screening checks whether extra body fat increases your risk for serious health problems. It uses your BMI (body mass index) to estimate body fat. Most adults and children ages 2 and older should be screened with a BMI at least once a year.

Obesity screenings check for obesity and overweight in adults and children, starting as early as age 2. In general, having obesity and being overweight both mean that your weight is higher than what is considered healthy for your height:
- Obesity means that you have too much body fat.
- Overweight usually means that you have too much body fat. But the extra weight may come from muscle, bone, and/or holding too much water in your body.
Extra fat from obesity and overweight increases your risk of developing serious, long-lasting health problems, such as:
- Heart and blood vessel diseases, including heart attack and stroke
- High blood cholesterol
- Type 2 diabetes
- Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
- Arthritis
- Certain types of cancer
The more fat you have, the higher your risk of developing these problems. Children who have obesity may develop many of the same health problems as adults with obesity. They are also more likely to have obesity in adulthood and develop serious health problems later in life.
Obesity screening helps find out if too much body fat could be a health concern for you. Measuring body fat is difficult and expensive. So, obesity screening estimates how much body fat you have. The estimate is made with a calculation called a BMI (body mass index).
BMI for adults ages 20 and older is calculated from height and weight information. The result is a number called a BMI score. Higher BMI scores are linked to larger amounts of body fat and a higher risk for certain health problems. For most adults:
- A healthy weight is a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9
- Overweight is a BMI between 25 and 29.9
- Obesity is a BMI of 30 and above
BMI for children over age 2 and teens is also based on weight and height. But age and sex are part of figuring out if a child or teen has too much body fat. That's because the normal amount of body fat is different at each stage of growth. And the normal amount of fat is different for boys and girls.
To adjust for these differences, your child's BMI is compared to standard growth charts for children of their age and sex. The result is called a BMI percentile. For example, if your child's BMI is in the 25th percentile, it means that 25% percent of children the same age and sex have a lower BMI, and 75% percent have a higher BMI.
Because height and weight changes with growth, your child's BMI will be tracked over time to understand if obesity or overweight may be a health problem. For most children and teens:
- A healthy weight is a BMI between the 5^th and 85^th percentile.
- Overweight is a BMI between the 85^th and 94^th percentile.
- Obesity is a BMI in the 95^th percentile or higher.
A BMI is a fairly accurate way to screen most people for too much body fat, but it's not perfect. Your BMI can't tell if your weight is from extra fat or muscle. This means a very muscular person could have a BMI in the overweight range even though they don't have too much body fat.
Also, some people who have a healthy BMI may still have high amounts of body fat. This may be more common in groups that tend to have lower BMI scores, such as Asians and older adults who have lost muscle. Talk with your health care provider if you have questions about how accurate a BMI is for your body type.
An obesity screening is usually part of a routine checkup that includes a physical exam. Your provider will measure your height and weight. That information is usually entered into an online BMI calculator. If you know your height and weight, you can find your BMI online:
- Use this BMI calculator for adults.
- Use this BMI percentile calculator for children and teens.
Your provider may also use other tests to estimate how much body fat you have. These include:
- A waist measurement. Adults who have too much fat around their abdomen (belly) have an increased risk of developing conditions related to obesity. Even if you have a healthy BMI, your risk may be high if your waist size is:
  More than 40 inches for men
  More than 35 inches for women who aren't pregnant
- Skinfold measurements. A skinfold test measures the thickness of pinch of skin and fat at several places on your body. A special tool gently measures skinfolds on your belly, back, thigh, the back of your upper arm, and/or other places on your body. The results are used to estimate how much of your body is fat.
If your obesity screening shows that you may have too much body fat, your provider may ask questions to help find out why. This often includes discussing your:
- Medical history and medicines you take. Some health conditions cause people to gain weight, such as metabolic syndrome, hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovary syndrome (in females only). Your provider may order blood tests to confirm or rule out these and other conditions.
  Many medicines can cause weight gain, too. Examples include:
  Certain antidepressants
  Beta-blockers, which are used to treat high blood pressure
  Steroids, which are often used to treat autoimmune disease
  Certain diabetes medicines
- Eating habits. Obesity and overweight develop over time when you take in more calories than you use. So, your provider will want to know how much you eat and drink. What you eat and drink matters, too. Too much saturated fat and sugar can cause weight gain.
- Physical activity. A lack of physical activity is linked with weight gain. Your provider will want to know how much exercise you get and how much time you spend sitting.
- Sleep habits. Not getting enough sleep or poor-quality sleep can make you more likely to overeat. That's because sleep affects hormones that control hunger.
- Stress levels. Stress can affect your brain and trigger changes in your hormones that make you eat more and store more fat.
- Family history. You're more likely to become obese if close family members have obesity. You may have inherited genes that affect weight. The eating and exercise habits of the people around you can affect your habits and weight, too.
If an obesity screening shows that you have obesity or are overweight, your provider will work with you to develop a treatment plan. The goal of the plan is to reduce your risk of health problems linked to extra body fat.
Your plan will depend on how much weight you need to lose and the cause of your weight gain. Most plans are likely to include lifestyle changes, such as:
- Eating a healthier, lower calorie diet
- Getting more exercise
- Getting enough good-quality sleep
Depending on your BMI and health, you provider may also suggest:
- Support from a dietary or nutritional counselor
- A behavioral weight-loss treatment program
- Prescription weight-loss medicines combined with lifestyle changes
- Weight loss surgery or devices, such as balloons, that are put in the stomach to help you lose weight
If you have questions about obesity screening or treatments to lower your BMI, talk with your provider.
1. Obesity Screening: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jul 05, 2023]

Body Mass Index

Body Mass Index

Also called: BMI, Quetelet Index

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. It is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. The higher your BMI, the higher your risk for certain diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing problems, and certain cancers.

Body Mass Index

Also called: BMI, Quetelet Index

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. It is used to screen for weight categories that may lead to health problems. The higher your BMI, the higher your risk for certain diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing problems, and certain cancers.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
kg/(m<sup>2</sup>)
18.5
25
30
35
40
Your result is Healthy.
A BMI of 18 - 25 indicates that you are at a healthy weight for your height. By maintaining a healthy weight, you lower your risk of developing serious health problems.
Related conditions

BMI is calculated the same way for both adults and children. The calculation is based on the following formulas:

Measurement Units

Formula and Calculation

Kilograms and meters (or centimeters)

Formula: weight (kg) / [height (m)]²

With the metric system, the formula for BMI is weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Because height is commonly measured in centimeters, divide height in centimeters by 100 to obtain height in meters.

Example: Weight = 68 kg, Height = 165 cm (1.65 m)
Calculation: 68 ÷ (1.65)² = 24.98

Pounds and inches

Formula: weight (lb) / [height (in)]² x 703

Calculate BMI by dividing weight in pounds (lbs) by height in inches (in) squared and multiplying by a conversion factor of 703.

Example: Weight = 150 lbs, Height = 5’5″ (65″)
Calculation: [150 ÷ (65)²] x 703 = 24.96

The correlation between the BMI and body fatness is fairly strong, but even if 2 people have the same BMI, their level of body fatness may differ.
In general,
- At the same BMI, women tend to have more body fat than men.
- At the same BMI, Blacks have less body fat than do Whites, and Asians have more body fat than do Whites
- At the same BMI, older people, on average, tend to have more body fat than younger adults.
- At the same BMI, athletes have less body fat than do non-athletes.
The accuracy of BMI as an indicator of body fatness also appears to be higher in persons with higher levels of BMI and body fatness. While, a person with a very high BMI (e.g., 35 kg/m²) is very likely to have high body fat, a relatively high BMI can be the results of either high body fat or high lean body mass (muscle and bone). A trained healthcare provider should perform appropriate health assessments in order to evaluate an individual’s health status and risks.
People who have obesity are at increased risk for many diseases and health conditions, including the following:
- All-causes of death (mortality)
- High blood pressure (Hypertension)
- High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (Dyslipidemia)
- Type 2 diabetes
- Coronary heart disease
- Stroke
- Gallbladder disease
- Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint)
- Sleep apnea and breathing problems
- Chronic inflammation and increased oxidative stress
- Some cancers (endometrial, breast, colon, kidney, gallbladder, and liver)
- Low quality of life
- Mental illness such as clinical depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders
- Body pain and difficulty with physical functioning

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Normal BMI for Kids

Body mass index (BMI) is one way of finding out if your child (age 2-19) is at a healthy weight. There is no universal normal range for kids as there is for adults. That's because the normal amount of body fat changes with age and height and also depends on whether the child is a boy or a girl.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body Mass Index

8 women with the same Body Mass Index rating (BMI - 30) but with different weight distribution and abdominal volume, so they have different Body Volume Index(BVI) ratings.

Image by Richard2902 at en.wikipedia

Body Mass Index

A woman's two bare feet standing on a bathroom scale with a glass-topped surface on a tile floor. Toenails are painted red. Image supports content advising readers to set goals regarding improvements to their health and well-being, including maintaining a healthy weight and nutritious diet, and getting adequate exercise

Image by Bill Branson, NIH

Body Mass Index

Image by BruceBlaus

Woman on scale

A woman's two bare feet standing on a bathroom scale with a glass-topped surface on a tile floor. Toenails are painted red. Image supports content advising readers to set goals regarding improvements to their health and well-being, including maintaining a healthy weight and nutritious diet, and getting adequate exercise

Image by TheVisualMD

Weight Loss | How To Calculate BMI | StreamingWell.com

Video by streamingwell/YouTube

Why BMI Is BS

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Obesity and its health risks are a growing problem in the United States. It is estimated that more than two-thirds of adults are either overweight (10 to 30 pounds heavier than recommended) or obese (more than 30 pounts heavier than recommended). The number of overweight and obese school-age children is also on the rise. This is especially alarming given what is known about how obesity increases the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease. A way to measure obesity is the BMI or body mass index, a measurement of weight categories based on height.

Image by TheVisualMD

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

Video by KidandParent/YouTube

Roux en-Y Gastric Bypass, with Introduction on Body Mass Index, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Calculate your own body mass index | Miscellaneous | Heatlh & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 1): An Epidemic for Every Body

Video by UCTVTips/YouTube

Our Supersized Kids

Video by KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Four body types to show classes of body mass index

Drawing of four body types to show classes of body mass index.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Breaking Down Under Pressure

When you’re obese (body mass index of over 30), you greatly raise your risk of developing OA, especially of the knee. Women who are overweight women have four times the risk and overweight men have five times the risk of developing knee OA as people of normal body weight.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body mass index chart

Graph of body mass index showing the various divisions.

Image by InvictaHOG/Wikimedia

Underweight - Body image rating scale for men and women.

Figure 1. Body image rating scale for men and women. Images 1 through 5 represent people who are underweight, images 6 through 9 represent people of normal weight, images 10 through 13 represent overweight people, and images 14 through18 represent obese people (11).

Image by CDC / Ettarh R et al.

Overweight Man Holding Beer Bottle

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral view of head and torso of overweight man with large belly holding beer bottle; the skeleton and internal organs are visible. Regular beer drinkers tend to be overweight or obese, due to the high number of calories alcohol contributes to their diet. A body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat calculated by dividing a person's body weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters, and is considered useful in determining health risks associated with being overweight or obese. A normal body mass index (BMI) is considered to be under 25, while overweight is under 30; anything greater than a value of 30 is considered to be obese. Overweight and obese individuals are at increased risk for many health conditions and diseases such as hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, sleep problems, gallbladder disease, sexual dysfunction, and some cancers.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

Traditionally, obesity has been defined as a weight at least 20% above ideal weight. More recent guidelines call for classifying obesity by using the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated based on your height and weight. However, BMI may classify as obese some people who aren't overweight but who are heavily muscled or big-boned. It also doesn't take into account the person's age. Waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) may be a better indication of disease risk, because they indicate if you have a lot of dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen. Some doctors feel it's possible to be classified as obese and still be physically fit.

Image by TheVisualMD

US Navy 110426-N-00332-114 Students measure the height and body weight of fourth and fifth grade students from Lindenwood Elementary School

NEWPORT NEWS, Va. (April 26, 2011) Logistics Specialist 1st Class Alhaji M. Kabba, a command fitness leader aboard the aircraft carrier USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), measures the height and body weight of a student from Lindenwood Elementary School. Sailors assigned to Theodore Roosevelt spent 10 weeks mentoring the students about the Navy's culture of fitness to prepare them for participation in the Navy Physical Fitness Assessment. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Released)

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Wikimedia

Normal BMI for Kids

TheVisualMD

Body Mass Index

Richard2902 at en.wikipedia

Body Mass Index

Bill Branson, NIH

Body Mass Index

BruceBlaus

Woman on scale

TheVisualMD

4:22

Weight Loss | How To Calculate BMI | StreamingWell.com

streamingwell/YouTube

3:02

Why BMI Is BS

Seeker/YouTube

Body Mass Index (BMI)

TheVisualMD

1:05

BMI Calculator For Women And Men & What is BMI ?

KidandParent/YouTube

3:55

Roux en-Y Gastric Bypass, with Introduction on Body Mass Index, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

7:21

Calculate your own body mass index | Miscellaneous | Heatlh & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

12:16

The Skinny on Obesity (Ep. 1): An Epidemic for Every Body

UCTVTips/YouTube

30:00

Our Supersized Kids

KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Four body types to show classes of body mass index

NIDDK Image Library

Breaking Down Under Pressure

TheVisualMD

Body mass index chart

InvictaHOG/Wikimedia

Underweight - Body image rating scale for men and women.

CDC / Ettarh R et al.

Overweight Man Holding Beer Bottle

TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

TheVisualMD

US Navy 110426-N-00332-114 Students measure the height and body weight of fourth and fifth grade students from Lindenwood Elementary School

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Cory C. Asato/Wikimedia

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Also called: Pediatric BMI, Pediatric Quetelet Index, BMI Percentile, BMI-for-age

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. For children and teens, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age. BMI-for-age is the measure that can be used continuously from age 2 to 20 years to screen for obesity, overweight, or underweight.

Body Mass Index in Children and Teens

Also called: Pediatric BMI, Pediatric Quetelet Index, BMI Percentile, BMI-for-age

Body mass index (BMI) is an estimate of body fat calculated from a person's height and weight. For children and teens, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age. BMI-for-age is the measure that can be used continuously from age 2 to 20 years to screen for obesity, overweight, or underweight.

{"label":"BMI-for-age reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"U","long":"Underweight","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"A BMI-for-age of less than the 5th percentile indicates that your child is underweight. You are recommended to ask your child's doctor or a dietician for advice.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"HW","long":"Healthy Weight","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":85},"text":"A BMI-for-age between the 5th percentile to less than the 85th percentile indicates that your child is at a healthy weight for the height.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"O","long":"Overweight","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":85,"max":95},"text":"A BMI-for-age between 85th to less than the 95th percentile indicates that your child is overweight. Your child may be advised to lose some weight for health reasons. You are recommended to talk to your child's doctor or a dietician for advice.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"O","long":"Obesity","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":95,"max":100},"text":"A BMI-for-age equal to or greater than the 95th percentile indicates that your child is heavily overweight. Your child's health may be at risk if she doesn't lose weight. You are recommended to talk to your child's doctor or a dietician for advice.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"{percentile}","code":"{percentile}","name":"percentile"}],"value":45}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{percentile}
5
85
95
Your result is Healthy Weight.
A BMI-for-age between the 5th percentile to less than the 85th percentile indicates that your child is at a healthy weight for the height.
Related conditions

After BMI is calculated for children and teens, it is expressed as a percentile obtained from either a graph or a percentile calculator linked below. These percentiles express a child’s BMI relative to US children who participated in national surveys from 1963-65 to 1988-94. Weight and height change during growth and development, as does their relation to body fatness. Consequently, a child’s BMI must be interpreted relative to other children of the same sex and age.

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States. BMI-for-age weight status categories and the corresponding percentiles were based on expert committee recommendations and are shown in the following table.

BMI-for-age weight status categories and the corresponding percentiles
Weight Status Category	Percentile Range
Underweight	Less than the 5^th percentile
Healthy Weight	5^th percentile to less than the 85^th percentile
Overweight	85^th to less than the 95^th percentile
Obesity	Equal to or greater than the 95^th percentile

The following is an example of how sample BMI numbers would be interpreted for a 10-year-old boy.

The CDC BMI-for-age growth charts are available at: CDC Growth Charts: United States.

Obesity during childhood can harm the body in a variety of ways. Children who have obesity are more likely to have:
- High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
- Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
- Breathing problems, such as asthma and sleep apnea.
- Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.
- Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).
Childhood obesity is also related to:
- Psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.
- Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life.
- Social problems such as bullying and stigma.
1. [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
2. Childhood Obesity Causes & Consequences | Overweight & Obesity | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (14)

Overweight, Underweight, Just Right

One tool that may be used in evaluating body composition for children and teens (age 2-19) is the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated differently for children and teens than for adults because, in children, the normal amount of body fat changes with age and also differs between girls and boys. (Adult BMI calculators don’t take into account age or sex.) There is no universal normal range as there is with BMI for adults. provides BMI and the corresponding BMI-for-age percentile on a BMI-for-age growth chart. It’s important to remember that BMI is not a diagnostic tool. It only indicates the possible presence of a weight problem. If your child’s BMI number is in the unhealthy range, he or she should be taken to a healthcare professional. Further assessments may then be done, such as plotting weight and height on a growth chart, measuring skinfold thickness with a caliper, evaluating physical activity and eating habits, and looking at family history.

Image by TheVisualMD

BMI-for-age – Boys Growth Chart

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States.

Document by CDC

BMI-for-age – Girls Growth Chart

The BMI-for-age percentile growth charts are the most commonly used indicator to measure the size and growth patterns of children and teens in the United States.

Document by CDC

Our Supersized Kids

Video by KSPS Public TV/YouTube

Why BMI Is BS

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

Image by TheVisualMD

Obesity Prevention Begins in Childhood

Obesity in children has risen dramatically worldwide. Worldwide, an estimated 1 in 10 children is overweight, a total of 155 million. Of those children, 30-45 million are obese. By 2010, nearly half of the children in North and South America and about 38% of the children in the European Union will be overweight. Photo of Child: Copyright 2007, Emer & Sam

Image by TheVisualMD

A Global Epidemic

Childhood obesity is an epidemic around the globe. In the US, an estimated 17% of children and adolescents ages 2-19 are obese. In the last three decades, the percentage of obese children doubled in children ages 2-5 and tripled in children and adolescents ages 6-19. Up to 80% of obese youth become obese adults, who are at high risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease—the leading cause of death in North America. In the European Union, about 30% of all children are overweight, and over 5 million of them are obese. Some 300,000 children in the EU become obese each year. But obesity is no longer a problem that affects only children in the developed world. The easy availability of cheap, high-calorie, low-nutrition food, along with less-active lifestyles, have made childhood obesity a major health issue in countries all over the world, including China, Brazil, Thailand, South Africa, and many others. Globally, about 10% of all children ages 5-17 are overweight, and 2-3% in that age group are obese, according to the International Obesity Task Force. Obese kids are more likely to be depressed and have low self-esteem, sleep apnea, insulin resistance, and even type 2 diabetes. If your child has a weight problem, you have reason to be concerned. But there are many ways you can help. With your support, your child can get healthy—and stay healthy.

Image by TheVisualMD

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome?

Side view of an overweight (195 lbs) 16-year old boy's stomach.

Image by OctoMocto

Consequences of Childhood Obesity

Consequences of Childhood Obesity : Even though overweight kids tend to have denser bones, they have more bone fractures than nonoverweight children. This may be because being overweight interferes with balance and also because overweight children fall with greater force.

Image by TheVisualMD

Adding to the Burden

Even though overweight kids tend to have denser bones, they have more bone fractures than nonoverweight children. This may be because being overweight interferes with balance and also because overweight children fall with greater force.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obesity and Related Health Problems

Obesity and Related Health Problems : Overweight and obese children are more likely to have gastrointestinal (digestive) disorders, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, constipation, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and gallstones.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fit Food

You want your child to be fit and healthy for a whole lifetime. That’s why it’s so important for you to start helping him or her to develop healthy eating habits now. Changing habits is easier when you’re young. What’s more, tackling overweight early on can prevent many or all of the devastating medical effects of obesity.

Image by TheVisualMD

Child nutrition

child nutrition - Picnic time

Image by dhanelle

Overweight, Underweight, Just Right

TheVisualMD

BMI-for-age – Boys Growth Chart

CDC

BMI-for-age – Girls Growth Chart

CDC

30:00

Our Supersized Kids

KSPS Public TV/YouTube

3:02

Why BMI Is BS

Seeker/YouTube

Overweight/Obese Adult, teenager and child with visible inner anatomy

TheVisualMD

Obesity Prevention Begins in Childhood

TheVisualMD

A Global Epidemic

TheVisualMD

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome?

OctoMocto

Consequences of Childhood Obesity

TheVisualMD

Adding to the Burden

TheVisualMD

Obesity and Related Health Problems

TheVisualMD

Fit Food

TheVisualMD

Child nutrition

dhanelle

Waist Circumference Test

Waist Circumference Test

Also called: Waist Size

Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks that come with overweight and obesity. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, you’re at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Waist Circumference Test

Also called: Waist Size

Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks that come with overweight and obesity. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, you’re at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

{"label":"Waist circumference reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Healthy","long":"Healthy","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":37},"text":"Your waist measurement is in the healthy range. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"High risk","long":"High risk","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":37,"max":40},"text":"Your waist measurement means that your weight could be affecting your health, and you\u2019re at higher risk of developing heart and circulatory diseases, and conditions such as type\u202f2 diabetes. Keeping to a healthy weight and carrying less fat around your middle will help to keep your heart healthy. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Very high risk","long":"Very high risk","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":70},"text":"Your waist measurement means you\u2019re at high risk of developing heart and circulatory diseases, and conditions such as type\u202f2 diabetes. It\u2019s important that you take steps to lose weight. Making simple changes to your lifestyle can help.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"in","code":"[in_i]","name":"inch"}],"value":23.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
in
37
40
Your result is Healthy.
Your waist measurement is in the healthy range.
Related conditions
Another way to estimate your potential disease risk is to measure your waist circumference. Excessive abdominal fat may be serious because it places you at greater risk for developing obesity-related conditions, such as Type 2 Diabetes, high blood pressure, and coronary artery disease. Your waistline may be telling you that you have a higher risk of developing obesity-related conditions if you are:
- A man whose waist circumference is more than 40 inches
- A non-pregnant woman whose waist circumference is more than 35 inches
Waist circumference can be used as a screening tool but is not diagnostic of the body fatness or health of an individual. A trained healthcare provider should perform appropriate health assessments in order to evaluate an individual’s health status and risks.
To correctly measure waist circumference:
- Stand and place a tape measure around your middle, just above your hipbones
- Make sure tape is horizontal around the waist
- Keep the tape snug around the waist, but not compressing the skin
- Measure your waist just after you breathe out
1. Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
2. Assessing Your Weight | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
3. Healthy Weight | CDC [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]
4. Measuring your waist - Heart Matters | BHF [accessed on Feb 05, 2022]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

Waist Circumference, Male

TheVisualMD

0:32

How do you measure your waist?

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Also called: WHR

Waist-to-hip ratio is a measurement that compares the size of your hips to the size of your waist. It is an important tool to help determine the overall health risk. People with more weight around their waist are at greater risk of lifestyle-related diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, than those with weight around their hips.

Waist-To-Hip Ratio

Also called: WHR

Waist-to-hip ratio is a measurement that compares the size of your hips to the size of your waist. It is an important tool to help determine the overall health risk. People with more weight around their waist are at greater risk of lifestyle-related diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, than those with weight around their hips.

{"label":"Waist-To-Hip Ratio Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{ratio}","code":"{ratio}","name":"ratio"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Optimal","long":"Optimal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.5,"max":0.8},"text":"A value in this range has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. It also indicates a \"pear-shaped\" body type.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Average","long":"Average","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.8,"max":0.85},"text":"A value in this range is considered moderate risk. It also indicates an \"avocado-shaped\" body type.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"At risk","long":"At risk","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.85,"max":1.6},"text":"A value in this range is considered \"at risk\" for undesirable health consequences, such as heart disease and ailments associated with overweight. It also indicates an \"apple-shaped\" body type.","conditions":["Heart disease","Diabetes"]}],"value":0.65}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
{ratio}
0.8
0.85
Your result is Optimal.
A value in this range has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. It also indicates a "pear-shaped" body type.
Related conditions
Limitations of the waist-to-hip ratio measurement:
- More prone to measurement error because it requires two measurements
- More difficult to measure the hip than the waist
- More complex to interpret, since increased waist-to-hip ratio can be caused by increased abdominal fat or by decreased lean muscle around the hips
- Turning the measurements into a ratio leads to a loss of information: two people with very different BMIs could have the same waist-to-hip ratio
- May be difficult to measure and less accurate in individuals with a BMI of 35 or higher
Strenghts of the waist-to-hip ratio measurement:
- Good correlation with body fat as measured by the most accurate methods
- Inexpensive
- Studies show waist-to-hip ratio predicts development of disease and death in adults
1. National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Am I at a Healthy Weight? [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
2. TheVisualMD & Alexander Tsiaras. TheVisualMD Diet A Scientific Approach to Weight Loss & Vitality. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
3. Medical News Today. Why is the hip-waist ratio important? [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
4. Waist circumference and waist–hip ratio Report of a WHO expert consultation, Geneva, 8-11 December 2008. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
5. Apples & pears : the body shape solution for weight loss and wellness / Marie Savard, with Carol Svec. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]
6. Health Jade. Waist Hip Ratio. [accessed on Nov 20, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (13)

Waist-Hip Ratio

Image illustrating the measurement of the parameters of waist-hip ratio.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from original works by SuicideGirls and FatM1ke

Waist-Hip Ratio

Image illustrating the measurement of the parameters of waist-hip ratio.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

Traditionally, obesity has been defined as a weight at least 20% above ideal weight. More recent guidelines call for classifying obesity by using the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated based on your height and weight. However, BMI may classify as obese some people who aren't overweight but who are heavily muscled or big-boned. It also doesn't take into account the person's age. Waist-to-hip ratios (WHR) may be a better indication of disease risk, because they indicate if you have a lot of dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen. Some doctors feel it's possible to be classified as obese and still be physically fit.

Image by TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

Image by TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

Image by TheVisualMD

Coronal section of a lean body

A coronal section of a woman's lean body, with visible muscle tissue, visceral and subcutaneous fat, and some bones and organs. Image supports content showing the positive effects on health that result from good decision-making and habit-forming practices.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Dr. Mark Liponis on waist-to-hip ratios

Your WHR divides the circumference of your waist by that of your hips. It is a good indication of how much abdominal fat you have. Having a large belly is a sign that you have too much dangerous visceral fat inside your abdomen.

Video by TheVisualMD

How do you measure your waist?

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

What Body Shape You Are Says A Lot About Your Weight

Video by Tech Insider/YouTube

The ACAP Recap: Waist Circumference

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

Tri HDL

Video by ACAP Health/YouTube

Understanding your weight

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

How to measure your waist

Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Waist-Hip Ratio

Mikael Haggstrom, from original works by SuicideGirls and FatM1ke

Waist-Hip Ratio

TheVisualMD

Obese Woman, cross section

TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

TheVisualMD

Taking Your Measure

TheVisualMD

Coronal section of a lean body

TheVisualMD

1:03

Dr. Mark Liponis on waist-to-hip ratios

TheVisualMD

0:32

How do you measure your waist?

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

2:30

What Body Shape You Are Says A Lot About Your Weight

Tech Insider/YouTube

2:33

The ACAP Recap: Waist Circumference

ACAP Health/YouTube

2:17

Tri HDL

ACAP Health/YouTube

2:31

Understanding your weight

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

0:42

How to measure your waist

Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Cortisol Test

Cortisol Test

Also called: Cortisol Levels

A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva. Cortisol is a hormone that helps your body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

Cortisol Test

Also called: Cortisol Levels

A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva. Cortisol is a hormone that helps your body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.

{"label":"Cortisol (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"Low levels of cortisol may mean Addison disease or secondary adrenal insufficiency.","conditions":["Addison disease","Adrenal insufficiency","Autoimmune disease","HIV\/AIDS","Traumatic brain injury","Tuberculosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":25},"text":"Normally, the body produces the right amount of cortisol to keep it healthy. Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":40},"text":"High levels of cortisol may be a sign of Cushing syndrome or another medical condition. Cortisol levels can also be affected by stress, pregnancy, exercise, or temperature changes.","conditions":["Cushing syndrome","Liver disease","Kidney disease","Depression","Hyperthyroidism","Use of steroid medicines","Pituitary tumor","Adrenal gland tumor","Pregnancy","Use of birth control pills","Recent surgery"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/dL","code":"ug\/dL","name":"microgram per deciliter"}],"value":15}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/dL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
Normally, the body produces the right amount of cortisol to keep it healthy. Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and fight infections.
Related conditions
{"label":"Cortisol (urine) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"If your urine cortisol levels are low, you may have Addison disease.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":55},"text":"Normal values for cortisol in a urine test are 10 to 55 micrograms per day (24 hours).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":55,"max":120},"text":"If your urine test reveals abnormally high levels of cortisol, you may be diagnosed with Cushing syndrome.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/h","code":"ug\/(24.h)","name":"microgram per 24 hour"}],"value":32.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/h
10
55
Your result is Normal.
Normal values for cortisol in a urine test are 10 to 55 micrograms per day (24 hours).
Related conditions
A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva to see if your levels are normal. Cortisol is a hormone that affects almost every organ and tissue in your body. It helps your body:
- Respond to stress (cortisol is sometimes called the "stress hormone")
- Reduce inflammation
- Regulate blood sugar and metabolism (how your body uses food for energy)
- Control blood pressure
Cortisol is made by your adrenal glands, two small glands that sit above the kidneys. A gland in your brain, called the pituitary gland, makes a hormone that tells your adrenal glands how much cortisol to make. If your cortisol levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a disorder of your adrenal glands, a problem with your pituitary gland, or a tumor that makes cortisol.
High levels of cortisol may also happen if you take large doses of certain steroid medicines, such as prednisone, for a long time. And low levels may happen if you stop the medicine suddenly.
Without treatment, cortisol levels that are too high or too low can be very serious.
Other names: urinary cortisol, salivary cortisol, free cortisol, blood cortisol, plasma cortisol
A cortisol test is used to help diagnose medical conditions that cause too much or too little cortisol. These conditions include disorders that affect the adrenal glands:
- Cushing's syndrome is a disorder that happens when your body has too much cortisol over a long period of time.
- Addison disease is a condition in which your adrenal glands are damaged and can't make enough cortisol.
- Secondary adrenal insufficiency is a condition in which your adrenal glands don't make enough cortisol because your pituitary gland isn't working properly.
Cortisol testing is also used to monitor treatment for these conditions.
You may need a cortisol test if you have symptoms of a condition that affects cortisol levels.
- Symptoms of Cushing's syndrome (too much cortisol) may include:
  Weight gain
  Thin arms and legs
  Round face
  Increased fat around the base of the neck or between the shoulder blades
  Easy bruising
  Wide purple streaks on the stomach, breasts, hips, and under the arms
  Muscle weakness
- Common symptoms of Addison disease and adrenal insufficiency (not enough cortisol) may include:
  Long-lasting fatigue
  Muscle weakness
  Loss of appetite
  Weight loss
  Abdominal (belly) pain
A cortisol test often uses a sample of blood drawn at a lab. But the test may also be done on urine or saliva collected at home. Normally, cortisol levels vary during the day, so your provider may order more than one type of test to get more information about your cortisol levels.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Blood samples are usually taken twice during the day--once in the morning when cortisol levels are at their highest, and again around 4 p.m., when levels are much lower.
For a cortisol urine test, your provider may ask you to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a "24-hour urine sample test." For this test, you'll be given a special container and instructions for how to collect and store your urine sample. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test usually includes the following steps:
- To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
- For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
- Store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice during the collection period.
- 24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
- Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
In certain cases, a urine test for cortisol may be done on one sample of urine collected in the morning.
A cortisol saliva test is usually done at home with a kit to collect a saliva sample. Your provider will tell you what time to collect your sample. It's often done at night before you go to bed when cortisol levels are normally lower.
Most kits include a swab and a container to store it. Be careful to follow the instructions that come with your kit. They usually include these general steps:
- Do not eat, drink, brush, or floss your teeth for 30 minutes before the test.
- Wash and dry your hands.
- Open the tube that holds the swab and let the swab fall into your mouth without touching it with your hands.
- Roll the swab in your mouth or hold it under your tongue for about 2 minutes until it is soaked with saliva.
- Spit the swab back into the tube without touching it and close the tube.
- Label the tube with the time you collected the sample.
- Take your saliva sample to your doctor's office or the lab the next day as instructed.
A cortisol test alone can't diagnose the cause of abnormal cortisol levels. If your cortisol level isn't normal, you will usually have more tests to find out what is causing the problem.
High levels of cortisol may be a sign that you have Cushing's syndrome. It may be caused by:
- Taking high doses of certain steroid medicines for a long time to treat conditions, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus
- Tumors in your pituitary gland or other parts of your body that make too much of the hormone that tells your adrenal glands to make cortisol
- Tumors in your adrenal glands that make extra cortisol
Low levels of cortisol may mean you have Addison disease or secondary adrenal insufficiency:
- Common causes of Addison's disease include damage to the adrenal glands from conditions, such as:
  Autoimmune diseases
  Certain infections, such as tuberculosis (TB) and HIV/AIDS
- Common causes of secondary adrenal insufficiency include:
  Autoimmune diseases
  Problems with the pituitary gland
  Traumatic brain injury
The most common cause of low cortisol levels is suddenly stopping steroid medicines after using them for a long time.
If your cortisol results aren't normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Cortisol levels can be affected by:
- Stress
- Pregnancy
- Exercise
- Serious illness
- Hot and cold temperatures
- Certain thyroid diseases
- Obesity
- Certain medicines, such as birth control pills
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your health care provider.
1. Cortisol Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
2. Cortisol (Urine) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
3. Cortisol in Blood Test | HealthLink BC [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]
4. Cortisol in Urine Test | HealthLink BC [accessed on Mar 08, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (10)

High Cortisol Levels, What Female Symptoms Indicate This?

Video by EmpowHER/YouTube

Endocrinology - Adrenal Gland Hormones

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Pharmacology - Glucocorticoids

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

How High Cortisol Impacts Physiology (and fat loss)

Video by FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

The Complexities of Cortisol

Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease) - an Osmosis preview

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Human Physiology - Cortisol Feedback and Function

Video by Janux/YouTube

Cortisol

The hippocampus is rich in receptors for cortisol. So cortisol is very active in the hippocampus. But sustained high levels of cortisol cause damage to neurons. Cortisol disrupts cellular metabolism of hippocampal neurons and increases the vulnerability of neurons to a variety of insults.5,6 In addition, when cortisol is elevated chronically, there is a reduction in neurogenesis.7 In a nutshell, the damage from cortisol in the hippocampus has been suggested to be an example of sacrificing long-term function (i.e., memory function) for the sake of short-term survival.8

Image by TheVisualMD

Cortisol

Cortisol is a hormone critical to many biological functions, including glucose metabolism, blood pressure, immunity, and thyroid regulation. The steroid hormone is produced by the adrenal glands and its release controlled by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which is produced by the pituitary. Excess cortisol in the system is marked by a group of signs and symptoms known collectively as Cushing syndrome. Cortisol deficiency may be caused by dysfunction of the pituitary, known as secondary adrenal insufficiency; or by dysfunction of the adrenal glands, known as primary adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

0:56

High Cortisol Levels, What Female Symptoms Indicate This?

EmpowHER/YouTube

10:43

Endocrinology - Adrenal Gland Hormones

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

9:10

Pharmacology - Glucocorticoids

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

6:07

How High Cortisol Impacts Physiology (and fat loss)

FatIsNotYourFault/YouTube

2:41

The Complexities of Cortisol

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

4:16

How stress affects your brain - Madhumita Murgia

TED-Ed/YouTube

0:52

Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease) - an Osmosis preview

Osmosis/YouTube

12:26

Human Physiology - Cortisol Feedback and Function

Janux/YouTube

Cortisol

TheVisualMD

Cortisol

TheVisualMD

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Test

Also called: TSH, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Thyrotropin

The test measures the amount of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in a sample of your blood. TSH is made in the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid hormone. If your TSH levels are too high or too low, it can indicate a thyroid disorder.

{"label":"TSH reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.45},"text":"A low TSH level usually indicates that the thyroid is producing too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism). Occasionally, a low TSH may result from an abnormality in the pituitary gland, which prevents it from making enough TSH to stimulate the thyroid (central hypothyroidism).","conditions":["Hyperthyroidism","Chronic thyroiditis","Hashimoto's Disease","Graves' disease","Toxic nodular goiter","Multinodular goiter","Damage to the pituitary gland","Insufficient anti-thyroid medication","Too much iodine in the body"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.45,"max":4.5},"text":"The pituitary gland releases TSH into the blood to stimulate the thyroid to make more thyroid hormone. The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of thyroid hormone in the body. In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":10},"text":"A high TSH level indicates that the thyroid gland is not making enough thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism).","conditions":["Hypothyroidism","Grave's Disease","Pituitary gland tumor",""]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(mi.U.)\/mL","code":"m[IU]\/mL","name":"milli international unit per milliliter"}],"value":2.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(mi.U.)/mL
0.45
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The pituitary gland releases TSH into the blood to stimulate the thyroid to make more thyroid hormone. The amount of TSH that the pituitary sends into the bloodstream depends on the amount of thyroid hormone in the body. In most healthy individuals, a normal TSH value means that the thyroid is functioning properly.
Related conditions
You may need a TSH test if you have symptoms of too much or too little thyroid hormone in your blood.
Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone) is also called overactive thyroid. Having more thyroid hormones than you need speeds up your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Weight loss, even though you may be eating more than usual
- Rapid or irregular heartbeat
- Feeling nervous or irritable
- Trouble sleeping, fatigue
- Shaky hands, muscle weakness
- Sweating or being very sensitive to heat
- Frequent bowel movements (pooping a lot)
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid)
Hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone) is also called underactive thyroid. Not having enough thyroid hormone slows down your body functions and causes symptoms that include:
- Fatigue
- Weight gain
- Being very sensitive to cold
- Joint and muscle pain
- Dry skin
- Dry, thinning hair
- Heavy or irregular menstrual periods
- Depression
- Constipation
You may also have a TSH test, along with other tests, to help diagnose unusual bumps or lumps on your thyroid that may be thyroid cancer or thyroid nodules (growths on your thyroid that aren't cancer).
Your TSH test results can tell you if your thyroid is making too much or too little thyroid. But the test can't explain why your TSH levels may be too high or too low.
If your test results aren't normal, your provider will probably order other thyroid blood tests to find out what's causing your thyroid problem. These blood tests may include:
- T4 thyroid hormone test
- T3 thyroid hormone test
- Thyroid antibodies test to help diagnose an autoimmune thyroid disorder, such as:
  Graves' disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism
  Hashimoto's disease, that the most common cause of hypothyroidism
In certain cases, an abnormal TSH result may be a sign of a pituitary gland problem, but this doesn't happen often.
1. 004259: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
2. TSH test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
3. TSH [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
4. 004593: Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) in Pregnancy | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (28)

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which play key roles in regulating many aspects of metabolism, the rate at which the cells use energy and carry out chemical processes. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid and the hormones it produces, for example, are under control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), which is produced by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

Image by CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid contains spherical follicles that absorb iodine ions from the blood for use in the production of T4 and T3. Iodine deficiency, rare in the U.S., affects two billion people worldwide and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the skull, between the optic nerves. It is often referred to as the endocrine system's \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other glands. The pituitary, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when. The pituitary governs testosterone and estrogen production, as well as ovulation and breast milk production; it also helps regulate growth, blood pressure, maintain proper fluid balance, and other aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Image by MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

The time scale starts with the (LMP), given as day number. Day number 1 corresponds to 0 to 0.99 days from LMP, and Day number 2 corresponds to 1.00 to 1.99 days from LMP and so forth. The time scale ends at whatever is the actual next menstruation, which marks the beginning of the next cycle, which is equivalent to starting all over again from the beginning of the time scale.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Diagram of typical immunoassay home pregnancy test which detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (A) A urine sample is applied to the stick. If pregnant, this should contain hCG. (B) As the sample is absorbed into the stick it goes through free dye-labeled antibodies that recognize and stick to hCG. (C) An anchored set of antibodies stick to and capture hCG molecules (and the attached dye-labeled antibodies), creating the first line. In the "not pregnant" sample no hCG is attached to the dye-labeled antibodies, so they wash past this point and no line appears. (D) A second anchored set of antibodies captures the dye-labeled antibodies, providing a positive control to indicate that the test is working properly.

Image by Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Proptosis and Lid Retraction from Graves Disease : Photograph showing a classic finding of Graves' Disease, proptosis and lid retraction.

Image by Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Graves' disease symptoms

Image by Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the orbits, showing congestion of the retro-orbital space and enlargement of the extraocular muscles (arrows), consistent with the diagnosis of Graves' Ophthalmopathy.

Image by Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam`s apple. Hormones produced by the thyroid gland have an enormous impact on many aspects of metabolism.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

A Classic Negative Feedback Loop

Image by OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck. The gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid is under the control of a hormone called thyroid-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary gland; the pituitary gland, in turn, takes its orders from the hypothalamus. Thyroid problems usually fall into one of two categories: hypothroidism, when the gland produces too little hormone; or hyperthroidism, when the gland produces too much.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland, which is often referred to as the \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces hormones that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. Hyperthyroidism (when too much hormone is produced) is often caused by an autoimmune disorder called Graves' disease, in which antibodies produced by the immune system over-stimulate the thyroid. The production of thyroid hormones is under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. A goiter is any visible enlargement of the thyroid gland. In the past, goiters were often due to a lack of iodine in the diet (iodized salt has greatly reduced such goiters). Goiters can be present in cases of either hormone overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism).

Image by TheVisualMD

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

What Is High FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

What is FSH?

Video by fertilityauthority/YouTube

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Video by Janux/YouTube

What is Graves Disease?

Video by TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

Graves' Disease Education

Video by Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Male Sex Hormones

Video by Academic Algonquin/YouTube

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

A normal thyroid cell (Nthy.ori 3-1) adhered to gold surface. Picture taken by a Scanning electron microscope (SEM), University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.

Image by ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

5 different scintigramms taken from thyroids with different syndroms: A) normal thyroid, B) Graves disease, diffuse increased uptake in both thyroid lobes, C) Plummers disease (TMNG, toxic multinodular goitre), D) Toxic adenoma, E) Thyroiditis. Marker 99Tc

Image by Petros Perros

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Importance of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Gland

CFCF

Follicular Cell of Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Woman with visible Brain revealing Pituitary Gland

TheVisualMD

Follicle-stimulating hormone

MartaFF

Follicle-stimulating hormone

Mikael Haggstrom

hCG testing for pregnancy

Madprime

The classic finding of exophthalmos and lid retraction in Graves' disease

Jonathan Trobe, M.D. - University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center

What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?

Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia

What is Graves' ophthalmopathy?

Huy A Tran and Glenn EM Reeves

Thyroid Gland

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

OpenStax College

Woman's neck region with visible thyroid

TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Thyroid

TheVisualMD

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

TheVisualMD

Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism

TheVisualMD

3:15

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle, Animation.

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

1:16

What Is High FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

2:46

What is FSH?

fertilityauthority/YouTube

3:38

Human Physiology - Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

Janux/YouTube

2:25

What is Graves Disease?

TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube

9:07

Graves' Disease Education

Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube

10:15

Reproductive System, Part 1 - Female Reproductive System: Crash Course A&P #40

CrashCourse/YouTube

2:30

Male Sex Hormones

Academic Algonquin/YouTube

1:55

Thyroid gland - What's the function of the thyroid?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Normal Thyroid cell

ChronakiDimitra

Thyroid scintigraphy

Petros Perros

Leptin Test

Leptin Test

Also called: LEP

The leptin test measures the levels of leptin in blood. Leptin is a hormone that regulates body weight. It is primarily secreted by fat tissue cells and controls appetite and energy level by signaling the hypothalamus in the brain. This test is used to evaluate body fat metabolism.

Leptin Test

Also called: LEP

The leptin test measures the levels of leptin in blood. Leptin is a hormone that regulates body weight. It is primarily secreted by fat tissue cells and controls appetite and energy level by signaling the hypothalamus in the brain. This test is used to evaluate body fat metabolism.

{"label":"Leptin Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"ng\/mL","code":"ng\/mL","name":"nanogram per milliliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4.7},"text":"Your leptin levels are low. Talk to your doctor to know what this result means in your case. Further testing may be necessary. ","conditions":["Obesity","Metabolic syndrome","Hypothalamic amenorrhea"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.7,"max":23.7},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":23.7,"max":30},"text":"Your leptin levels are high. Talk to your doctor to know what this result means in your case. Further testing may be necessary. ","conditions":["Pregnancy","Anorexia nervosa",""]}],"value":14.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
ng/mL
4.7
23.7
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your doctor may recommend this test if you experience any of the following:
- Obesity
- A sudden change in weight
- Infertility problems
- Delayed puberty
1. Leptin Blood Test [accessed on Sep 28, 2018]
2. 146712: Leptin, Serum or Plasma | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 28, 2018]
3. Leptin (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
4. Leptin (90367) [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Are Your Hormones Influencing Your Weight? | Earth Lab

Video by BBC Earth Lab/YouTube

thin-outside-fat-inside

Fat-Fat "Fat on the Outside Thin on the Inside" (FOTI) image. shows 2 subjects the first fat fit with reduced amount of internal fat compared with an obese control.

Image by ImagingFat

Visceral Fat _ What Causes a Beer Belly Medical Course (VIDEO)

Fatty tissue in the region of the ABDOMEN. It includes the ABDOMINAL SUBCUTANEOUS FAT and the INTRA-ABDOMINAL FAT.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Overweight man standing

In times of starvation or during a weight-loss regimen, body protein is used to provide energy. Because our bodies do not store protein, functional body proteins such as enzymes and muscle proteins must be broken down to yield amino acids, which can then be used as fuel or to make glucose. Once protein are broken down into amino acids, they can be used as fuel, to make glucose, or to make fatty acids. Excess fatty acids can be stored as triglycerides in the body, thus contributing to weight gain. In a manner of speaking, the body does not want to convert protein to fat. The nutrient is far better suited to the construction and repair of tissues. But when your diet delivers more amino acids than your body needs - a common case among Americans - the excess is stored as glycogen or triglyceride fat. Fat is stored for the purpose of stockpiling energy but, in a sedentary lifestyle, we gain weight because those stockpiles are never called upon. When an oversized hunk of protein (say, 12oz steak instead of a proper 3oz portion) is consumed, insulin arrives in the blood to clear all the excess amino acid. In the presence of insulin, anything you eat is more likely to be converted to body fat.

Image by TheVisualMD

Dietary fat

Facing the Fats : It`s hard to imagine a time when fats were not controversial and did not strike fear in the hearts of dieters. Just the mention of fat-loaded words like butter and bacon can trigger powerful reactions! And yet it has only been in the past 50 years or so that our relationship with fats has become such a problem. Of the three primary macronutrients, fat provides the most energy (measured in calories) by weight. Fats have many other important jobs. Fats are a crucial source of raw materials. Dietary fat is a fundamental building block and our bodies use it in a variety of ways. We use fats to build hormones and neurotransmitters. Fats also aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and play key roles in regulating inflammation, chemical signaling and the metabolism of other nutrients.

Image by TheVisualMD

How Much Fat? Low Fat, Light & Fat Free

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

Visceral fat is found deep inside your abdomen, surrounding your vital organs. It's different from subcutaneous fat, the kind that's just under your skin. Too much visceral fat physically crowds your organs and your diaphragm. This can restrict your organs' blood supply and make it difficult for you to breathe deeply. Visceral fat secretes dangerous hormones and inflammatory chemicals. The blood that circulates through visceral fat goes directly into your liver through the portal vein. That means the substances your visceral fat produces all pour directly into your liver and into your bloodstream. Scientists think this may have important, and damaging, consequences, such as creating systemic inflammation. For many years, adipose (fat) tissue was thought to be a mostly dormant substance with a mainly passive function: storage. But now researchers have found that adipose tissue is, in fact, highly active. Adipose tissue has a metabolic function and acts as an endocrine organ-that is, it produces hormones and secretes them into your bloodstream, through which they travel to affect the function of organs all over your body. In fact, fat tissue produces literally dozens of hormones, including leptin, which controls appetite, and adiponectin, which affects insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels. Because adipose tissue is now known to be so biologically active, researchers think that it could well play an important role in cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and other diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

thin-outside-fat-inside

Coronal Image of a TOFI (thin-outside-fat-inside) and a Normal Control _ MRI Images showing different content of internal fat in two men of a similar size. Coronal Image of a TOFI and a Normal Control _ MRI Images showing different content of internal fat in two men of a similar size.

Image by ImagingFat

The Science of Appetite; Beating Overeating

Want to lose weight but can't stop eating? There's a reason for that. Find out how you can beat the desire to overeat and bring yourself one step closer to being your healthy self!

Image by TheVisualMD

Atherosclerosis Progression in Artery 2 of 4

Atherosclerosis begins when cholesterol, a waxy, fat-like substance, and other molecules in the blood stick to the inner lining of the arteries. High blood cholesterol levels, together with the presence of inflammatory cells, can cause this buildup to continue over a period of years and develop into hard deposits known as plaque.

Image by TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Female

Visceral fat lies deep within the abdomen, surrounding the abdominal organs. It is illustrated well in this female abdomenal cross section as the comparison of fat (highlighted in green) to organs can be seen to be fairly dramatic. Excessive visceral fat appears when an individual consumes more fat than the body can metabolize, forcing it to store the fat around body organs. Visceral fat can easily accumulate around the heart, rendering it less efficient, leading to a multitiude of cardiovascular issues. Having too much of this type of fat has also been linked to diabetes and other health problems. Having more visceral fat than necessary can also add weight to the skeleton, leading to bone and joint problems.

Image by TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Male

Visceral fat lies deep within the abdomen, surrounding the abdominal organs. It is illustrated well in male abdomenal cross section as the comparison of fat (highlighted in green) to organs can be seen to be fairly dramatic. Excessive visceral fat appears when an individual consumes more fat than the body can metabolize, forcing it to store the fat around body organs. Visceral fat can easily accumulate around the heart, rendering it less efficient, leading to a multitiude of cardiovascular issues. Having too much of this type of fat has also been linked to diabetes and other health problems. Having more visceral fat than necessary can also add weight to the skeleton, leading to bone and joint problems.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

This image shows capillaries in fat tissue with a cross section showing red blood cells, pink particles representing blood glucose and purple particles representing insulin. Normally, fat and muscle cells utilize glucose (pink) avoiding glucose build-up in the bloodstream.

Image by TheVisualMD

Body Fat Distribution in Male

Male figure revealing common fat distribution sites.. Men store more fat chiefly in the abdomen, which becomes especially apparent with age.

Image by TheVisualMD

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

Triglycerides are a large and varied category of fats found in both plants and animals. Because fats and blood, like oil and water, do not mix, triglycerides (as well as cholesterol) circulate through the body in special parcels called lipoproteins, which are fat-and-protein packages that enable fats to move freely within the bloodstream. Proteins and other components make up the outer shell; fats, in the form of triglycerides and cholesterol, are packed together inside.

Image by TheVisualMD

C-reactive Protein, Fat cells

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. Researchers have found, however, that fat cells also seem to trigger the production of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is why individuals who are overweight or obese tend to have chronically higher levels of CRP.

Image by TheVisualMD

A Downward Spiral

Poor sleep and sleep deprivation can increase your appetite. Sleep apnea causes imbalances in the levels of two hormones that are associated with feelings of hunger and satiety: leptin and ghrelin. Leptin, which is produced by fat cells, is an appetite suppressant. When leptin is present at high levels, it normally produces a feeling of satiety—the feeling that you are full and have eaten enough. Ghrelin, which is produced by your stomach and pancreas, is leptin’s counterpart and has the reverse function: it’s an appetite stimulant. Levels of ghrelin increase before a meal and decrease afterwards.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sleep deprivation - How Much Sleep Do We Need?

A Downward Spiral : Poor sleep and sleep deprivation can increase your appetite. Sleep apnea causes imbalances in the levels of two hormones that are associated with feelings of hunger and satiety: leptin and ghrelin. Leptin is an appetite suppressant. Ghrelin is an appetite stimulant. Disrupted sleep causes your levels of ghrelin to rise, stimulating your appetite. It also causes levels of leptin, the appetite suppressant, to decrease. OSA can raise your insulin and glucose (blood sugar) levels and damage your ability to process glucose-in some cases to the level of diabetics. Sleep apnea appears to be a risk factor for insulin resistance, a precursor to diabetes, and people with moderate-to-severe sleep apnea may have twice the risk of developing insulin resistance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leptin

Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone, meaning it comes from cells specialized for the storage of fat. The more body fat a person has, the more leptin in the bloodstream. The hormone is essential for regulating body weight and is understood to play a role in appetite, energy production, and metabolism. Since its discovery in 1994, academic and clinical interest in leptin has accelerated with the prevalence of obesity.

Image by TheVisualMD

Adipose tissue

Our Fat Helps Keep us Fat : Body fat is not dead weight. Adipose tissue secretes hormones, including leptin, an appetite-control hormone, and adiponectin, which has an anti-inflammatory effect on blood vessels. When we are overweight, our fat tissue lowers blood levels of adiponectin, which increases the risk of heart disease and decreases glucose sensitivity.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Power of Cravings

Your senses conspire to make you desire things you know will do you harm. Why?

Image by TheVisualMD

Sleep Fights Weight Gain

Your appetite control hormones and metabolism are thrown off balance when you don't get enough sleep.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section : Visceral fat is found deep inside your abdomen, surrounding your vital organs. It's different from subcutaneous fat, the kind that's just under your skin. Too much visceral fat physically crowds your organs and your diaphragm. This can restrict your organs' blood supply and make it difficult for you to breathe deeply. Visceral fat secretes dangerous hormones and inflammatory chemicals. The blood that circulates through visceral fat goes directly into your liver through the portal vein. That means the substances your visceral fat produces all pour directly into your liver and into your bloodstream. Scientists think this may have important, and damaging, consequences, such as creating systemic inflammation. For many years, adipose (fat) tissue was thought to be a mostly dormant substance with a mainly passive function: storage. But now researchers have found that adipose tissue is, in fact, highly active. Adipose tissue has a metabolic function and acts as an endocrine organ-that is, it produces hormones and secretes them into your bloodstream, through which they travel to affect the function of organs all over your body. In fact, fat tissue produces literally dozens of hormones, including leptin, which controls appetite, and adiponectin, which affects insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels. Because adipose tissue is now known to be so biologically active, researchers think that it could well play an important role in cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and other diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leptin and ghrelin

Leptin and ghrelin are known as the "hunger hormones". Leptin is a hormone, made by fat cells, that decreases your appetite. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite, and also plays a role in body weight.

Image by Injurymap.com

3:56

Are Your Hormones Influencing Your Weight? | Earth Lab

BBC Earth Lab/YouTube

thin-outside-fat-inside

ImagingFat

Visceral Fat _ What Causes a Beer Belly Medical Course (VIDEO)

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Overweight man standing

TheVisualMD

Dietary fat

TheVisualMD

How Much Fat? Low Fat, Light & Fat Free

TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

TheVisualMD

thin-outside-fat-inside

ImagingFat

The Science of Appetite; Beating Overeating

TheVisualMD

Atherosclerosis Progression in Artery 2 of 4

TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Female

TheVisualMD

Visceral Fat, Male

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary in Fat Tissue

TheVisualMD

Body Fat Distribution in Male

TheVisualMD

Excess fat cells growing on top of the muscle tissue

TheVisualMD

C-reactive Protein, Fat cells

TheVisualMD

A Downward Spiral

TheVisualMD

Sleep deprivation - How Much Sleep Do We Need?

TheVisualMD

Leptin

TheVisualMD

Adipose tissue

TheVisualMD

The Power of Cravings

TheVisualMD

Sleep Fights Weight Gain

TheVisualMD

Obese Figure with Organs and Visceral Fat, cross section

TheVisualMD

Leptin and ghrelin

Injurymap.com

FTO Genetic Test

FTO Genetic Test

Also called: Fat mass and obesity-associated gene, FTO gene mutations

The fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene is called the “fat gene” because it has been significantly associated with a higher risk of being overweight or obese. This gene causes people to eat more and feel less satisfied than an average person. This test evaluates a sample of the person's blood or saliva to look for mutations (changes) in the FTO gene.

FTO Genetic Test

Also called: Fat mass and obesity-associated gene, FTO gene mutations

The fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene is called the “fat gene” because it has been significantly associated with a higher risk of being overweight or obese. This gene causes people to eat more and feel less satisfied than an average person. This test evaluates a sample of the person's blood or saliva to look for mutations (changes) in the FTO gene.

{"label":"FTO Genetic Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative result means no FTO gene mutations were found. You have the same obesity risk as everyone else. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"One copy ","long":"One copy ","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"People who have one abnormal copy of the FTO gene have an approximately 1.3-fold increased risk of obesity.","conditions":["Overweight","Obesity"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Two copies","long":"Two copies","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"People who have two abnormal copies of the FTO gene have an approximately 1.7-fold increased risk of obesity.","conditions":["Overweight","Obesity"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0},{"positive":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means no FTO gene mutations were found. You have the same obesity risk as everyone else.
Related conditions
1. Genetics Home Reference. FTO gene. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
2. Fawcett KA, Barroso I. The genetics of obesity: FTO leads the way. Trends in Genetics. 2010;26(6):266-274. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2010.02.006. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
3. Frayling TM, Timpson NJ, Weedon MN, et al. A Common Variant in the FTO Gene Is Associated with Body Mass Index and Predisposes to Childhood and Adult Obesity. Science (New York, NY). 2007;316(5826):889-894. doi:10.1126/science.1141634. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
4. Medscape. Obesity, FTO, and Type 2 Diabetes: Overview, Function of FTO, Clinical Implications and Genetic Testing. Author: Ali Torkamani, PhD; Chief Editor: Keith K Vaux, MD. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
5. https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=FTO [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
6. Peng S, Zhu Y, Xu F, Ren X, Li X, Lai M. FTO gene polymorphisms and obesity risk: a meta-analysis. BMC Medicine. 2011;9:71. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-71. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
7. Yi-Cheng Chang, Pi-Hua Liu, Wei-Jei Lee, Tien-Jyun Chang, Yi-Der Jiang, Hung-YuanLi, Shan-Shan Kuo, Kuang-Chin Lee, Lee-Ming Chuang. Common Variation in the Fat Mass and Obesity-Associated (FTO) Gene Confers Risk of Obesity and Modulates BMI in the Chinese Population. Diabetes Aug 2008, 57 (8) 2245-2252; DOI: 10.2337/db08-0377. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
8. Lima RPA, Hayashi DN, Lima KQDF, Gomes NIG, Ribeiro MR, et al. (2017) The Role of Epigenetics in the Etiology of Obesity: A Review. J Clin Epigenet. 3:41 doi: 10.21767/2472-1158.100075 [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
9. Loos RJF, Yeo GSH. The bigger picture of FTO – the first GWAS-identified obesity gene. Nature reviews Endocrinology. 2014;10(1):51-61. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2013.227. [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
10. Weight Loss Genetics – FTO variants – Genetic Lifehacks [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
11. FTO - SNPedia [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Body Fat Percentage Test

Body Fat Percentage Test

Also called: BFP, Percent Body Fat, PBF

Body fat percentage is a measurement of the fat contained in a person’s body according to that same person’s total body composition. This percentage correlates more accurately with the risk of having certain chronic diseases.

Body Fat Percentage Test

Also called: BFP, Percent Body Fat, PBF

Body fat percentage is a measurement of the fat contained in a person’s body according to that same person’s total body composition. This percentage correlates more accurately with the risk of having certain chronic diseases.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
6
14
18
26
29
Your result is Lean.
Related conditions
Several methods are available for determining the percentage of fat in your body, such as:
- Measurement of skin folds in different body areas with instruments known as calipers (the most common and easy method).
- Measuring the circumference of certain parts of your body with a flexible measuring tape.
- Hydrostatic weighing, which is a technique where you are submerged under water and weighted.
- Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), which is a technique where X-rays are used to estimate your body fat percentage.
- Whole-body air displacement plethysmography, which is a technique where a special air-chamber is used to calculate your body density.
- 3-D body scan, in which a device is used to generate a 3-D model of your body.
- Other methods in which electrodes are used to pass electricity through your body tissues and then calculate your body fat percentage. This includes techniques such as electrical impedance myography, bioelectrical impedance analysis, and bioimpedance spectroscopy.
The percentage of body fat in a person varies according to their sex and age. As a general rule, body fat percentage can be divided as follows:
- For women:
  Having 40% or more body fat is considered to be obesity.
  From 32% to 40% is considered to be overweight.
  From 25% to 31% is considered to be acceptable.
  From 21% to 24% is considered to be lean.
  From 14% to 20% is considered to be athletic.
  10% to 12% is considered to be essential fat (minimum amount of fat that is necessary for the body to perform its basic functions).
- For men:
  Having 29% or more body fat is considered to be obesity.
  From 26% to 29% is considered to be overweight.
  From 18% to 25% is considered to be acceptable.
  From 14% to 17% is considered to be lean.
  From 6% to 13% is considered to be athletic.
  2% to 4%: is considered to be essential fat (minimum amount of fat that is necessary for the body to perform its basic functions).

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (2)

5:11

What is obesity? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

1:16

Being Overweight vs. Being Obese | Obesity

Howcast/YouTube

Does Losing Weight Decrease the Risk?

Break the Cycle and Peel the Layers of Fat Off 1

1

2

3

Break the Cycle and Peel the Layers of Fat Off

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Does Losing Weight Lower the Risk of Cancer?

Most of the data about whether losing weight reduces cancer risk comes from cohort and case–control studies. Observational studies of obesity and cancer risk should be interpreted with caution because they cannot definitively establish that obesity causes cancer and people who lose weight may differ in other ways from people who do not.

Some of these studies have found decreased risks of breast, endometrial, colon, and prostate cancers among people with obesity who had lost weight. For example, in one large prospective study of postmenopausal women, intentional loss of more than 5% of body weight was associated with lower risk of obesity-related cancers, especially endometrial cancer. However, unintentional weight loss was not associated with cancer risk in this study.

A follow-up study of weight and breast cancer in the Women’s Health Initiative found that, for women who were already overweight or obese at the beginning of the study, weight change (either gain or loss) was not associated with breast cancer risk during follow-up. However, in a study that pooled data from 10 cohorts, sustained weight loss was associated with lower breast cancer risk among women 50 years and older.

To better understand the relationship between weight loss among people with obesity and cancer risk, some researchers are examining cancer risk in people with obesity who have undergone bariatric surgery (surgery performed on the stomach or intestines to provide maximum and sustained weight loss). Studies have found that bariatric surgery among people with obesity, particularly women, is associated with reduced risks of cancer overall; of hormone-related cancers, such as breast, endometrial, and prostate cancers; and of obesity-related cancers, such as postmenopausal breast cancer, endometrial cancer, and colon cancer.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (6)

1:35

Weight Control - The Simple Truth About Weight Loss and Gain

Rehealthify/YouTube

2:32

Scientific Weight Loss Tips

AsapSCIENCE/YouTube

4:33

How Does Exercise Impact Weight Loss?

Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube

5:59

A Journey: Restoring Health through Bariatric Surgery | Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube

3:17

How to Pick the Right Bariatric Surgery | Obesity

Howcast/YouTube

4:58

Bariatric Surgery Offers Teen Hope for a Healthy Adulthood

Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago/YouTube

How Does Obesity Affect Survivorship?

Cancer Survivor

Image by Mike E. Perez from Dallas, Texas, USA

How Does Obesity Affect Cancer Survivors?

Most of the evidence about obesity in cancer survivors comes from people who were diagnosed with breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer. Research indicates that obesity may worsen several aspects of cancer survivorship, including quality of life, cancer recurrence, cancer progression, prognosis (survival), and risk of certain second primary cancers.

For example, obesity is associated with increased risks of treatment-related lymphedema in breast cancer survivors and of incontinence in prostate cancer survivors treated with radical prostatectomy. In a large clinical trial of patients with stage II and stage III rectal cancer, those with a higher baseline BMI (particularly men) had an increased risk of local recurrence. Death from multiple myeloma is 50% more likely for people with the highest levels of obesity compared with people at healthy weight.

Is weight loss after a cancer diagnosis beneficial for people with overweight or obesity?

Most studies of this question have focused on breast cancer. Several randomized clinical trials in breast cancer survivors have reported weight loss interventions that resulted in both weight loss and beneficial changes in biomarkers that have been linked to the association between obesity and prognosis.

However, there is little evidence about whether weight loss reduces the risk of breast cancer recurrence or death. The NCI-sponsored Breast Cancer WEight Loss (BWEL) Study, an ongoing randomized phase III trial, is examining whether participating in a weight loss program after breast cancer diagnosis affects invasive disease-free survival and recurrence in overweight and obese women.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Additional Materials (4)

3:20

Survivorship care: a cancer survivor's perspective | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube

5:17

Cancer Survivorship: Beginning from Diagnosis Through Treatment and Beyond

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

3:44

How Cancer Survivorship Has Changed | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube

9:03

Cancer Survivorship – An Introduction

Cancer.Net/YouTube

Caring for Cancer Survivors

Women in talk therapy session

Image by NIMH Image Library

Caring for Cancer Survivors: Obesity and Wellness

Why is it important to reduce obesity-related health risks?

Obesity, poor nutrition, and physical inactivity contribute to about 40% of cancer cases in the United States and can negatively affect cancer treatment and survival. Survivors with comorbid illnesses, including mental health concerns, may experience diminished quality of life and ability to make healthy behavior changes.

Survivors who keep a healthy weight and stay physically active can have—

Better response to treatment and survival outcomes.
Better mental and physical quality of life.
Lower risk for having cancer recur or developing a new cancer.
Lower risk for developing a comorbid illness such as diabetes or heart disease.

Health care providers can help survivors improve wellness.

Talk with survivors about the role of risk behaviors in disease prevention and survivorship, such as smoking, alcohol misuse, and insufficient sleep.
Counsel survivors on nutrition and physical activity recommendations.
Help survivors get to and maintain a healthy weight by encouraging energy balance through increased physical activity, improved diet quality (such as fruits and vegetables), and limited intake of sugar-sweetened foods and beverages.
Identify and address long-term and late effects of cancer and its treatment on survivors’ physical and psychosocial well-being as part of recommended distress screening, when indicated.
Provide coordinated care, behavioral counseling interventions, and referrals to behavioral counseling services, when indicated.
Ensure that weight management, tobacco cessation, and behavioral counseling services are outlined as part of a survivorship care plan, when indicated.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (2)

9:29

Cancer Survivorship Care | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube

4:27

The Emotional Impact of Cancer Survivorship

Swedish/YouTube

What Research Is Being Done?

How Obesity Could Lead To Cancer

Image by Cancer Research UK uploader/Wikimedia

What Research Is Being Done on Obesity and Cancer?

Many studies are exploring mechanisms that link obesity and cancer. One research area involves understanding the role of the microbes that live in the human gastrointestinal tract (collectively called the gut microbiota, or microbiome) in both type 2 diabetes and obesity. Both diseases are associated with dysbiosis, an imbalance in the community of these microbes. For example, the gut microbiomes of people with obesity differ from and are less diverse than those of people of healthy weight. Imbalances in the gut microbiota are associated with inflammation, altered metabolism, and genotoxicity, which may in turn be related to cancer.

Researchers are also studying how obesity alters the tumor microenvironment, which may play a role in cancer progression. For example, studies in mouse models show that obesity (induced by feeding mice a high-fat diet) creates a competition for lipids between tumor cells and T cells that makes the T cells less effective at fighting the cancer.

Another area of investigation is the role of insulin receptor signaling in cancer. Many cancer cells express elevated levels of IR-A, a form of the insulin receptor that has a high affinity for insulin and related growth factors. Researchers are investigating how these factors contribute to metabolic disease and cancer and whether they may be useful targets for therapeutic interventions to prevent obesity-related cancers.

Investigators are also exploring whether the associations of obesity with cancer risk and outcomes vary by race or ethnicity. Also, researchers are investigating whether different cutoffs for overweight and obesity should be used for different racial/ethnic groups. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested the alternate thresholds of 23.0 and 27.5 kg/m² for overweight and obesity for people of Asian ancestry.

The NCI Cohort Consortium is an extramural–intramural partnership that combines more than 50 prospective cohort studies from around the world with more than seven million participants. The studies are gathering information on body mass index, waist circumference, and other measures of adiposity from each cohort. The large size of the consortium will allow researchers to get a better sense of how obesity-related factors relate to less common cancers, such as cancers of the thyroid, gallbladder, head and neck, and kidney.

Another area of study is focused on developing more precise and effective interventions to prevent weight gain and weight regain after weight loss. This area of research includes two NIH-based initiatives—the Accumulating Data to Optimally Predict Obesity Treatment (ADOPT) Core Measures and the Trans-NIH Consortium of Randomized Controlled Trials of Lifestyle Weight Loss Interventions—both of which aim to identify predictors of successful weight loss and maintenance and to incorporate information on genetic, psychosocial, behavioral, biological, and environmental factors into predictive profiles to enable more precise and, ultimately, more effective weight loss interventions.

NCI supports research on obesity and cancer risk through a variety of activities, including large cooperative initiatives, web and data resources, epidemiologic and basic science studies, and dissemination and implementation resources. For example, the Transdisciplinary Research on Energetics and Cancer (TREC) initiative supports ongoing training workshops for postdocs and early career investigators to enhance the ability to produce innovative and impactful transdisciplinary research in energetics and cancer and clinical care. The Trans-NCI Obesity and Cancer Working Group promotes the exchange of information and cross-cutting interests in obesity and cancer research within NCI by identifying and sharing state-of-the-science knowledge about obesity and cancer to document what is known and what is needed to move the science forward.

Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)

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