Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes (white blood cells), which are part of the body’s immune system. These cancers can be divided into aggressive (fast-growing) and indolent (slow-growing) types, and they can be formed from either B-cells or T-cells. Learn about the different types, risk factors, and treatment options.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the kidneys on both sides
Image by Hellerhoff
About
Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
Image by Steven Fruitsmaak
Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma
Primary central nervous system B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma : Brain MRI showing primary central nervous system B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the sella turcica and hypothalamus, continuing to the tectum.
Image by Steven Fruitsmaak
What Is Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a type of cancer that forms in the lymph system. The lymph system is part of the immune system. It helps protect the body from infection and disease.
The lymph system is made up of the following:
Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph vessels and carries lymphocytes (white blood cells). There are three types of lymphocytes:
B lymphocytes that make antibodies to help fight infection. Also called B cells. Most types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma begin in B lymphocytes.
T lymphocytes that help B lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection. Also called T cells.
Natural killer cells that attack cancer cells and viruses. Also called NK cells.
Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are found along a network of lymph vessels throughout the body. Groups of lymph nodes are found in the neck, underarm, mediastinum, abdomen, pelvis, and groin.
Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, stores red blood cells and lymphocytes, filters the blood, and destroys old blood cells. The spleen is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
Thymus: An organ in which T lymphocytes mature and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. There is one tonsil on each side of the throat.
Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the hip bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone marrow.
Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart.
Lymph tissue is also found in other parts of the body such as the lining of the digestive tract, bronchus, and skin. Cancer can spread to the liver and lungs.
There are two general types of lymphomas: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. This summary is about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma, including during pregnancy.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (31)
Adult Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
FDG-PET initial study solitary pulmonary nodule Non-Hodgkin lymphoma : A 71-year-old lady was incidentally found to have a coin lesion on a chest X-ray. Thoracic CT confirmed the presence of a 1.0 cm solitary pulmonary nodule. The initial FDG-PET study shown here (Philips Allegro system) reveals a small retrocardiac focus of increased FDG uptake within the left lower lobe nodule (thin arrow) suggestive of a malignant process. In addition, the study demonstrates abnormal increased activity at the gastro-oesophageal junction (thick arrow). The patient was found to have non-Hodgkin's lymphoma at both sites.
Image by Thomas EL, Lenzo NP, Troedson R
Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma - intermed mag
Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma - high mag
Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma - very high mag
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Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Nephron/Wikimedia
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - intermed mag
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - high mag
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Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Nephron
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a cancer of a part of the immune system called the lymph system.
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
Mantle cell lymphoma
Intermediate magnification micrograph of mantle cell lymphoma of the terminal ileum. Endoscopic biopsy. H&E stain.Histomorphologic features:
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma | Phillip Beron, MD - UCLA Health
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
CT of abdominal non-Hodgkin lymphoma
CT of abdominal non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Image by Subhaschandra Singh, Y. Sobita Devi, Shweta Bhalothia and Dr. Veeraraghavan Gunasekaran
Computed tomography of the throat in highly-malignant non-hodgkin lymphoma present as lymph node swelling in a child (transverse section with contrast).
Computed tomography of the throat in highly-malignant non-hodgkin lymphoma present as lymph node swelling in a child (transverse section with contrast).
Image by Christaras A
What is non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Video by UW Medicine/YouTube
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Video by Best Doctors/YouTube
What is low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
What You Need to Know about Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma: Presentation
Video by OMNIConnect/YouTube
Hodgkin’s Vs Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Relapse of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Active Monitoring (watch and wait) for low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma | Phillip Beron, MD - UCLA Health
UCLA Health/YouTube
CT of abdominal non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Subhaschandra Singh, Y. Sobita Devi, Shweta Bhalothia and Dr. Veeraraghavan Gunasekaran
Computed tomography of the throat in highly-malignant non-hodgkin lymphoma present as lymph node swelling in a child (transverse section with contrast).
Christaras A
2:59
What is non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
UW Medicine/YouTube
3:58
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Best Doctors/YouTube
10:55
What is low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
36:58
What You Need to Know about Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma: Presentation
OMNIConnect/YouTube
2:22
Hodgkin’s Vs Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
6:32
Relapse of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
4:54
Active Monitoring (watch and wait) for low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Non Hodgkin's lymphoma | Spot it Early | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
2:54
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Treatment Expectations
Best Doctors/YouTube
2:42
Mary Beth’s Story | Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Large B-Cell | Patient Testimonial
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
10:58
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma - What you need to know
Cancer GPS/YouTube
4:50
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) B-cell and T-cell | Aggressive and Indolent
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
1:22
Non-hodgkin lymphoma - an Osmosis Preview
Osmosis/YouTube
Types
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- low mag
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Marginal zone lymphoma
Interactive by Librepath/Wikimedia
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- low mag
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- intermed mag
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- high mag
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Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney - alt -- very high mag
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Marginal zone lymphoma
Extranodal lymphoma of lymphoid tissue associated with mucosa that is in contact with exogenous antigens. Many of the sites of these lymphomas, such as the stomach, salivary gland, and thyroid, are normally devoid of lymphoid tissue. They acquire mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) type as a result of an immunologically mediated disorder.
Interactive by Librepath/Wikimedia
What Are the Types of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can be indolent or aggressive.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma grows and spreads at different rates and can be indolent or aggressive. Indolent lymphoma tends to grow and spread slowly, and has few signs and symptoms. Aggressive lymphoma grows and spreads quickly, and has signs and symptoms that can be severe. The treatments for indolent and aggressive lymphoma are different.
This summary is about the following types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Indolent non-Hodgkin lymphomas
Follicular lymphoma. Follicular lymphoma is the most common type of indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is a very slow-growing type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that begins in B lymphocytes. It affects the lymph nodes and may spread to the bone marrow or spleen. Most patients with follicular lymphoma are age 50 years and older when they are diagnosed. Follicular lymphoma may go away without treatment. The patient is closely watched for signs or symptoms that the disease has come back. Treatment is needed if signs or symptoms occur after the cancer disappeared or after initial cancer treatment. Sometimes follicular lymphoma can become a more aggressive type of lymphoma, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma. In most cases of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, B lymphocytes that are turning into plasma cells make large amounts of a protein called monoclonal immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody. High levels of IgM antibody in the blood cause the blood plasma to thicken. This may cause signs or symptoms such as trouble seeing or hearing, heart problems, shortness of breath, headache, dizziness, and numbness or tingling of the hands and feet. Sometimes there are no signs or symptoms of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma. It may be found when a blood test is done for another reason. Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma often spreads to the bone marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen. Patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma should be checked for hepatitis C virus infection. It is also called Waldenström macroglobulinemia.
Marginal zone lymphoma. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma begins in B lymphocytes in a part of lymph tissue called the marginal zone. The prognosis may be worse for patients aged 70 years or older, those with stage III or stage IV disease, and those with high lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels. There are five different types of marginal zone lymphoma. They are grouped by the type of tissue where the lymphoma formed:
Nodal marginal zone lymphoma. Nodal marginal zone lymphoma forms in lymph nodes. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is rare. It is also called monocytoid B-cell lymphoma.
Gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. Gastric MALT lymphoma usually begins in the stomach. This type of marginal zone lymphoma forms in cells in the mucosa that help make antibodies. Patients with gastric MALT lymphoma may also have Helicobacter gastritis or an autoimmune disease, such as Hashimoto thyroiditis or Sjögren syndrome.
Extragastric MALT lymphoma. Extragastric MALT lymphoma begins outside of the stomach in almost every part of the body including other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, salivary glands, thyroid, lung, skin, and around the eye. This type of marginal zone lymphoma forms in cells in the mucosa that help make antibodies. Extragastric MALT lymphoma may come back many years after treatment.
Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma. This is a type of MALT lymphoma that occurs in young adults in eastern Mediterranean countries. It often forms in the abdomen and patients may also be infected with bacteria called Campylobacter jejuni. This type of lymphoma is also called immunoproliferative small intestinal disease.
Splenic marginal zone lymphoma. This type of marginal zone lymphoma begins in the spleen and may spread to the peripheral blood and bone marrow. The most common sign of this type of splenic marginal zone lymphoma is a spleen that is larger than normal.
Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is in the skin only. It can be a benign (not cancer) nodule that may go away on its own or it can spread to many places on the skin and need treatment.
Aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphomas
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It grows quickly in the lymph nodes and often the spleen, liver, bone marrow, or other organs are also affected. Signs and symptoms of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma may include fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss. These are also called B symptoms.
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a type of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. It is marked by the overgrowth of fibrous (scar-like) lymph tissue. A tumor most often forms behind the breastbone. It may press on the airways and cause coughing and trouble breathing. Most patients with primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma are women who are age 30 to 40 years.
Follicular large cell lymphoma, stage III. Follicular large cell lymphoma, stage III, is a very rare type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Treatment of this type of follicular lymphoma is more like treatment of aggressive NHL than of indolent NHL.
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma is a type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that usually begins in T lymphocytes. The cancer cells also have a marker called CD30 on the surface of the cell.
There are two types of anaplastic large cell lymphoma:
Cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma. This type of anaplastic large cell lymphoma mostly affects the skin, but other parts of the body may also be affected. Signs of cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma include one or more bumps or ulcers on the skin. This type of lymphoma is rare and indolent.
Systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma. This type of anaplastic large cell lymphoma begins in the lymph nodes and may affect other parts of the body. This type of lymphoma is more aggressive. Patients may have a lot of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) protein inside the lymphoma cells. These patients have a better prognosis than patients who do not have extra ALK protein. Systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma is more common in children than adults. For more information, see Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment.
Extranodal NK-/T-cell lymphoma. Extranodal NK-/T-cell lymphoma usually begins in the area around the nose. It may also affect the paranasal sinus (hollow spaces in the bones around the nose), roof of the mouth, trachea, skin, stomach, and intestines. Most cases of extranodal NK-/T-cell lymphoma have Epstein-Barr virus in the tumor cells. Sometimes hemophagocytic syndrome occurs (a serious condition in which there are too many active histiocytes and T cells that cause severe inflammation in the body). Treatment to suppress the immune system is needed. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is not common in the United States.
Lymphomatoid granulomatosis. Lymphomatoid granulomatosis mostly affects the lungs. It may also affect the paranasal sinuses (hollow spaces in the bones around the nose), skin, kidneys, and central nervous system. In lymphomatoid granulomatosis, cancer invades the blood vessels and kills tissue. Because the cancer may spread to the brain, intrathecal chemotherapy or radiation therapy to the brain is given.
Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma begins in T cells. Swollen lymph nodes are a common sign. Other signs may include a skin rash, fever, weight loss, or drenching night sweats. There may also be high levels of gamma globulin (antibodies) in the blood. Patients may also have opportunistic infections because their immune systems are weakened.
Peripheral T-cell lymphoma. Peripheral T-cell lymphoma begins in mature T lymphocytes. This type of T lymphocyte matures in the thymus gland and travels to other lymphatic sites in the body such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen. There are three subtypes of peripheral T-cell lymphoma:
Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma. This is an uncommon type of peripheral T-cell lymphoma that occurs mostly in young men. It begins in the liver and spleen and the cancer cells also have a T-cell receptor called gamma/delta on the surface of the cell.
Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma. Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma begins in the skin or mucosa. It may occur with hemophagocytic syndrome (a serious condition in which there are too many active histiocytes and T cells that cause severe inflammation in the body). Treatment to suppress the immune system is needed.
Enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma. This type of peripheral T-cell lymphoma occurs in the small bowel of patients with untreated celiac disease (an immune response to gluten that causes malnutrition). Patients who are diagnosed with celiac disease in childhood and stay on a gluten-free diet rarely develop enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma.
Intravascular large B-cell lymphoma. This type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma affects blood vessels, especially the small blood vessels in the brain, kidney, lung, and skin. Signs and symptoms of intravascular large B-cell lymphoma are caused by blocked blood vessels. It is also called intravascular lymphomatosis.
Burkitt lymphoma. Burkitt lymphoma is a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that grows and spreads very quickly. It may affect the jaw, bones of the face, bowel, kidneys, ovaries, or other organs. There are three main types of Burkitt lymphoma (endemic, sporadic, and immunodeficiency related). Endemic Burkitt lymphoma commonly occurs in Africa and is linked to the Epstein-Barr virus, and sporadic Burkitt lymphoma occurs throughout the world. Immunodeficiency-related Burkitt lymphoma is most often seen in patients who have AIDS. Burkitt lymphoma may spread to the brain and spinal cord and treatment to prevent its spread may be given. Burkitt lymphoma occurs most often in children and young adults. For more information, see Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Burkitt lymphoma is also called diffuse small noncleaved-cell lymphoma.
Lymphoblastic lymphoma. Lymphoblastic lymphoma may begin in T cells or B cells, but it usually begins in T cells. In this type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, there are too many lymphoblasts (immature white blood cells) in the lymph nodes and the thymus gland. These lymphoblasts may spread to other places in the body, such as the bone marrow, brain, and spinal cord. Lymphoblastic lymphoma is most common in teenagers and young adults. It is a lot like acute lymphoblastic leukemia (lymphoblasts are mostly found in the bone marrow and blood). For more information, see Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment.
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma is caused by the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). Signs include bone and skin lesions, high blood calcium levels, and lymph nodes, spleen, and liver that are larger than normal.
Mantle cell lymphoma. Mantle cell lymphoma is a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that usually occurs in middle-aged or older adults. It begins in the lymph nodes and spreads to the spleen, bone marrow, blood, and sometimes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Patients with mantle cell lymphoma have too much of a protein called cyclin-D1 or a certain gene change in the lymphoma cells. In some patients who do not have signs or symptoms of lymphoma, delaying the start of treatment does not affect the prognosis.
Posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder. This disease occurs in patients who have had a heart, lung, liver, kidney, or pancreas transplant and need lifelong immunosuppressive therapy. Most posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders affect the B cells and have Epstein-Barr virus in the cells. Lymphoproliferative disorders are often treated like cancer.
True histiocytic lymphoma. This is a rare, very aggressive type of lymphoma. It is not known whether it begins in B cells or T cells. It does not respond well to treatment with standard chemotherapy.
Primary effusion lymphoma. Primary effusion lymphoma begins in B cells that are found in an area where there is a large build-up of fluid, such as the areas between the lining of the lung and chest wall (pleural effusion), the sac around the heart and the heart (pericardial effusion), or in the abdominal cavity. There is usually no tumor that can be seen. This type of lymphoma often occurs in patients who are infected with HIV.
Plasmablastic lymphoma. Plasmablastic lymphoma is a type of large B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that is very aggressive. It is most often seen in patients with HIV infection.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (13)
Follicular lymphoma, CD10
Follicular lymphoma.
Image by User:Patho/Wikimedia
Distribution patterns of CD21 and CD23 in follicular lymphoma
Patterns of CD21 and CD23 expression by the follicular dendritic cells. Pattern 1 describes diffuse staining of follicular dendritic cells in the germinal center while pattern 2 demonstrates the peripheral staining in a “crescetic” fashion. Pattern 3 shows broken networks of the FDCs while the follicular outline is preserved. In pattern 4, the follicular outline is lost. Pattern 5 shows lack of stain and, in pattern 6, there is staining of follicular dendritic cell extensions around the individual mantle zone B cells.
Image by Fisnik Kurshumliu, Fatlinda Sadiku-Zehri, Ardita Qerimi, Zana Vela, Fisnik Jashari, Samir Bytyci, Vlore Rashiti and Shemsedin Sadiku/Wikimedia
Lymphoblastosis in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia
Lymphoblasts in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia
Image by Prof. Osaro Erhabor/Wikimedia
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney - alt -- very high mag
Micrograph of kidney with lymphoma (marginal zone B-cell lymphoma). H&E stain.
Related images
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Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- very high mag
Micrograph of kidney with lymphoma (marginal zone B-cell lymphoma). H&E stain.
Related images
MZL - low mag.
MZL - intermed. mag.
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Image by Librepath/Wikimedia
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- high mag
Micrograph of kidney with lymphoma (marginal zone B-cell lymphoma). H&E stain.
Related images
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Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- intermed mag
Micrograph of kidney with lymphoma (marginal zone B-cell lymphoma). H&E stain.
Related images
MZL - low mag.
MZL - intermed. mag.
MZL - high mag.
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Image by Librepath/Wikimedia
Marginal zone lymphoma - kidney -- low mag
Micrograph of kidney with lymphoma (marginal zone B-cell lymphoma). H&E stain.
Related images
MZL - low mag.
MZL - intermed. mag.
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Marginal Zone B-Cell lymphoma (MALToma) | Indolent B-Cell Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:10
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma: Everything You Need to Know
Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
13:46
Understanding Follicular Lymphoma with Sarah Rutherford, MD
Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
Risk Factors
Lymphoma - To Hodgkin’s or Non-Hodgkin’s
Image by StoryMD
Lymphoma - To Hodgkin’s or Non-Hodgkin’s
Lymphoma – a scary word that no one wants to hear because it’s a type of blood cancer. Lymphomas are unique because, unlike solid tumors, they are liquid cancers that circulate in the secret river within us, known as the lymphatic system. They develop in lymphocytes, a type of infection-fighting white blood cell that play a key role in the body’s immune system.
There are many different subtypes of lymphomas that are divided into two broad categories: Hodgkin’s lymphoma (a.k.a. Hodgkin’s disease) and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Although they have similar-sounding names, there are differences in risk factors, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment options.
For example, some people with breast implants may have a higher risk of developing a subtype of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. And some people with Hodgkin’s lymphoma may experience severe pain with lymph node swelling after consuming alcohol.
Understanding the differences between Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is critical in determining the risk factors, and how best to manage and treat patients with either disease.
Image by StoryMD
What Are the Risk Factors for Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Older age, being male, and having a weakened immune system can increase the risk of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk.
These and other risk factors may increase the risk of certain types of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Being older, male, or White.
Having one of the following medical conditions that weakens the immune system:
An inherited immune disorder (such as hypogammaglobulinemia or Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome).
An autoimmune disease (such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, or Sjögren syndrome).
HIV/AIDS.
Human T-lymphotrophic virus type I or Epstein-Barr virus infection.
Helicobacter pylori infection.
Taking immunosuppressant drugs after an organ transplant.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (8)
Whether Silicone or Saline, Breast implants May Cause Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Breast implants increase the risk of a rare subtype of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma called, breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma (BIA-ALCL).
Image by StoryMD/National Cancer Institute
H. Pylori Antibody
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped bacterium that is found in the mucous layer or the epithelial lining of the stomach. These bacteria decrease the stomach's ability to produce mucus, making its lining vulnerable to acid damage and ulcers. H. pylori causes more than 90% of ulcers of the duodenum and up to 80% of stomach ulcers. H. pylori is also associated with the development of stomach cancer. Antibiotic treatments can wipe out the infection in most patients.
Image by TheVisualMD
How Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Affects Your Body & Risk Factors to Know | Stanford
Video by Stanford Center for Health Education/YouTube
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Diseases associated with the Epstein-Barr Virus
Video by Oxford Academic (Oxford University Press)/YouTube
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Image by Analytical Imaging Facility at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.
Image by TheVisualMD
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
Image by AJC1
Whether Silicone or Saline, Breast implants May Cause Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
StoryMD/National Cancer Institute
H. Pylori Antibody
TheVisualMD
4:46
How Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Affects Your Body & Risk Factors to Know | Stanford
Stanford Center for Health Education/YouTube
3:56
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
7:53
Diseases associated with the Epstein-Barr Virus
Oxford Academic (Oxford University Press)/YouTube
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Analytical Imaging Facility at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
TheVisualMD
Helicobacter pylori bacteria
AJC1
Symptoms
Fatigued Male
Image by TheVisualMD
Fatigued Male
Anterior lateral view of left side of young male experiencing fatigue. Male is sitting, clothed, with head to knees showing. Too much potassium caused by the kidney's inability to balance may cause fatigue.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Signs and symptoms of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma include swollen lymph nodes, fever, drenching night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.
These signs and symptoms may be caused by adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:
Swelling in the lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, groin, or stomach.
Fever for no known reason.
Drenching night sweats.
Feeling very tired.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Skin rash or itchy skin.
Pain in the chest, abdomen, or bones for no known reason.
When fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss occur together, this group of symptoms is called B symptoms.
Other signs and symptoms of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may occur and depend on the following:
Where the cancer forms in the body.
The size of the tumor.
How fast the tumor grows.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (6)
Non Hodgkin's lymphoma | Spot it Early | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
What are the signs of lymphoma?
Video by Top Doctors UK/YouTube
Signs and symptoms of lymphoma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
The symptoms of lymphoma
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Warning Signs of Lymphoma
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
What is non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Video by UW Medicine/YouTube
2:36
Non Hodgkin's lymphoma | Spot it Early | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
1:13
What are the signs of lymphoma?
Top Doctors UK/YouTube
2:29
Signs and symptoms of lymphoma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
5:35
The symptoms of lymphoma
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
2:25
Warning Signs of Lymphoma
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
2:59
What is non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
UW Medicine/YouTube
Diagnosis
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 01
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 03
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 05
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 07
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 09
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 11
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 13
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 15
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 17
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 19
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 21
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 23
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 25
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 27
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 29
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PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Jmarchn/Wikimedia
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 01
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 03
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 05
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 07
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 09
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 11
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 13
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 15
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 17
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 19
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 21
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 23
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 25
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 27
PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Case 1. 29
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PET Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Jmarchn/Wikimedia
How Is Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Diagnosed?
Tests that examine the lymph system and other parts of the body are used to diagnose and stage adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health, including fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss, health habits, and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
The portion of the sample made up of red blood cells.
Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
LDH test: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amount of lactic dehydrogenase. An increased amount of LDH in the blood may be a sign of tissue damage, lymphoma, or other diseases.
Hepatitis B and hepatitis C test: A procedure in which a sample of blood is checked to measure the amounts of hepatitis B virus-specific antigens and/or antibodies and the amounts of hepatitis C virus-specific antibodies. These antigens or antibodies are called markers. Different markers or combinations of markers are used to determine whether a patient has a hepatitis B or C infection, has had a prior infection or vaccination, or is susceptible to infection. Patients who have been treated for hepatitis B virus in the past need continued monitoring to check if it has reactivated. Knowing whether a person has hepatitis B or C may help plan treatment.
HIV test: A test to measure the level of HIV antibodies in a sample of blood. Antibodies are made by the body when it is invaded by a foreign substance. A high level of HIV antibodies may mean the body has been infected with HIV.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and lymph nodes, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow and a small piece of bone by inserting a needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow and bone under a microscope to look for signs of cancer.Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the patient’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
Lymph node biopsy: The removal of all or part of a lymph node. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to check for cancer cells. One of the following types of biopsies may be done:
Excisional biopsy: The removal of an entire lymph node.
Incisional biopsy: The removal of part of a lymph node.
Core biopsy: The removal of part of a lymph node using a wide needle.
If cancer is found, the following tests may be done to study the cancer cells:
Immunohistochemistry: A laboratory test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens (markers) in a sample of a patient’s tissue. The antibodies are usually linked to an enzyme or a fluorescent dye. After the antibodies bind to a specific antigen in the tissue sample, the enzyme or dye is activated, and the antigen can then be seen under a microscope. This type of test is used to help diagnose cancer and to help tell one type of cancer from another type of cancer.
Cytogenetic analysis: A laboratory test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. Changes in certain chromosomes may be a sign of cancer. Cytogenetic analysis is used to help diagnose cancer, plan treatment, or find out how well treatment is working.
Immunophenotyping: A laboratory test that uses antibodies to identify cancer cells based on the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cells. This test is used to help diagnose specific types of lymphoma.
FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization): A laboratory test used to look at and count genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues. Pieces of DNA that contain fluorescent dyes are made in the laboratory and added to a sample of a patient’s cells or tissues. When these dyed pieces of DNA attach to certain genes or areas of chromosomes in the sample, they light up when viewed under a fluorescent microscope. The FISH test is used to help diagnose cancer and help plan treatment.
Other tests and procedures may be done depending on the signs and symptoms seen and where the cancer forms in the body.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (8)
Lymphoma (B-cell series)
Lymphoma (B-cell series) of the terminal ileum with circular, homogeneous thickening of the wall, widening of the lumen and strong FDG uptake in PET-CT.
Ultrasound of the throat in highly-malignant non-hodgkin lymphoma present as lymph node swelling in a child (transverse section with color-coded doppler flow imaging).
Image by Christaras A/Wikimedia
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma - Treatment
A Wright's stained bone marrow aspirate smear of patient with precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Image by VashiDonsk at English Wikipedia
Are biomarkers the future in Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Video by VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Diagnosing Lymphoma (Including Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) - Macmillan Cancer Support
Video by Macmillan Cancer Support/YouTube
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Are biomarkers the future in Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
4:20
Diagnosing Lymphoma (Including Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) - Macmillan Cancer Support
Macmillan Cancer Support/YouTube
3:58
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Best Doctors/YouTube
10:58
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma - What you need to know
Cancer GPS/YouTube
3:20
T Cell Lymphoma
XpertDox/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt1
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt2
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Video by Seeker+/YouTube
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
TheVisualMD
Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:11
Complete Blood Count
Tom Wade MD/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
Med Immersion/YouTube
22:14
Complete Blood Count pt2
Med Immersion/YouTube
0:06
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:07
Anemic Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
8:29
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
10:42
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(10<sup>6</sup>)/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
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Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{WBC}/uL
4500
11000
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel or fingertip with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a few drops of blood and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
A bacterial or viral infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
10³/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Normal.
A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Clotting is the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. There are two types of platelet tests: a platelet count test and platelet function tests.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. A higher than normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or too much clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
Nosebleeds
Unexplained bruising
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to the bone marrow
Cirrhosis
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Normal.
Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
1
2
3
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
This test measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in blood or other body fluids. LDH is an enzyme involved in energy production. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage or disease.
This test measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in blood or other body fluids. LDH is an enzyme involved in energy production. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage or disease.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
100
200
Your result is Normal.
Normal levels can vary depending on the person's age and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
A lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test usually measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in a sample of your blood. In certain cases, LDH levels are measured in samples of other body fluids. This includes testing fluid from the spine (cerebrospinal fluid), the belly (peritoneal fluid), and the chest (pleural fluid).
LDH is also called lactic acid dehydrogenase. It is an enzyme. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up certain chemical reactions in your body. LDH helps your cells make energy. It is found in almost all the tissues in your body. The largest amounts of LDH are found in your muscles, liver, kidneys, and red blood cells.
If disease or injury damages tissues that have LDH, their cells release the enzyme into your bloodstream or other body fluids. It's normal to have some LDH in your blood and body fluids. But if your LDH levels are high, it may be a sign of certain diseases or injuries.
An LDH test alone can't show what is damaging your tissues or where the damage is located. So, an LDH test is usually done with other types of tests that can help diagnose the problem.
Other names: LD test, lactic dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase
LDH is mainly used to check for tissue damage. Many types of acute (sudden) and chronic (long-lasting) conditions can damage tissues and cause high LDH levels. So LDH testing may be used in many different situations from bone and muscle injuries to monitoring treatment for cancer. For example, an LDH test may be used to:
Help diagnose and/or monitor diseases that affect the:
Blood, including anemia
Liver
Lungs
Kidneys
Heart, including heart attack
Pancreas
Brain and spinal cord, such as encephalitis and bacterial meningitis
Help monitor conditions that may get worse over time, such as muscular dystrophy and HIV
Help diagnose certain severe infections
Find out how serious certain types of cancer may be, including multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia, testicular cancer, and melanoma.
Check whether treatment for certain types of cancer is working
Because LDH testing is used for so many conditions, it's best to ask your health care provider why you need an LDH test. In general, the test is ordered if other tests and/or your symptoms suggest you have tissue damage or disease.
If you have a disease that affects LDH levels, you may need an LDH test to learn more about your condition and to find out if your treatment is helping.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
If your provider thinks you have a condition that may affect LDH levels in other body fluids, you may have a procedure to get a fluid sample. These procedures may include:
A lumbar puncture or "spinal tap" to collect cerebrospinal fluid that flows around your brain and spinal cord
A thoracentesis to remove fluid in the chest
A paracentesis or "abdominal tap" to remove fluid from the abdomen
If you are having one of these tests, your provider will explain the procedure.
You don't need any special preparations for an LDH blood test. If your test uses other fluid samples, your provider will tell you how to prepare.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly. If you are having another type of test, your provider will explain the risks.
LDH testing is used for many reasons. The meaning of your LDH test results depends on the reason you had the test, your symptoms, and the results of other tests you've had. So, ask your provider to explain what your results say about your health.
In general, LDH levels that are higher than normal usually mean you have some type of tissue damage. The damage is usually from disease, infection, or injury. Your provider may order more tests to diagnose your condition.
But higher a than normal LDH level doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. High levels can be caused by intense exercise and certain medicines, including aspirin. It's also possible to have a high LDH level if many red blood cells broke open when your sample was collected and tested.
Lower than normal LDH levels aren't common and usually aren't considered to be a health problem. Taking large amounts of vitamin C or vitamin E may cause low levels. Low LDH levels may also be caused by a rare genetic disorder called lactate dehydrogenase deficiency.
If your results showed higher than normal LDH levels, your provider may order a more specific type of LDH test that can help find out where the LDH is coming from. This more specific test is called an LDH isoenzyme test.
An LDH isoenzyme test measures the levels of five different forms of LDH. This information helps your provider find out about the type of tissue that's damaged, where in the body it may be, and how serious the damage may be.
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 28, 2024]
Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
LabCorp Test Menu / 001115: Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase (LD) [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
LD - Clinical: Lactate Dehydrogenase (LD), Serum [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) - Understand the Test & Your Results [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate dehydrogenase test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate Dehydrogenase Test: Types, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate dehydrogenase deficiency - Genetics Home Reference - NIH [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Complications after a heart attack (myocardial infarction) | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Preventing Stroke (Stroke #4)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Understanding Stroke (Stroke #1)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Stroke - Carotid Artery Disease and TIA
Video by EdwardHospital/YouTube
3D Medical Animation - What is a Heart Attack?
Video by BioDigital, Inc./YouTube
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : This image shows an Intracerebral and Intraventricular hemorrhage of a young woman. The woman was one week post partum, with no known trauma involved.
Image by Glitzy queen00
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : Spontaneous ICH with hydrocephalus on CT scan.
Image by Yadav YR, Mukerji G, Shenoy R, Basoor A, Jain G, Nelson A
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : An intracranial bleed with significant midline shift.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Ischemic Stroke
Ischemic Stroke: The illustration shows how an ischemic stroke can occur in the brain. If a blood clot breaks away from plaque buildup in a carotid (neck) artery, it can travel to and lodge in an artery in the brain. The clot can block blood flow to part of the brain, causing brain tissue death.
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Insitute (NIH)
What Is a Heart Attack?
Diagram showing a heart attack (mycardial infaction).
Image by NIH: National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist
Ischemic Stroke
ConstructionDealMkting
HIV Antibody Tests
HIV Antibody Tests
Also called: HIV-1/HIV-2 Testing
HIV antibody tests look for HIV antibodies in your blood, saliva (spit), or urine (pee). HIV antibodies are disease-fighting proteins that your immune system makes when you have an HIV infection. An antibody test can be used to screen for HIV or to differentiate between HIV-1 or HIV-2 infection.
HIV Antibody Tests
Also called: HIV-1/HIV-2 Testing
HIV antibody tests look for HIV antibodies in your blood, saliva (spit), or urine (pee). HIV antibodies are disease-fighting proteins that your immune system makes when you have an HIV infection. An antibody test can be used to screen for HIV or to differentiate between HIV-1 or HIV-2 infection.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative HIV antibody test means no antibodies were detected. A negative test can rule out an HIV infection. It may also mean that the immune system has not had time to produce antibodies — antibodies to HIV may take up to six months to develop after the initial exposure.
Related conditions
{"label":"HIV-1\/HIV-2 differentiation reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"NR","long":"Non-reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A non-reactive result means that the test is negative for both HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies, the 2 types of HIV known to infect humans. Additional testing may be recommended.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"H1R","long":"HIV-1 reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"An HIV-1 reactive result means that the sample is positive for HIV-1 antibodies. HIV-1 is the most common type of HIV \u2014 around 95% of people living with HIV have HIV-1.","conditions":["HIV-1 infection"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"H2R","long":"HIV-2 reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"An HIV-2 reactive result means that the sample is positive for HIV-2 antibodies. HIV-2 is mainly present in West Africa and it tends to develop more slowly than HIV-1.","conditions":["HIV-2 infection"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"HR","long":"HIV reactive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"An HIV reactive result means that the sample is positive, but undifferentiated. In this case, the sample may be tested by additional methods which allow for differentiation between HIV-1 and HIV-2.","conditions":["HIV infection"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0},{"positive":1},{"positive":2}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Non-reactive.
A non-reactive result means that the test is negative for both HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies, the 2 types of HIV known to infect humans. Additional testing may be recommended.
Related conditions
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) debilitates your immune system by harming your white blood cells (leukocytes), making you prone to catch any virus, bacteria, or fungi, including those that usually don’t make people sick.
If left untreated, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is the final stage of the infection.
HIV is transmitted through:
Unprotected sexual intercourse
From an infected mother to her fetus
Lactation from an infected mother
Having direct contact with the blood of an infected person through an open wound
From an injury with a blood-covered object (such as a needle)
There are two types of HIV, which are type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2).The only difference between them is that HIV type 2 is found only in West Africa and an individual can become infected with HIV-2 only by having sexual intercourse or entering in contact with the blood of an infected person from that geographic region.
An HIV antibody test refers to the detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 antibodies in a sample of your blood.
Usually, screening is done with a combination HIV antigen/antibody test. If that test result comes back positive, an HIV test that differentiates between HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies is performed.
HIV screening is the only way to know if you are infected. Is recommended that any person between the ages of 13 to 64 years and every pregnant woman gets tested for HIV at least once.
There are other situations in which you should also be tested, even if you were already screened or if you don’t belong to the group of people who are between 13 to 64 years of age. These situations include:
If you were diagnosed with tuberculosis, hepatitis B or C, or another sexually transmitted disease.
If you had a sexual partner who has been recently diagnosed with HIV.
If you suspect or know that your partner had sex with another person.
If you are a healthcare worker and had direct contact with blood while doing your job.
If you think you may have been exposed to the virus.
Annual screening for HIV is recommended if you are at high-risk of contracting the virus. You have a higher risk if you:
Have had unprotected sex with multiple partners since your last HIV screening.
Are a man and had sex with another man
Have used illegal injected drugs, especially if you have shared needles
Have a sexual partner who is HIV positive.
Are a sex-worker
A needle will be used to extract a small quantity of blood from a vein in your arm.
No fasting or special preparations are needed.
You may feel a little sting when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the blood extraction.
Infection is usually a small risk in healthy people; however, if you indeed have the virus, infections are more likely to appear. So you should keep your wound clean and dry.
Normally this test is indicated when a previous screening HIV test has been performed, and the result has come back positive.
Therefore, if this test comes back negative for HIV-1and HIV-2, it means that a disparity has occurred, and then a third test (HIV RNA) must be performed to get to a firm diagnosis.
If the HIV antibody test has come back positive, the possibilities include:
HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody negative: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 1 infection.
HIV-1 antibody negative + HIV-2 antibody positive: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 2 infection.
HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody positive: you have a co-infection with both types of HIV.
Human immunodeficiency virus antibodies, whether HIV-1 or HIV-2, are usually not detectable through a lab test between 6 weeks to 3 months after exposure to the virus; this is called the “window period” because even though you are infected there are not enough antibodies for the test to detect; therefore the results come back negative.
However, after 12 months human immunodeficiency virus antibodies are almost always detectable in a blood test.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (11)
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
HIV. See a full animation of this medical topic
Image by BruceBlaus
HIV Drug Classes
Schematic description of the mechanism of the four classes of currently available antiviral drugs against HIV: fusion inhibitors ( interfere with the binding, fusion or entry of an HIV virion), reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (interfere with the translation of viral RNA into DNA), integrase inhibitors (block the viral enzyme integrase, that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell), protease inhibitors (block proteolytic cleavage of protein precursors that are necessary for the production of infectious viral particles).
Image by Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)
HIV-infected H9 T cell
Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
HIV Virus
Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (red) budding and replicating from a segment of a chronically infected H9 cell (blue). Particles are in various stages of maturity; arc/semi-circles are immature particles that have started to form but are still part of the cell. Immature particles slowly change morphology into mature forms and exhibit the classic “conical or spherical-shaped core.” Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
HIV-1 Neurotropism
Model of HIV-1 Neurotropism
Image by J Roberto Trujillo
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.
Image by TheVisualMD
(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus
Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus Description : Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus from hugging to telephones; one of a series of fact sheets about AIDS and HIV.
Image by Wellcome Trust
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
AIDS Life Cycle Illustration
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelop, releasing its RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a complimentary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the life cycle of the virus. See artwork: GR-32.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)
Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS
Video by Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube
When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
HIV Rotation
The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or, in the case of drug addicts, a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another user. HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.
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A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. A normal chest CT means your chest appears normal.
Related conditions
A chest CT scan is a more detailed type of chest X-ray. This painless imaging test takes many detailed pictures, called slices, of your lungs and the inside of your chest. Computers can combine these pictures to create three-dimensional (3D) models to help show the size, shape, and position of your lungs and structures in your chest.
This imaging test is often done to follow up on abnormal findings from earlier chest x rays. A chest CT scan also can help determine the cause of lung symptoms such as shortness of breath or chest pain, or check to see if you have certain lung problems such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs that is known as pleural effusion, pulmonary embolism, emphysema, tuberculosis, and pneumonia.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. Doctors use this test to:
Follow up on abnormal results from standard chest x rays.
Find the cause of lung symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain.
Find out whether you have a lung problem, such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs, or a pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The test also is used to check for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if you have symptoms of lung problems, such as chest pain or trouble breathing. The scan can help find the cause of the symptoms.
A chest CT scan looks for problems such as tumors, excess fluid around the lungs, and pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The scan also checks for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if a standard chest x ray doesn't help diagnose the problem. The chest CT scan can:
Provide more detailed pictures of your lungs and other chest structures than a standard chest x ray
Find the exact location of a tumor or other problem
Show something that isn't visible on a chest x ray
Your chest CT scan may be done in a medical imaging facility or hospital. The CT scanner is a large, tunnel-like machine that has a table. You will lie still on the table and the table will slide into the scanner. Talk to your doctor if you are uncomfortable in tight or closed spaces to see if you need medicine to relax you during the test. You will hear soft buzzing or clicking sounds when you are inside the scanner and the scanner is taking pictures. You will be able to hear from and talk to the technician performing the test while you are inside the scanner. For some diagnoses, a contrast dye, often iodine-based, may be injected into a vein in your arm before the imaging test. This contrast dye highlights areas inside your chest and creates clearer pictures. You may feel some discomfort from the needle or, after the contrast dye is injected, you may feel warm briefly or have a temporary metallic taste in your mouth.
Wear loose-fitting, comfortable clothing for the test. Sometimes the CT scan technician (a person specially trained to do CT scans) may ask you to wear a hospital gown. You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the test. You may be asked to remove hearing aids and dentures as well. Let the technician know if you have any body piercing on your chest.
Tell your doctor whether you're pregnant or may be pregnant. If possible, you should avoid unnecessary radiation exposure during pregnancy. This is because of the concern that radiation may harm the fetus.
Chest CT scans have some risks. In rare instances, some people have an allergic reaction to the contrast dye. There is a slight risk of cancer, particularly in growing children, because the test uses radiation. Although the amount of radiation from one test is usually less than the amount of radiation you are naturally exposed to over three years, patients should not receive more CT scans than the number that clinical guidelines recommend. Another risk is that chest CT scans may detect an incidental finding, which is something that doesn’t cause symptoms but now may require more tests after being found.
Talk to your doctor and the technicians performing the test about whether you are or could be pregnant. If the test is not urgent, they may have you wait to do the test until after your pregnancy. If it is urgent, the technicians will take extra steps to protect your baby during this test. Let your doctor know if you are breastfeeding because contrast dye can pass into your breast milk. If you must have contrast dye injected, you may want to pump and save enough breast milk for one to two days after your test or you may bottle-feed your baby for that time.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-ct-scan [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003788.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Additional Materials (50)
Pleural empyema
CT chest showing large right sided hydro-pneumothorax from pleural empyema. Arrows A: air, B: fluid
Image by Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
CT with the identification of underlying lung lesion: an apical bulla.
Image by Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
Right-sided pneumothorax (right side of image) on CT scan of the chest with chest tube in place.
Image by en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
3D reconstruction of the thin multislice CT, covering human heart and lungs
Image by Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
Open-chest bypass surgery requires the surgeon to make an incision down the center of the chest, along the breastbone. The rib cage is spread open to expose the heart.
Image by TheVisualMD
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
Video by The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Researchers have found that anti-inflammatory biologic therapies used to treat moderate to severe psoriasis can significantly reduce coronary inflammation in patients with the chronic skin condition. Scientists said the findings are particularly notable because of the use of a novel imaging biomarker, the perivascular fat attenuation index (FAI), that was able to measure the effect of the therapy in reducing the inflammation.
The study published online in JAMA Cardiology, has implications not just for people with psoriasis, but for those with other chronic inflammatory diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. These conditions are known to increase the risk for heart attacks and strokes. The study was funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health.
In this image: Coronary CT angiography image of the coronary arteries depicting the perivascular fat attenuation index before and after biologic therapy at one-year follow-up for patients with excellent response to biologic therapy.
Image by Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Coronary CT
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
chest CT: diagnosis is pulmonary sequestration
Image by RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Image by Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Video by Oxford AHSN/YouTube
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
Protocoling chest CTs
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
Video by MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Video by Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
How I Read a Chest CT
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Video by Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
How to prepare for a CT scan
Video by Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
Video by UConn Health/YouTube
Cardiac CT scan
Video by UHP_NHS/YouTube
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Video by Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
Video by STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
3D visualization based on scanned human data of a healthy heart in the thorax.
Image by TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
The heart and lungs are the primary contents of the thorax. They are interconnected with very large blood vessels. The heart sends oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, which oxygenate it and return it to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary arteries arise from one large pulmonary trunk, and then begin branching exponentially once they enter the lungs in order to reach the functional respiratory units and pick up oxygen. The smallest pulmonary veins then take the oxygenated blood backwards through the lungs and empty into the back of the heart through four larger pulmonary veins. The oxygen-rich blood is then pumped by the heart out into the body through the aorta. Deoxygenated blood from body tissues returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava and the cardiac cycle repeats continuously. The pulmonary veins and arteries are the only case where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and veins carry blood that has been oxygenated.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an anterior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhale occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an inferior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhalation occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
3D visualization of a posterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
Visualization based on scanned human data of an anterior view of female breast.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
Visualization of male heart. The nerve supply of the heart is emphasized specifically the cardiac plexus. The plexus which rest around the base of the heart, mainly in the epicardium, is formed by cardiac branches from the vagus nerves and the sympathetic trunks and ganglia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. The cone-shaped lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity. Each lung is suspended in its own pleural cavity and connected to the mediastinum (which houses the heart) by its root which is made up of vascular and bronchial attachments. The anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the lung are in close contact with the ribs and form a continuously curving surface called the costal surface. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
Aneurysms that occur in the part of the aorta that is higher in the chest are called thoracic aortic aneurysms. Aortic aneurysms often grow slowly and usually without any symptoms therefore making them difficult to detect
Image by TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
subFusion processing applied to a SPECT lung ventilation-perfusion scan.
Image by KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
3D visualization of an inferior view of a transverse section of the thorax, highlighting the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The trachea, cardiac impression, and transverse sections of the thoracic aorta and esophagus are clearly illustrated. The bronchial tree is also visible. When air is inhaled into the lungs, it flows through large tubes called bronchi, branches into smaller tubes known as bronchioles, and ends up in the thousands of small pouches that are the alveoli. This is where the oxygen is transferred from the air into the bloodstream. Each alveolar sac, or air sac, is surrounded by a bed of capillaries, and the walls between the lung and the capillary are extremely thin. The walls are so delicate, in fact, that the inhaled oxygen can seep from the air sacs to bind to the hemoglobin in the blood, while the carbon dioxide and other waste gasses leave the blood and diffuse into the lungs where they can be exhaled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Angina
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Chest Pain
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
Image by TheVisualMD
CT scanner
A view of the CT scanner in the new Fort Belvoir Community Hospital. The hospital, still under construction, is a 2005 Base Realignment and Closure project, and is scheduled to open later this year.
Image by Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
Radiation can be dangerous, but it can also save lives. When you’re faced with a medical test that uses radiation, don’t let fear get in your way. Learn about the risks and benefits, and know what questions to ask.
Image by NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
CT scan.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
An NIH Clinical Center study participant receives a scan in the Photon-Counting CT scanner.
Image by NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
A computer-assisted tomographic (CAT) scanner, with a Caucasian female technician working at a screen and behind a glass wall. A patient is on a table and being tested by the CAT scanner. The lighting is very subdued. This new technology revolutionized detection of brain tumors.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
Virtual colonoscopy is a new imaging technology that uses computed tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. A computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural empyema
Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
TheVisualMD
4:22
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
1:50
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
4:59
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Oxford AHSN/YouTube
2:33
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
7:48
Protocoling chest CTs
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
1:44
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
8:27
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
5:10
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
3:29
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
17:21
How I Read a Chest CT
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
8:46
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
3:09
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
2:19
How to prepare for a CT scan
Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
2:07
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
UConn Health/YouTube
5:04
Cardiac CT scan
UHP_NHS/YouTube
6:28
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
2:52
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
TheVisualMD
CT scanner
Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
TheVisualMD
PET Scan
PET Scan
Also called: PET Imaging, Positron Emission Tomography, Positron Emission Testing
A PET scan is an imaging test that uses a radioactive substance (tracer) to check for changes in chemical activity in the body. This activity may be a sign of cancer, heart disease, or a brain disorder.
PET Scan
Also called: PET Imaging, Positron Emission Tomography, Positron Emission Testing
A PET scan is an imaging test that uses a radioactive substance (tracer) to check for changes in chemical activity in the body. This activity may be a sign of cancer, heart disease, or a brain disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Your result is Normal.
There are no problems detected in the size, shape, or function of the organ being scanned. There are no areas in which the tracer has abnormally collected.
Related conditions
A PET (positron emission tomography) scan is an imaging test that looks at how well your tissues and organs are working. It also checks for signs of cancer. The scan uses a small amount of a radioactive substance called a tracer.
The tracer settles in areas of your body that have high levels of chemical activity. This activity can be a sign of cancer or other diseases. The tracer can also help measure blood flow, oxygen use, and changes in the metabolism of a particular tissue or organ. Metabolism is a chemical process that your body uses to change food into energy.
Chemical changes in the body can show up before symptoms of disease appear. So a PET scan can find signs of disease at an early stage, often before problems can be seen on other imaging tests.
A PET scan is most often used to:
Diagnose or monitor certain cancers, including breast, thyroid, and lung cancers
Find out how well your heart muscle is working
Check blood flow to the heart
Check for signs of certain brain disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and types of dementia. Dementia is not a specific disease. It is a term used to describe a decline in mental function that is severe enough to affect daily living.
A PET scan is often done along with a CT scan, a type of x-ray that takes a series of pictures as it rotates around you.
You may need a PET scan to find out if you have cancer. If you've already been diagnosed with cancer, you may need this test to see if your cancer treatment is working.
A PET scan also helps diagnose and monitor heart and brain diseases. So you may need this test if you:
Have a family history of heart disease
Are being treated for heart disease. This test can show if the treatment is working.
Have symptoms of a brain disease, such as tremors, memory problems, and/or seizures
Before the scan, you will change into a hospital gown. You may be asked to empty your bladder. During the scan:
A health care provider will inject the radioactive tracer into your vein through an intravenous (IV) line. The tracer sends out a form of energy called gamma rays. The rays are picked up by the scanner to create images of the inside of your body.
You will need to wait for the tracer to be absorbed by your body. This takes 45 to 60 minutes.
You will then lie on a narrow, padded table, which will slide into a large, tunnel-shaped scanner.
The scanner will move slowly across your body to capture images. You will need to be very still as this happens.
The scanner will send images to a computer monitor for the provider to review.
Your provider will then remove the IV line.
You may be asked to not eat or drink for four to six hours before the test.
If you have diabetes and use insulin, you may need to change the timing of your regular dose. Your provider will give you specific instructions about adjusting your insulin.
Also, tell your provider if you have claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces). Your provider may decide to give you a medicine before the test to help you relax.
There is very little exposure to radiation in a PET scan. Only a small amount of radioactive substance is used, and all of the radiation leaves the body within 2 to 10 hours.
While radiation exposure in a PET scan is safe for most adults, it can be harmful to an unborn baby. So be sure to tell your provider if you are pregnant or think you may be pregnant. Also, tell your provider if you are breastfeeding, because the tracer may contaminate your breast milk.
Allergic reactions to the tracer are rare and usually mild.
Depending on which part of the body was being scanned, your results may show:
Cancer. Cancer cells show up as bright spots on a PET scan.
Heart disease. The scan can show decreased blood flow to the heart.
A brain disorder. The scan may show changes in certain brain chemicals that can indicate disease.
If you also had a CT scan, your provider will review the results of the two scans to help make a diagnosis.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Your PET scan results will be looked at by a radiologist, a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating medical conditions using imaging technologies. He or she will share the results with your health care provider.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/10123-pet-scan [accessed on Jul 27, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007341.htm [accessed on Jul 27, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007342.htm [accessed on Jul 27, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007343.htm [accessed on Jul 27, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (23)
What is it Like to Have a PET Scan? | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
PET Scan in 3 views
PET Scan in 3 views
PET Scan in 3 views
1
2
3
PET Scan in 3 views
PET Scan in 3 views
Interactive by TheVisualMD
PET/CT
CT
PET
1
2
3
PET/CT Scans of Colorectal Cancer 1) Pet/CT scan 2) CT Scan 3) Pet Scan
PET scans can often detect a tumor that can't be seen on CT scans or regular X-rays. Cancer tumors grow rapidly and so actively metabolize glucose. In a PET scan, the patient is injected with glucose containing a radioactive tracer. The PET scan image shows areas of the body that utilize the glucose. The brain, heart, and bladder all metabolize glucose and appear black in the image, along with any cancer tumors that are present.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
How Does a PET Scan Work?
Video by NIBIB gov/YouTube
UCSF Radiology: How does a PET scan help with cancer imaging?
Video by UCSF Imaging/YouTube
Your PET/CT scan at University College Hospital
Video by University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust/YouTube
How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
PET Scans and CAT Scans
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Having a PET-CT scan
Video by Design Science/YouTube
How does a PET scan work?
Video by Imperial College London/YouTube
Patient exercises
EKG monitoring
Inject radiotracer
Scanning with stress
Patient rests
Inject radiotracer again
1
2
3
4
5
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Myocardial perfusion scan
Myocardial perfusion imaging is a test that uses a low dose of a radioactive agent to evaluate the blood flow and function of the heart. This scan is done in conjunction with a cardiac stress test a diagnostic test in which a person walks on a treadmill or pedals (a stationary bicycle) while hooked up to equipment that monitors the heart. The test monitors heart rate breathing blood pressure electrical activity (on an electrocardiogram) and the person's level of tiredness. It shows if the heart's blood supply is sufficient and if the heart rhythm is normal. A stress test can detect the following problems:
- Abnormal changes in heart rate or blood pressure
- Symptoms such as shortness of breath or chest pain
- Abnormal changes in the heart's rhythm or electrical activity
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Testing for bowel cancer
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
MRI Animation
Video by Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube
Carcinogenesis head and neck short version only animation
Video by Amsterdam UMC/YouTube
Head and Neck Cancer
Video by Robert Miller/YouTube
What are the Risk Factors and Symptoms of Head and Neck Cancers? | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Introduction to Head and Neck Cancer | Memorial Sloan Kettering
Video by Memorial Sloan Kettering/YouTube
Throat Cancer
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Rush Radiosurgery: Head and Neck Cancer Radiation
Video by Rush Radiosurgery/YouTube
Treating the head and neck - Radiotherapy and its physics (3/15)
Video by OpenLearn from The Open University/YouTube
Nutrition Video for Head & Neck Cancer
Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube
Throat Cancer Largely Due to Smoking And Drinking, Studies Show
Video by VOA News/YouTube
What is nuclear medicine? An illustrated introduction
Video by navalorama/YouTube
3:13
What is it Like to Have a PET Scan? | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
PET Scan in 3 views
TheVisualMD
PET/CT Scans of Colorectal Cancer 1) Pet/CT scan 2) CT Scan 3) Pet Scan
TheVisualMD
1:33
How Does a PET Scan Work?
NIBIB gov/YouTube
1:30
UCSF Radiology: How does a PET scan help with cancer imaging?
UCSF Imaging/YouTube
3:31
Your PET/CT scan at University College Hospital
University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust/YouTube
4:42
How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang
TED-Ed/YouTube
1:37
PET Scans and CAT Scans
Lee Health/YouTube
5:17
Having a PET-CT scan
Design Science/YouTube
4:25
How does a PET scan work?
Imperial College London/YouTube
Myocardial perfusion scan
TheVisualMD
1:37
Testing for bowel cancer
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
0:36
MRI Animation
Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube
4:03
Carcinogenesis head and neck short version only animation
Amsterdam UMC/YouTube
7:27
Head and Neck Cancer
Robert Miller/YouTube
2:35
What are the Risk Factors and Symptoms of Head and Neck Cancers? | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
18:04
Introduction to Head and Neck Cancer | Memorial Sloan Kettering
Memorial Sloan Kettering/YouTube
6:01
Throat Cancer
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
1:13
Rush Radiosurgery: Head and Neck Cancer Radiation
Rush Radiosurgery/YouTube
1:57
Treating the head and neck - Radiotherapy and its physics (3/15)
OpenLearn from The Open University/YouTube
4:25
Nutrition Video for Head & Neck Cancer
Stanford Health Care/YouTube
2:39
Throat Cancer Largely Due to Smoking And Drinking, Studies Show
VOA News/YouTube
3:02
What is nuclear medicine? An illustrated introduction
navalorama/YouTube
Bone Marrow Tests
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative bone marrow biopsy results indicates that the bone marrow didn’t have any significant findings with all of the testing that was done. This may mean that certain diseases were not found. It may also mean that the bone marrow is functioning normally.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells, including:
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
Platelets, which help with blood clotting
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer.
There are two types of procedures used to collect bone marrow samples for testing:
Bone marrow aspiration removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid and cells
Bone marrow biopsy removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy are usually done at the same time.
Other names: bone marrow examination
Bone marrow tests are used to:
Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets
Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as:
Anemia (when the cause is unknown)
Polycythemia vera
Thrombocytopenia
Diagnose bone marrow disorders
Diagnose and monitor treatment for certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
Diagnose the cause of an unexplained fever, which could be from an infection in the bone marrow
Your health care provider may order a bone marrow aspiration and a bone marrow biopsy if other blood tests show your levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are not normal.
Too many or too few blood cells may mean you have a medical condition, such as cancer that starts in your blood or bone marrow. If you are being treated for another type of cancer, these tests can find out if the cancer has spread to your bone marrow.
Bone marrow tests may also be used to see how well cancer treatment is working.
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy procedures are usually done at the same time. A health care provider will collect the marrow samples for testing. Usually, the samples can be collected in about ten minutes.
Before the procedure, you may be asked to put on a hospital gown. Your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature will be checked.
You may choose to have a mild sedative, which is medicine to help you relax. You may also have the choice to use stronger medicine that will make you sleep. Your provider can help you decide which option is best for you.
During the procedure:
You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used to get the samples. Most bone marrow samples are taken from the back of the hip bone, called the iliac crest. But other bones may be used.
An area of skin over the bone will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
You will get an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the skin and the bone underneath. It may sting.
When the area is numb, the provider will make a very small incision (cut) in your skin and insert a hollow needle. You will need to lie very still during the procedure:
The bone marrow aspiration is usually done first. The provider will push the needle into the bone and use a syringe attached to the needle to pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a brief, sharp pain. The aspiration takes only a few minutes.
The bone marrow biopsy uses a special hollow biopsy needle inserted through the same skin opening. The provider will twist the needle into the bone to take out a small piece, or core, of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
After the test, the health care provider will cover your skin with a bandage.
If you didn't use medicine to relax or sleep, you'll usually need to stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure that the bleeding has stopped. Afterwards, you can do your usual activities as soon as you are able. If you used medicine to relax or sleep, you'll need to stay longer before you can go home. You may also need to rest the next day.
Your provider will tell you whether you need to fast (not eat or drink) for a few hours before the procedure.
Plan to have someone take you home after the test, because you may be drowsy if you are given medicine to help you relax or sleep during the procedure.
You'll receive instructions for how to prepare, but be sure to ask your provider any questions you have about the procedure.
After a bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days.
Your provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Don't take any pain medicine your provider hasn't approved. Certain pain relievers, such as aspirin, could increase your risk of bleeding.
Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
Increased pain or discomfort where the sample was taken
Redness, swelling, bleeding, or other fluids leaking from at the site
Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your provider.
It may take several days or even weeks to get your bone marrow test results. Your provider may have ordered many different types of tests on your marrow sample, so the results often include a lot of complex information. Your provider can explain what your results mean.
In certain cases, if your test results are not normal, you may need to have more tests to confirm a diagnosis or to decide which treatment would be best.
If you have cancer that affects your bones and marrow, your test results may provide information about your cancer stage, which is how much cancer you have in your body and how fast it may be growing.
If you are already being treated for cancer, your test results may show:
How well your treatment is working
Whether your treatment is affecting your bone marrow
Bone Marrow Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 16, 2024]
Additional Materials (22)
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Video by Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
Image by doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.
Image by CNX Openstax
This browser does not support the video element.
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue
Video by TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.
Image by CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.
Image by Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
3:24
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
2:12
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
5:56
Having a bone marrow test
Design Science/YouTube
2:20
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:38
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
4:03
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
0:06
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Cytogenetic Analysis
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
510999: Chromosome Analysis, Leukemia/Lymphoma | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Ozkan E, Lacerda MP. Genetics, Cytogenetic Testing And Conventional Karyotype. [Updated 2021 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Cytogenetic Analysis | NewsMedical [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Additional Materials (1)
Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
Video by UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
3:43
Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
Immunophenotyping Test
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
No significant immunophenotypic abnormality detected.
Related conditions
Immunophenotyping | NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Immunophenotyping | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
480260: Leukemia/Lymphoma Immunophenotyping Profile | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (3)
Burkitts lymphoma
Burkitt's lymphoma histology image
Image by Ed Uthman, MD.
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
Video by BMH learning/YouTube
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Video by Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
Burkitts lymphoma
Ed Uthman, MD.
2:21
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
BMH learning/YouTube
1:51
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
FISH Test
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. It is utilized to diagnose genetic diseases, gene mapping, and identification of chromosomal abnormalities, and may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomes' arrangements of genes.
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. It is utilized to diagnose genetic diseases, gene mapping, and identification of chromosomal abnormalities, and may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomes' arrangements of genes.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal FISH study indicates the amount of cells counted and analyzed and that no gene rearrangements were observed.
Related conditions
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (abbreviated FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. In this technique, the full set of chromosomes from an individual is affixed to a glass slide and then exposed to a “probe”—a small piece of purified DNA tagged with a fluorescent dye. The fluorescently labeled probe finds and then binds to its matching sequence within the set of chromosomes. With the use of a special microscope, the chromosome and sub-chromosomal location where the fluorescent probe bound can be seen.
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) provides researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic material in an individual's cells, including specific genes or portions of genes. This may be used for understanding a variety of chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations.
FISH is useful, for example, to help a researcher or clinician identify where a particular gene falls within an individual's chromosomes. The first step is to prepare short sequences of single-stranded DNA that match a portion of the gene the researcher is looking for. These are called probes. The next step is to label these probes by attaching one of a number of colors of fluorescent dye.DNA is composed of two strands of complementary molecules that bind to each other like chemical magnets. Since the researchers' probes are single-stranded, they are able to bind to the complementary strand of DNA, wherever it may reside on a person's chromosomes. When a probe binds to a chromosome, its fluorescent tag provides a way for researchers to see its location.
Scientists use three different types of FISH probes, each of which has a different application:
Locus specific probes bind to a particular region of a chromosome. This type of probe is useful when scientists have isolated a small portion of a gene and want to determine on which chromosome the gene is located, or how many copies of a gene exist within a particular genome.
Alphoid or centromeric repeat probes are generated from repetitive sequences found in the middle of each chromosome. Researchers use these probes to determine whether an individual has the correct number of chromosomes. These probes can also be used in combination with "locus specific probes" to determine whether an individual is missing genetic material from a particular chromosome.
Whole chromosome probes are actually collections of smaller probes, each of which binds to a different sequence along the length of a given chromosome. Using multiple probes labeled with a mixture of different fluorescent dyes, scientists are able to label each chromosome in its own unique color. The resulting full-color map of the chromosome is known as a spectral karyotype. Whole chromosome probes are particularly useful for examining chromosomal abnormalities, for example, when a piece of one chromosome is attached to the end of another chromosome.
For many applications, FISH has largely been replaced by the use of microarrays. However, FISH remains useful for some tests. FISH may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomal arrangements of genes across related species.
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization Fact Sheet | National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH). Genome.gov [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
510669: Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH), Oncology | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (41)
FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (abbreviated FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. In this technique, the full set of chromosomes from an individual is affixed to a glass slide and then exposed to a “probe”—a small piece of purified DNA tagged with a fluorescent dye. The fluorescently labeled probe finds and then binds to its matching sequence within the set of chromosomes. With the use of a special microscope, the chromosome and sub-chromosomal location where the fluorescent probe bound can be seen.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Image by Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
Indian Muntjac cultured cells; DAPI nuclei, Alexa Fluor 488 Phalloidin actin, Mitotracker Red CMXRos; 63x/1.4. Imaged with ZEISS ApoTome.2, Axiocam 702 mono and Axio Imager www.zeiss.com/axiocam Sample courtesy of Michael W. Davidson, Florida State University
Image by ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
Under a magnification of 562X, this photomicrograph, stained using a fluorescent antibody (FA) staining technique, and NOT stained using a Candida conjugate, revealed the presence of Aspergillus sp. organisms, in a case of aspergillosis.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M./Wikimedia
FISH (Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization)
Scheme of the principle of the FISH (Fluorescent in situ hybridization) Experiment to localize a gene in the nucleus.
Image by MrMatze/Wikimedia
FISH for Bacterial Pathogen Identification
This figure outlines the process of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) used for bacterial pathogen identification. First, a sample of the infected tissue is taken from the patient. Then an oligonucleotide that is complementary to the suspected pathogen’s genetic code is synthesized and chemically tagged with a fluorescent probe. The collected tissue sample must then be chemically treated in order to make the cell membranes permeable to the fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide. After the tissue sample is treated, the tagged complementary oligonucleotide is added. The fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide will only bind to the complementary DNA of the suspected pathogen. If the pathogen is present in the tissue sample, then the pathogen’s cells will glow/fluoresce after treatment with the tagged oligonucleotide. All other cells will not glow after treatment.
Image by Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes. (A) Dual color hybridization showing highly specific signals on the X (red) and Y (green) chromosomes in metaphase cells. The two diploid interphase cell nuclei from a normal male donor show the expected pair of single signals. (B) The approximate locations of the hybridization targets shown along ideograms of the human X and Y chromosomes.
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Staining of chromosome Hordeum vulgare by Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
Image by Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Fluorescence in situ hybridization versus chromogenic in situ hybridization
Image by Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Fluorescent in-situ hybridization is a process which vividly paints chromosomes or portions of chromosomes with fluorescent molecules. This technique is useful for identifying chromosomal abnormalities and for gene mapping.
Image by Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe on metaphase spreads of ‘normal’ cells. (A) The dual color FISH results showing a normal diploid metaphase spread. The DAPI DNA counterstain is shown in gray; (B) Schematic diagram illustrating the relative positions of the chromosome 16 whole chromosome painting probe (Coatasome-16, Oncor) and the biotinylated DNA repeat probe prepared from BAC RP11-486E19 (detected with avidin-FITC, green).
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Obraz fluorescencyjny jądra ludzkiego limfocytu barwionego diaminofenyloindolem (DAPI) z sygnałami sond swoistych dla chromosomów 13 (zielony, sonda znakowana fluoresceiną) i 21 (czerwony, sonda znakowana rodaminą), uzyskany w wyniku zastosowania techniki FISH
Image by Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
ViewRNA assay for detection of miR-133 microRNA (green) and myogenin mRNA (red) in differentiating C2C12 cells.
Image by Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
Her2 gene amplification by FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) in breast cancer cells
Image by IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Human metaphase chromosomes were subjected to fluorescence in situ hybridization with a probe to the Alu Sequence (green signals)and counterstained for DNA (red).
Image by Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
General workflow for Q-FISH with cultured cells.
Image by Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Abnova/YouTube
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Video by ПИМУ - Приволжский исследовательский мед.универ./YouTube
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
Video by biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique for detecting and locating a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
Hybridization is the process of combining two complementary single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules and allowing them to form a single double-stranded molecule through base pairing.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
In situ hybridization. 18p (green) and 18q (red) with subtelomeric probes showing 18p deletion in the patient with De Grouchy syndrome type I (deletion 18p)
Image by /Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
Kidney section. IHC stained with Cy3 (red), anti-GFP antibody stained with Alexa 488(green), nuclei stained with DAPI (blue). Fluorescence microscopy with ZEISS Axio Observer, Axiocam, Colibri 7. www.zeiss.com/axioobserver
Image by ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Figure 2. Result of FISH analysis using LSI probe (TUPLE 1) from DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome critical region. TUPLE 1 (HIRA) probe was labeled in Spectrum Orange and Arylsulfatase A (ARSA) in SpectrumGreen as control. Absence of the orange signal indicates deletion of the TUPLE 1 locus at 22q11.2. Tonelli et al. Journal of Medical Case Reports 2007 1:167 doi:10.1186/1752-1947-1-167
Image by Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
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Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
Visualization of the enormous degree of chromosomal instability in primary breast cancers using fluorescence in situ hybridization to identify copy number changes of specific chromosomes and oncogenes.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
Mapping the position of genes in the cell nucleus sheds light on basic principles governing the genome. Here, a single gene called Pem (purple) has been localized using fluorescence in situ hybridization. DNA is stained blue; the cell cytoplasm is stained green.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project and selected for exhibit. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
This (a) microbial mat, about one meter in diameter, grows over a hydrothermal vent in the Pacific Ocean in a region known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire.” The mat helps retain microbial nutrients. Chimneys such as the one indicated by the arrow allow gases to escape. (b) In this micrograph, bacteria are visualized using fluorescence microscopy. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Bob Embley, NOAA PMEL, Chief Scientist; credit b: modification of work by Ricardo Murga, Rodney Donlan, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system. A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system.
Image by Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
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Biofilm blocking fluid flow
This time-lapse movie shows that bacterial communities called biofilms can create blockages that prevent fluid flow in devices such as stents and catheters over a period of about 56 hours. This video was featured in a news release from Princeton University.
Video by NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
Stage 1, initial attachment; stage 2, irreversible attachment; stage 3, maturation I; stage 4, maturation II; stage 5, dispersion. Each stage of development in the diagram is paired with a photomicrograph of a developing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. All photomicrographs are shown to same scale
Image by D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
This digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather; revealed the presence of unidentified organisms; which included bacteria; protozoa; and algae. In this particular view; a microorganism is featured; the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pin cushion; was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm; within which many bacteria; and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
Under a magnification of 2500X, this digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather, revealed the presence of unidentified organisms, which included bacteria, protozoa, and algae. In this particular view, a microorganism is featured, the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections, imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pincushion was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm, within which many bacteria and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well. See PHIL 11781 for a greater magnification of this organism’s exterior.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
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confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
Using a confocal laser scanning microscope, microbiologist Maria Brandl examines a mixed biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green) in soft rot lesions on cilantro leaves (blue).
Image by USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) provides researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic material in an individual's cells, including specifc genes or portions of genes. This is important for understanding a variety of chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations. Unlike most other techniques used to study chromosomes, FISH does not have to be performed on cells that are actively dividing. This makes it a very versatile procedure. Credit: Darryl Leja, NHGRI.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
FISH method. The chromosomes are blue in the fluorescence microscope , except for a point on one of the chromosomes, which is green and red. This is where the sequence causing one of the types of leukemia is located
Image by Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
The image shows nuclei of neoplastic cells of a breast cancer with a normal number of copies of the Her2 gene (red signals) (in green, centromere labeling signals). Technique: in situ hybridization of interphase nuclei obtained from paraffin-embedded material from breast cancer.
Image by Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
A probe is a single-stranded sequence of DNA or RNA used to search for its complementary sequence in a sample genome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
3:22
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
8:57
Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
5:01
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Abnova/YouTube
1:44
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
/Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
0:08
Biofilm blocking fluid flow
NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Staging
Diagram showing stage 1 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 2 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 3 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 4 Hodgkin's lymphoma
1
2
3
4
Diagram showing stages of Hodgkin's lymphoma
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing stage 1 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 2 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 3 Hodgkin's lymphoma
Diagram showing stage 4 Hodgkin's lymphoma
1
2
3
4
Diagram showing stages of Hodgkin's lymphoma
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
What Are the Stages of Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
KEY POINTS
After adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out whether cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
The following stages are used for adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphomas may be grouped for treatment according to whether the cancer is indolent or aggressive, whether affected lymph nodes are next to each other in the body, and whether the cancer is newly diagnosed or recurrent.
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma can recur (come back) after it has been treated.
After adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out whether cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out the type of cancer and if cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan treatment. The results of the tests and procedures done to diagnose non-Hodgkin lymphoma are used to help make decisions about treatment.
The following tests and procedures may also be used in the staging process:
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) with gadolinium: A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the brain and spinal cord. A substance called gadolinium is injected into the patient through a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
Lumbar puncture: A procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle between two bones in the spine and into the CSF around the spinal cord and removing a sample of the fluid. The sample of CSF is checked under a microscope for signs that the cancer has spread to the brain and spinal cord. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap.Lumbar puncture. A patient lies in a curled position on a table. After a small area on the lower back is numbed, a spinal needle (a long, thin needle) is inserted into the lower part of the spinal column to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing.
For pregnant women with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, staging tests and procedures that protect the fetus from the harms of radiation are used. These tests and procedures include MRI (without contrast), lumbar puncture, and ultrasound.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
Cancer can spread through tissue, the lymph system, and the blood:
Tissue. The cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas.
Lymph system. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system. The cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body.
Blood. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood. The cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body.
The following stages are used for adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Stage I
Stage I adult lymphoma. Cancer is found in one or more lymph nodes in a group of lymph nodes or, in rare cases, cancer is found in the Waldeyer’s ring, thymus, or spleen. In stage IE (not shown), cancer has spread to one area outside the lymph system.
Stage I adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma is divided into stages I and IE.
In stage I, cancer is found in one of the following places in the lymph system:
One or more lymph nodes in a group of lymph nodes.
Waldeyer's ring.
Thymus.
Spleen.
In stage IE, cancer is found in one area outside the lymph system.
Stage II
Stage II adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma is divided into stages II and IIE.
In stage II, cancer is found in two or more groups of lymph nodes that are either above the diaphragm or below the diaphragm.Stage II adult lymphoma. Cancer is found in two or more groups of lymph nodes that are either above the diaphragm or below the diaphragm.
In stage IIE, cancer has spread from a group of lymph nodes to a nearby area that is outside the lymph system. Cancer may have spread to other lymph node groups on the same side of the diaphragm.Stage IIE adult lymphoma. Cancer has spread from a group of lymph nodes to a nearby area that is outside the lymph system. Cancer may have spread to other lymph node groups on the same side of the diaphragm.
In stage II, the term bulky disease refers to a larger tumor mass. The size of the tumor mass that is referred to as bulky disease varies based on the type of lymphoma.
Stage III
Stage III adult lymphoma. Cancer is found in groups of lymph nodes both above and below the diaphragm; or in a group of lymph nodes above the diaphragm and in the spleen.
In stage III adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer is found:
in groups of lymph nodes both above and below the diaphragm; or
in lymph nodes above the diaphragm and in the spleen.
Stage IV
Stage IV adult lymphoma. Cancer (a) has spread throughout one or more organs outside the lymph system; or (b) is found in two or more groups of lymph nodes that are either above the diaphragm or below the diaphragm and in one organ that is outside the lymph system and not near the affected lymph nodes; or (c) is found in groups of lymph nodes above the diaphragm and below the diaphragm and in any organ that is outside the lymph system; or (d) is found in the liver, bone marrow, more than one place in the lung, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The cancer has not spread directly into the liver, bone marrow, lung, or CSF from nearby lymph nodes.
In stage IV adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer:
has spread throughout one or more organs outside the lymph system; or
is found in two or more groups of lymph nodes that are either above the diaphragm or below the diaphragm and in one organ that is outside the lymph system and not near the affected lymph nodes; or
is found in groups of lymph nodes both above and below the diaphragm and in any organ that is outside the lymph system; or
is found in the liver, bone marrow, more than one place in the lung, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The cancer has not spread directly into the liver, bone marrow, lung, or CSF from nearby lymph nodes.
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphomas may be grouped for treatment according to whether the cancer is indolent or aggressive, whether affected lymph nodes are next to each other in the body, and whether the cancer is newly diagnosed or recurrent.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can also be described as contiguous or noncontiguous:
Contiguous lymphomas: Lymphomas in which the lymph nodes with cancer are next to each other.
Noncontiguous lymphomas: Lymphomas in which the lymph nodes with cancer are not next to each other, but are on the same side of the diaphragm.
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma can recur (come back) after it has been treated.
The lymphoma may come back in the lymph system or in other parts of the body. Indolent lymphoma may come back as aggressive lymphoma. Aggressive lymphoma may come back as indolent lymphoma.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (5)
Lymphoma Staging
Video by Cancer GPS/YouTube
The Stages of Lymphoma
Video by Lymphoma Cancer Treatment NY - Weill Cornell/YouTube
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Video by Learn Oncology/YouTube
What is cancer staging and how does it work?
Video by Cancer Treatment Centers of America - CTCA/YouTube
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Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
1:38
Lymphoma Staging
Cancer GPS/YouTube
1:27
The Stages of Lymphoma
Lymphoma Cancer Treatment NY - Weill Cornell/YouTube
5:40
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Learn Oncology/YouTube
3:59
What is cancer staging and how does it work?
Cancer Treatment Centers of America - CTCA/YouTube
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Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Treatment
Blood plasma donation; Plasmapheresis equipment
Image by Handige Harrie at Dutch Wikipedia(Original text: Handige Harry)/Wikimedia
Blood plasma donation; Plasmapheresis equipment
Plasmadonatie
Image by Handige Harrie at Dutch Wikipedia(Original text: Handige Harry)/Wikimedia
How Is Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treated?
KEY POINTS
There are different types of treatment for patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating lymphomas.
Treatment for adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may cause side effects.
Nine types of standard treatment are used:
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy
Immunotherapy
Targeted therapy
Plasmapheresis
Watchful waiting
Antibiotic therapy
Surgery
Stem cell transplant
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
Vaccine therapy
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
There are different types of treatment for patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Different types of treatment are available for patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
For pregnant women with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, treatment is carefully chosen to protect the fetus. Treatment decisions are based on the mother’s wishes, the stage of the non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and the trimester of the pregnancy. The treatment plan may change as the signs and symptoms, cancer, and pregnancy change. Choosing the most appropriate cancer treatment is a decision that ideally involves the patient, family, and health care team.
Patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating lymphomas.
Treatment will be overseen by a medical oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating cancer, or a hematologist, a doctor who specializes in treating blood cancers. The medical oncologist may refer you to other health care providers who have experience and are experts in treating adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:
Neurosurgeon.
Neurologist.
Radiation oncologist.
Endocrinologist.
Rehabilitation specialist.
Other oncology specialists.
Treatment for adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may cause side effects.
Side effects from cancer treatment that begin after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or stem cell transplant for non-Hodgkin lymphoma may increase the risk of late effects.
Late effects of cancer treatment may include the following:
Heart problems.
Infertility (inability to have children).
Loss of bone density.
Neuropathy (nerve damage that causes numbness or trouble walking).
A second cancer, such as:
Lung cancer.
Brain cancer.
Kidney cancer.
Bladder cancer.
Melanoma.
Hodgkin lymphoma.
Myelodysplastic syndrome.
Acute myeloid leukemia.
Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your doctor about the effects cancer treatment can have on you. Regular follow-up to check for late effects is important.
Nine types of standard treatment are used:
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing.
External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the area of the body with cancer. Sometimes total-body irradiation is given before a stem cell transplant.
Proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high-energy, external radiation therapy that uses streams of protons (tiny particles with a positive charge) to kill tumor cells. This type of treatment can lower the amount of radiation damage to healthy tissue near a tumor such as the heart or breast.
External radiation therapy is used to treat adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and may also be used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
For a pregnant woman with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, radiation therapy should be given after delivery, if possible, to avoid any risk to the fetus. If treatment is needed right away, the woman may decide to continue the pregnancy and receive radiation therapy. A lead shield is used to cover the pregnant woman's abdomen to help protect the fetus from radiation as much as possible.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (intrathecal chemotherapy), an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is treatment using two or more anticancer drugs. Steroid drugs may be added, to lessen inflammation and lower the body's immune response.
Systemic combination chemotherapy is used for the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Intrathecal chemotherapy may also be used in the treatment of lymphoma that first forms in the testicles or sinuses (hollow areas) around the nose, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, lymphoblastic lymphoma, and some aggressive T-cell lymphomas. It is given to lessen the chance that lymphoma cells will spread to the brain and spinal cord. This is called CNS prophylaxis.
Intrathecal chemotherapy. Anticancer drugs are injected into the intrathecal space, which is the space that holds the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). There are two different ways to do this. One way, shown in the top part of the figure, is to inject the drugs into an Ommaya reservoir (a dome-shaped container that is placed under the scalp during surgery; it holds the drugs as they flow through a small tube into the brain). The other way, shown in the bottom part of the figure, is to inject the drugs directly into the CSF in the lower part of the spinal column, after a small area on the lower back is numbed.
When a pregnant woman is treated with chemotherapy for non-Hodgkin lymphoma, the fetus cannot be protected from being exposed to chemotherapy. Some chemotherapy regimens may cause birth defects if given in the first trimester.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patient’s immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body’s natural defenses against cancer. This cancer treatment is a type of biologic therapy.
Immunomodulators: Lenalidomide is an immunomodulator used to treat adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
CAR T-cell therapy: The patient's T cells (a type of immune system cell) are changed so they will attack certain proteins on the surface of cancer cells. T cells are taken from the patient and special receptors are added to their surface in the laboratory. The changed cells are called chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. The CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells multiply in the patient's blood and attack cancer cells. CAR T-cell therapy (such as axicabtagene ciloleucel or tisagenlecleucel) is used to treat large B-cell lymphoma that has not responded to treatment. CAR T-cell therapy is being studied to treat mantle cell lymphoma that has relapsed or not responded to treatment.
CAR T-cell therapy. A type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells (a type of immune cell) are changed in the laboratory so they will bind to cancer cells and kill them. Blood from a vein in the patient’s arm flows through a tube to an apheresis machine (not shown), which removes the white blood cells, including the T cells, and sends the rest of the blood back to the patient. Then, the gene for a special receptor called a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is inserted into the T cells in the laboratory. Millions of the CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and then given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells are able to bind to an antigen on the cancer cells and kill them.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do. Monoclonal antibody therapy, proteasome inhibitor therapy, and kinase inhibitor therapy are types of targeted therapy used to treat adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Monoclonal antibody therapy: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.
Types of monoclonal antibodies include:
Rituximab, used to treat many types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Obinutuzumab, used to treat follicular lymphoma.
Mogamulizumab, used to treat certain types of relapsed or refractory T-cell lymphoma.
Tafasitamab combined with lenalidomide to treat relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
Pembrolizumab to treat primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma.
Polatuzumab vedotin, combined with bendamustine and rituximab to treat relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
Brentuximab vedotin, which contains a monoclonal antibody that binds to a protein called CD30 that is found on some lymphoma cells. It also contains an anticancer drug that may help kill cancer cells.
Yttrium Y 90-ibritumomab tiuxetan, an example of a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody.
Proteasome inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks the action of proteasomes in cancer cells. Proteasomes remove proteins no longer needed by the cell. When the proteasomes are blocked, the proteins build up in the cell and may cause the cancer cell to die. Bortezomib or ixazomib is used to decrease how much immunoglobulin M is in the blood after cancer treatment for lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (Waldenström macroglobulinemia). It is also being studied to treat relapsed mantle cell lymphoma.
Kinase inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks certain proteins, which may help keep lymphoma cells from growing and may kill them. Kinase inhibitor therapies include:
Copanlisib, which blocks P13K proteins and may help keep lymphoma cells from growing. This is used to treat follicular non-Hodgkin lymphomas that have relapsed (come back) or have not gotten better after treatment with at least two other therapies.
Ibrutinib, acalabrutinib, and zanubrutinib, which are types of Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy. They are used to treat mantle cell lymphoma. Ibrutinib and acalabrutinib are also used to treat lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, and zanubrutinib is being studied to treat it.
Histone methyltransferase inhibitor therapy: Tazemetostat is used to treat follicular lymphoma that has come back or has not gotten better with other treatment. It is used in adults whose cancer has a certain mutation (change) in the EZH2 gene that has already been treated with at least two other anticancer therapies.
B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) inhibitor therapy: Venetoclax may be used to treat mantle cell lymphoma. It blocks the action of a protein called BCL-2 and may help kill cancer cells.
Plasmapheresis
If the blood becomes thick with extra antibody proteins and affects circulation, plasmapheresis is done to remove extra plasma and antibody proteins from the blood. In this procedure, blood is removed from the patient and sent through a machine that separates the plasma (the liquid part of the blood) from the blood cells. The patient's plasma contains the unneeded antibodies and is not returned to the patient. The normal blood cells are returned to the bloodstream along with donated plasma or a plasma replacement. Plasmapheresis does not keep new antibodies from forming.
Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient’s condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change.
Antibiotic therapy
Antibiotic therapy is a treatment that uses drugs to treat infections and cancer caused by bacteria and other microorganisms.
Surgery
Surgery may be used to remove the lymphoma in certain patients with indolent or aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The type of surgery used depends on where the lymphoma formed in the body:
Local excision for certain patients with mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, PTLD, and small bowel T-cell lymphoma.
Splenectomy for patients with marginal zone lymphoma of the spleen.
Patients who have a heart, lung, liver, kidney, or pancreas transplant usually need to take drugs to suppress their immune system for the rest of their lives. Long-term immunosuppression after an organ transplant can cause a certain type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma called post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PLTD).
Small bowel surgery is often needed to diagnose celiac disease in adults who develop a type of T-cell lymphoma.
Stem cell transplant
Stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and/or total-body irradiation and then replacing blood-forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient (autologous transplant) or a donor (allogeneic transplant) and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body’s blood cells.
Stem cell transplant. (Step 1): Blood is taken from a vein in the arm of the donor. The patient or another person may be the donor. The blood flows through a machine that removes the stem cells. Then the blood is returned to the donor through a vein in the other arm. (Step 2): The patient receives chemotherapy to kill blood-forming cells. The patient may receive radiation therapy (not shown). (Step 3): The patient receives stem cells through a catheter placed into a blood vessel in the chest.
Vaccine therapy
Vaccine therapy is a cancer treatment that uses a substance or group of substances to stimulate the immune system to find the tumor and kill it.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (8)
Blood plasma donation - Plasmapheresis
Image by ANKAWÜ/Wikimedia
Fenwal Erythropheresis machine for plasmapheresis
A Fenwal Erythropheresis machine being used for plasmapheresis at Stanford Blood Center in November 2022
Image by Elwood P. Dowd/Wikimedia
Chemotherapy
Variety of chemotherapy drugs in vials and an IV bottle.
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer)
What To Expect Before a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. (Dec. 4, 2002) - Surgical technician Amina Sherali places recently transfused bone marrow from Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen into a sterile bag in preparation for transplant. To determine the amount of marrow needed from each donor, a sample is taken during the operation and T-cells are counted. The level of T-cells and the body size of the recipient determine the amount of bone marrow to be harvested. Griffioen is assigned to Precommissioning Unit Ronald Reagan and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program. Griffioen chose to donate his bone marrow after participating in a donor drive nine years ago while stationed aboard USS George Washington.
Image by U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley.
If the tumor is too large to be treated with radiation therapy, the treatment options for indolent, noncontiguous stage II, III, or IV adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma will be used.
Treatment of indolent, noncontiguous stage II, III, or IV adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:
Watchful waiting for patients who do not have signs or symptoms.
Monoclonal antibody therapy (rituximab) with or without chemotherapy.
Lenalidomide and rituximab.
Maintenance therapy with rituximab.
Monoclonal antibody therapy (obinutuzumab) with or without chemotherapy.
PI3K inhibitor therapy (copanlisib).
EZH2 inhibitor therapy (tazemetostat).
Radiolabeled monoclonal antibody therapy.
A clinical trial of high-dose chemotherapy with or without total-body irradiation or radiolabeled monoclonal antibody therapy, followed by autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplant.
A clinical trial of chemotherapy with or without vaccine therapy.
A clinical trial of new types of monoclonal antibodies.
A clinical trial of radiation therapy that includes nearby lymph nodes, for patients who have stage III disease.
A clinical trial of low-dose radiation therapy, to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Other treatments for indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma depend on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Treatment may include the following:
For follicular lymphoma, treatment may be within a clinical trial of new monoclonal antibody therapy, new chemotherapy regimen, or a stem cell transplant.
For follicular lymphoma that has relapsed (come back) or has not gotten better after treatment, therapy may include a PI3K inhibitor (copanlisib).
For lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (Waldenström macroglobulinemia), tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy and/or plasmapheresis or proteasome inhibitor therapy (if needed to make the blood thinner) is used. Other treatments that are like those used for follicular lymphoma may also be given.
For gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, antibiotic therapy to treat Helicobacter pylori infection is given first. For tumors that do not respond to antibiotic therapy, treatment is radiation therapy, surgery, or rituximab with or without chemotherapy.
For extragastric MALT lymphoma of the eye and Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma, antibiotic therapy is used to treat infection.
For splenic marginal zone lymphoma, rituximab with or without chemotherapy and B-cell receptor therapy is used as initial treatment. If the tumor does not respond to treatment, a splenectomy may be done.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (7)
Non-Hodgkin Follicular Lymphoma - Carol's Story of Hope
Video by Lymphoma Australia/YouTube
Active Monitoring (watch and wait) for low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Frontline Treatment for Follicular Lymphoma
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Challenges within follicular lymphoma treatment
Video by VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins that are created in the lab. Antibodies are produced naturally by your body and help the immune system recognize germs that cause disease, such as bacteria and viruses, and mark them for destruction. Like your body’s own antibodies, monoclonal antibodies recognize specific targets.
Many monoclonal antibodies are used to treat cancer. They are a type of targeted cancer therapy, which means they are designed to interact with specific targets. Some monoclonal antibodies are also immunotherapy because they help turn the immune system against cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins that are created in the lab. Antibodies are produced naturally by your body and help the immune system recognize germs that cause disease, such as bacteria and viruses, and mark them for destruction. Like your body’s own antibodies, monoclonal antibodies recognize specific targets.
Many monoclonal antibodies are used to treat cancer. They are a type of targeted cancer therapy, which means they are designed to interact with specific targets. Some monoclonal antibodies are also immunotherapy because they help turn the immune system against cancer. For example, as illustrated here, some monoclonal antibodies bring T cells close to cancer cells, helping the immune cells kill the cancer cells.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
2:50
Non-Hodgkin Follicular Lymphoma - Carol's Story of Hope
Lymphoma Australia/YouTube
4:54
Active Monitoring (watch and wait) for low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
6:20
Frontline Treatment for Follicular Lymphoma
OncLiveTV/YouTube
2:27
Challenges within follicular lymphoma treatment
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)
Patient Receives Chemotherapy
A Hispanic male patient receives Chemotherapy from a African-American Nurse through a port that is placed in his chest area. A caucasian female nurse looks on.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Rhoda Baer (Photographer)
Treatment of Aggressive Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Treatment of aggressive stage I and aggressive, contiguous stage II adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:
Monoclonal antibody therapy (rituximab) and combination chemotherapy. Sometimes radiation therapy is given later.
A clinical trial of a new regimen of monoclonal antibody therapy and combination chemotherapy.
Treatment of aggressive, noncontiguous stage II, III, or IV adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:
Monoclonal antibody therapy (rituximab) with combination chemotherapy.
Combination chemotherapy.
A clinical trial of monoclonal antibody therapy with combination chemotherapy followed by radiation therapy.
Other treatments depend on the type of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Treatment may include the following:
For extranodal NK-/T-cell lymphoma, radiation therapy that may be given before, during, or after chemotherapy and CNS prophylaxis.
For mantle cell lymphoma, monoclonal antibody therapy with combination chemotherapy, followed by stem cell transplant. Monoclonal antibody therapy may be given afterwards as maintenance therapy (treatment that is given after initial therapy to help keep cancer from coming back).
For posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder, treatment with immunosuppressive drugs may be stopped. If this does not work or cannot be done, monoclonal antibody therapy alone or with chemotherapy may be given. For cancer that has not spread, surgery to remove the cancer or radiation therapy may be used.
For plasmablastic lymphoma, treatments are like those used for lymphoblastic lymphoma or Burkitt lymphoma.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (7)
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Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
How Monoclonal Antibodies Treat Cancer
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
How do monoclonal antibodies work? Rituximab, infliximab, adalimumab and others
Video by Zero To Finals/YouTube
Monoclonal Antibodies: Making Cancer a Target
Video by Cancer Research Institute/YouTube
Quality of Life at Diagnosis May Predict Survival for Patients With Aggressive Lymphoma
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
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Follicular lymphoma
LYMPH NODES-SPLEEN: SPLENIC INVOLVEMENT BY FOLLICULAR LYMPHOMA, This illustration depicts the classic appearance of spleen involved by follicular lymphoma, namely the presence of discrete, miliary, small, white "pearly" nodules throughout the whole parenchyma.
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
Mary Beth’s Story | Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Large B-Cell | Patient Testimonial
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
3:20
How Monoclonal Antibodies Treat Cancer
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
11:49
How do monoclonal antibodies work? Rituximab, infliximab, adalimumab and others
Zero To Finals/YouTube
1:43
Monoclonal Antibodies: Making Cancer a Target
Cancer Research Institute/YouTube
2:29
Quality of Life at Diagnosis May Predict Survival for Patients With Aggressive Lymphoma
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Follicular lymphoma
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
2:42
Mary Beth’s Story | Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Large B-Cell | Patient Testimonial
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
Burkitt Lymphoma
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Burkitts lymphoma
Image by National Cancer Institute
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Burkitts lymphoma
Burkitt's Lymphoma Illustration Description Schematic diagram of chromosomes 8, 2, 14, and 22 which are involved in the translocations (usually 8;14, less frequently 8;22 or 2;8) which occur in Burkitt's Lymphoma. The break points for these translocations are identified by the banding regions (q24, p13, q32 and q11). These break points on chromosomes 2, 14, and 22 correspond to chromosomal regions to which have been mapped the kappa, heavy chain and lambda constant region genes respectively.
Image by National Cancer Institute
Treatment of Burkitt Lymphoma
Treatment of adult Burkitt lymphoma may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy with or without monoclonal antibody therapy.
CNS prophylaxis.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Burkitt's Lymphoma Treatment NY | Clinical Trials | Cancer Center | Weill Cornell Lymphoma
Lymphoma Cancer Treatment NY - Weill Cornell/YouTube
4:50
Burkitt’s Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
1:22
Treating Burkitt lymphoma in adult patients
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
Radiation therapy for cancer
Image by Jakembradford/Wikimedia
Radiation therapy for cancer
Photo taken right before the a dose of radiation
Image by Jakembradford/Wikimedia
Treatment of Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
Treatment of adult lymphoblastic lymphoma may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy and CNS prophylaxis. Sometimes radiation therapy is also given to shrink a large tumor.
Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody alone (rituximab) or combined with kinase inhibitor therapy (ibrutinib).
A clinical trial of stem cell transplant after initial treatment.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (3)
What is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)?
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
If someone close to you has low-grade non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: A film for children
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Innovations in lymphoma treatment - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
2:25
What is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)?
Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
4:54
If someone close to you has low-grade non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: A film for children
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
3:12
Innovations in lymphoma treatment - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
NHL During Pregnancy
Pregnancy
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436
Pregnancy
Pregnancy
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436
Treatment of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma During Pregnancy
Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma During Pregnancy
Women who have indolent (slow-growing) non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy may be treated with watchful waiting until after they give birth. (See the Treatment Options for Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma section for more information.)
Aggressive Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma During Pregnancy
Treatment of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy may include the following:
Treatment given right away based on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma to increase the mother's chance of survival. Treatment may include combination chemotherapy and rituximab.
Early delivery of the baby followed by treatment based on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
If in the first trimester of pregnancy, medical oncologists may advise ending the pregnancy so that treatment may begin. Treatment depends on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (2)
Lymphoma Treatment While Pregnant - Missy's Story - The Nebraska Medical Center
Video by Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
Pregnant mother diagnosed with cancer
Video by WCPO 9/YouTube
4:07
Lymphoma Treatment While Pregnant - Missy's Story - The Nebraska Medical Center
Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
2:35
Pregnant mother diagnosed with cancer
WCPO 9/YouTube
Recurrent NHL
Peripheral blood stem cells
Image by Fnaq
Peripheral blood stem cells
Hematopoietic stem cells (peripheral blood stem cells) obtained by the method of apheresis (cytophysis) of venous blood after a 5-day stimulation of the donor with the Granocyte preparation (Lenograstim).
Image by Fnaq
Treatment of Recurrent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Treatment of indolent, recurrent adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:
Monoclonal antibody therapy (rituximab or obinutuzumab) with or without chemotherapy.
Lenalidomide and rituximab.
PI3K inhibitor therapy (copanlisib).
EZH2 inhibitor therapy (tazemetostat).
Radiation therapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Chemotherapy with one or more drugs.
Radiolabeled monoclonal antibody therapy.
CAR T-cell therapy.
Stem cell transplant.
Treatment of aggressive, recurrent adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include the following:
CAR T-cell therapy with axicabtagene ciloleucel for primary refractory disease or relapse within 1 year.
Bone marrow transplant or stem cell transplant consolidation therapy.
CAR T-cell therapy for relapse after autologous stem cell transplant.
Tafasitamab plus lenalidomide.
Rituximab plus lenalidomide.
Polatuzumab vedotin plus rituximab and bendamustine.
Loncastuximab tesirine.
Chemotherapy with or without stem cell transplant.
For certain T-cell lymphomas, monoclonal antibody therapy with mogamulizumab.
Monoclonal antibody therapy with or without combination chemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplant.
Radiation therapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Radiolabeled monoclonal antibody therapy.
For mantle cell lymphoma, treatment may include the following:
Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy.
Rituximab with or without a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (ibrutinib).
Lenalidomide.
A clinical trial of lenalidomide with monoclonal antibody therapy.
A clinical trial comparing lenalidomide to other therapy.
A clinical trial of proteasome inhibitor therapy (bortezomib).
For diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, treatment may include the following:
Tafasitamab plus lenalidomide.
Polatuzumab vedotin, combined with bendamustine and rituximab.
A clinical trial of autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplant.
Treatment of indolent lymphoma that comes back as aggressive lymphoma depends on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and may include radiation therapy as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life. Treatment of aggressive lymphoma that comes back as indolent lymphoma may include chemotherapy.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (5)
Bone marrow transplant
A bag with bone marrow ready to be used for transplant
Image by John Bergenholtz
Relapse of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Treating Relapsed Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Adult Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
FDG-PET initial study solitary pulmonary nodule Non-Hodgkin lymphoma : A 71-year-old lady was incidentally found to have a coin lesion on a chest X-ray. Thoracic CT confirmed the presence of a 1.0 cm solitary pulmonary nodule. The initial FDG-PET study shown here (Philips Allegro system) reveals a small retrocardiac focus of increased FDG uptake within the left lower lobe nodule (thin arrow) suggestive of a malignant process. In addition, the study demonstrates abnormal increased activity at the gastro-oesophageal junction (thick arrow). The patient was found to have non-Hodgkin's lymphoma at both sites.
Image by Thomas EL, Lenzo NP, Troedson R
Bone marrow transplant
John Bergenholtz
6:32
Relapse of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
3:56
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
4:10
Treating Relapsed Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Adult Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
Thomas EL, Lenzo NP, Troedson R
Prognosis
Prognosis Icon
Image by mcmurryjulie/Pixabay
Prognosis Icon
Image by mcmurryjulie/Pixabay
What Factors Affect the Prognosis of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following:
The patient's signs and symptoms, including whether or not they have B symptoms (fever for no known reason, weight loss for no known reason, or drenching night sweats).
The stage of the cancer (the size of the cancer tumors and whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body or lymph nodes).
The type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The amount of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the blood.
Whether there are certain changes in the genes.
The patient’s age, sex, and general health.
Whether the lymphoma is newly diagnosed, continues to grow during treatment, or has recurred (come back).
For non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy, treatment options also depend on:
The wishes of the patient.
Which trimester of pregnancy the patient is in.
Whether the baby can be delivered early.
Some types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma spread more quickly than others do. Most non-Hodgkin lymphomas that occur during pregnancy are aggressive. Delaying treatment of aggressive lymphoma until after the baby is born may lessen the mother's chance of survival. Immediate treatment is often recommended, even during pregnancy.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (6)
Mutation
A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can result from DNA copying mistakes made during cell division, exposure to ionizing radiation, exposure to chemicals called mutagens, or infection by viruses.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Mary Beth’s Story | Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Large B-Cell | Patient Testimonial
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
Chartese, non-Hodgkin lymphoma survivor
Video by Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Survivor, Austin Cameron
Video by Sharp HealthCare/YouTube
Treatment for high-grade NHL
Video by Blood Cancer UK/YouTube
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Mutation
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
2:42
Mary Beth’s Story | Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Large B-Cell | Patient Testimonial
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
4:23
Chartese, non-Hodgkin lymphoma survivor
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
2:42
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Survivor, Austin Cameron
Sharp HealthCare/YouTube
1:47
Treatment for high-grade NHL
Blood Cancer UK/YouTube
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Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
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Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes (white blood cells), which are part of the body’s immune system. These cancers can be divided into aggressive (fast-growing) and indolent (slow-growing) types, and they can be formed from either B-cells or T-cells. Learn about the different types, risk factors, and treatment options.