Childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes a large number of abnormal blood cells. Learn about risk factors, signs and symptoms, treatment options, and prognosis for this condition.
Jimmy “LJ” Now was just another two-year-old boy before he was diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia.
Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Mackenzie Mendez
Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Zara, diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Ceaira Tinsley
Zara, diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia
Zara, daughter of Tech. Sgt. Jean “Jay” Fleurantin, 723d Aircraft Maintenance Squadron electronic warfare technician, prepares for her first day of school since being diagnosed with Acute Myeloid Leukemia, Jan. 9, 2018, in Hahira, Ga. Zara was diagnosed with Acute Myeloid Leukemia in January 2017 and after numerous unsuccessful rounds of chemotherapy, Jay donated bone marrow as a last resort and in May 2017 the doctors announced Zara’s cancer was in full remission. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Ceaira Tinsley)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Ceaira Tinsley
Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
General Information About Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia and Other Myeloid Malignancies
KEY POINTS
Childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes a large number of abnormal blood cells.
Leukemia and other diseases of the blood and bone marrow may affect red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Other myeloid diseases can affect the blood and bone marrow.
Transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM)
Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL)
Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML)
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS)
AML or MDS may occur after treatment with certain chemotherapy drugs and/or radiation therapy.
The risk factors for childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies are similar.
Signs and symptoms of childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies include fever, feeling tired, and easy bleeding or bruising.
Tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to diagnose and find any spread of childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (20)
Pediatric Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube
Acute Myeloid Leukemia AML Animation
Video by Medical.Animation.Videos.Library/YouTube
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Symptoms and Treatment of AML Video About com
AI-Driven Targeted Therapy in Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Penn Medicine/YouTube
2:46
What is Acute Myelogenous Leukemia? (Excess Immature White Blood Cells)
healthery/YouTube
1:27
What Is AML?
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Overview
Childhood Leukemia
Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Brian A. Stone
Childhood Leukemia
Logistics Specialist Seaman Sergio Torres, assigned to the U.S. 7th Fleet command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19), draws pictures with a child at the Vladivostok children's cancer ward.
Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Brian A. Stone
Overview of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes a large number of abnormal blood cells.
Childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow. AML is also called acute myelogenous leukemia, acute myeloblastic leukemia, acute granulocytic leukemia, and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. Cancers that are acute usually get worse quickly if they are not treated. Cancers that are chronic usually get worse slowly.
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Leukemia and other diseases of the blood and bone marrow may affect red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
In healthy children, the bone marrow makes blood stem cells (immature cells) that become mature blood cells over time. A blood stem cell may become a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell. A lymphoid stem cell becomes a type of white blood cell.
A myeloid stem cell becomes one of three types of mature blood cells:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other substances to all tissues of the body.
White blood cells that fight infection and disease.
Platelets that form blood clots to stop bleeding.
Blood cell development. A blood stem cell goes through several steps to become a red blood cell, platelet, or white blood cell.
In AML, the myeloid stem cells usually become a type of immature white blood cell called myeloblasts (or myeloid blasts). The myeloblasts, or leukemia cells, in AML are abnormal and do not become healthy white blood cells. The leukemia cells can build up in the blood and bone marrow so there is less room for healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This may lead to infection, anemia, or easy bleeding.
The leukemia cells can spread outside the blood to other parts of the body, including the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), skin, and gums. Sometimes leukemia cells form a solid tumor called a myeloid sarcoma. Myeloid sarcoma is also called granulocytic sarcoma or chloroma.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (5)
Pediatric Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube
What is Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)?
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Diagram showing the cells in which AML starts
Diagram showing the cells in which AML starts
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Bone Anatomy
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Other myeloid diseases can affect the blood and bone marrow.
Transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM)
TAM is a disorder of the bone marrow that can develop in newborns who have Down syndrome. It usually goes away on its own within the first 3 months of life. Infants who have TAM have an increased chance of developing AML before the age of 3 years. TAM is also called transient myeloproliferative disorder or transient leukemia.
Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL)
APL is a subtype of AML. In APL, some genes on chromosome 15 switch places with some genes on chromosome 17 and an abnormal gene called PML-RARA is made. The PML-RARA gene sends a message that stops promyelocytes (a type of white blood cell) from maturing. The promyelocytes (leukemia cells) can build up in the blood and bone marrow so there is less room for healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Problems with severe bleeding and blood clots may also occur. This is a serious health problem that needs treatment as soon as possible.
Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML)
JMML is a rare childhood cancer that is most common in children around the age of 2 years and is more common in boys. In JMML, too many myeloid blood stem cells become myelocytes and monocytes (two types of white blood cells). Some of these myeloid blood stem cells never become mature white blood cells. These immature cells, called blasts, are unable to do their usual work. Over time, the myelocytes, monocytes, and blasts crowd out the red blood cells and platelets in the bone marrow. When this happens, infection, anemia, or easy bleeding may occur.
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
CML often begins in an early myeloid blood cell when a certain gene change occurs. A section of genes, that includes the ABL gene, on chromosome 9 changes place with a section of genes on chromosome 22, which has the BCR gene. This makes a very short chromosome 22 (called the Philadelphia chromosome) and a very long chromosome 9. An abnormal BCR-ABL gene is formed on chromosome 22. The BCR-ABL gene tells the blood cells to make too much of a protein called tyrosine kinase. Tyrosine kinase causes too many white blood cells (leukemia cells) to be made in the bone marrow. The leukemia cells can build up in the blood and bone marrow so there is less room for healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. When this happens, infection, anemia, or easy bleeding may occur. CML is rare in children.
Philadelphia chromosome. A piece of chromosome 9 and a piece of chromosome 22 break off and trade places. The bcr-abl gene is formed on chromosome 22 where the piece of chromosome 9 attaches. The changed chromosome 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome.
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS)
MDS occur less often in children than in adults. In MDS, the bone marrow makes too few red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These blood cells may not mature and enter the blood. The type of MDS depends on the type of blood cell that is affected.
The treatment for MDS depends on how low the numbers of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are. Over time, MDS may become AML.
AML or MDS may occur after treatment with certain chemotherapy drugs and/or radiation therapy.
Cancer treatment with certain chemotherapy drugs and/or radiation therapy may cause therapy-related AML (t-AML) or therapy-related MDS (t-MDS). The risk of these therapy-related myeloid diseases depends on the total dose of the chemotherapy drugs used and the radiation dose and treatment field. Some patients also have an inherited risk for t-AML and t-MDS. These therapy-related diseases usually occur within 7 years after treatment, but are rare in children.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (4)
Pediatric Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube
Philadelphia Chromosome
Schematic of the Philadelphia chromosome formation. Philadelphia chromosome. A piece of chromosome 9 and a piece of chromosome 22 break off and trade places. The bcr-abl gene is formed on chromosome 22 where the piece of chromosome 9 attaches. The changed chromosome 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome.
Image by Aryn89
Chromosomal translocations
Chromosomal translocations, giving an overview of chromosomes involved. Precise locations within the chromosomes are not specified. Most are cancer forms, but also other conditions, e.g. t(1;11), which is is associated with schizophrenia. Chromosomes are arranged in standard karyogram order.
Abbreviations:
ALL - Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
AML - Acute myeloid leukemia
CML - Chronic myelogenous leukemia
DFSP - Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
References
See also: Chromosomal translocations
↑ Semple CA, Devon RS, Le Hellard S, Porteous DJ (April 2001). "Identification of genes from a schizophrenia-linked translocation breakpoint region". Genomics 73 (1): 123–6. DOI:10.1006/geno.2001.6516. PMID 11352574.
The risk factors for childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies are similar.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your child’s doctor if you think your child may be at risk. These and other factors may increase the risk of childhood AML, APL, JMML, CML, and MDS:
Having a brother or sister, especially a twin, with leukemia.
Having a personal history of bone marrow failure.
Having a personal history of MDS.
Past treatment with chemotherapy or radiation therapy.
Being exposed to ionizing radiation or chemicals such as benzene.
Having certain syndromes or inherited disorders, such as:
Title WYNTK Leukemia Symbol
Description Leukemia Symbol
Topics/Categories Historical, Documents and Publications Historical, Graphics
Type B&W, Medical Illustration
Source National Cancer Institute
Image by Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator)/Wikimedia
Signs and Symptoms of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Signs and symptoms of childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies include fever, feeling tired, and easy bleeding or bruising.
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by childhood AML, APL, JMML, CML, or MDS or by other conditions. Check with a doctor if your child has any of the following:
Fever with or without an infection.
Drenching night sweats.
Shortness of breath.
Weakness, feeling tired, or looking pale.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin caused by bleeding).
Bone or joint pain.
Pain or feeling of fullness below the ribs.
Painless lumps in the neck, underarm, stomach, groin, or other parts of the body. In childhood AML, these lumps, called leukemia cutis, may be blue or purple.
Painless lumps that are sometimes around the eyes. These lumps, called myeloid sarcomas, are sometimes seen in childhood AML and may be blue-green.
An eczema-like skin rash.
Loss of appetite or weight loss.
Headache, trouble seeing, or confusion.
The signs and symptoms of TAM may include the following:
Swelling all over the body.
Shortness of breath.
Trouble breathing.
Increased heart rate.
Weakness, feeling tired, or looking pale.
Easy bleeding or bruising.
Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin caused by bleeding).
Pain below the ribs.
Skin rash.
Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes).
Sometimes TAM does not cause any symptoms at all and is diagnosed after a routine blood test.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (3)
Know AML | Acute Myeloid Leukemia Signs and Symptoms
What are the symptoms of acute myeloid leukemia (AML)?
You and AML/YouTube
Diagnosis
What To Expect After Bone Marrow Tests
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
What To Expect After Bone Marrow Tests
Diagram of bone marrow
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
Diagnosis of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Complete blood count (CBC) with differential: A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
The number of red blood cells and platelets.
The number and type of white blood cells.
The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. Biopsies that may be done include the following:
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone.
Tumor biopsy for AML: The removal of cells or tissues from a lump in the testicles, ovaries, or skin using a needle. This may be done if the doctor suspects the leukemia cells may have formed a solid tumor called a myeloid sarcoma.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the child’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
Immunophenotyping: A laboratory test that uses antibodies to identify cancer cells based on the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cells. This test is used to help diagnose specific types of leukemia.
Cytogenetic analysis: A laboratory test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. Changes in certain chromosomes may be a sign of cancer. Cytogenetic analysis is used to help diagnose cancer, plan treatment, or find out how well treatment is working.
The following test is a type of cytogenetic analysis:
FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization): A laboratory test used to look at and count genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues. Pieces of DNA that contain fluorescent dyes are made in the laboratory and added to a sample of a patient’s cells or tissues. When these dyed pieces of DNA attach to certain genes or areas of chromosomes in the sample, they light up when viewed under a fluorescent microscope. The FISH test is used to help diagnose cancer and help plan treatment.
Molecular testing: A laboratory test to check for certain genes, proteins, or other molecules in a sample of tissue, blood, or bone marrow. Molecular tests also check for certain changes in a gene or chromosome that may cause or affect the chance of developing AML. A molecular test may be used to help plan treatment, find out how well treatment is working, or make a prognosis.
Lumbar puncture: A procedure used to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle between two bones in the spine and into the CSF around the spinal cord and removing a sample of the fluid. The sample of CSF is checked under a microscope for signs that leukemia cells have spread to the brain and spinal cord. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap.
Lumbar puncture. A patient lies in a curled position on a table. After a small area on the lower back is numbed, a spinal needle (a long, thin needle) is inserted into the lower part of the spinal column to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (7)
Acute Myeloid Leukemia AML Animation
Video by Medical.Animation.Videos.Library/YouTube
Pediatric Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Video by UChicago Medicine/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the child’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
A cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a group of tests that help diagnose diseases and conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
Also called: CSF Analysis, Spinal Fluid Analysis
A cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a group of tests that help diagnose diseases and conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid found in your brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up your central nervous system. Your central nervous system controls and coordinates everything you do including, muscle movement, organ function, and even complex thinking and planning. CSF helps protect this system by acting like a cushion against sudden impact or injury to the brain or spinal cord. CSF also removes waste products from the brain and helps your central nervous system work properly.
A CSF analysis is a group of tests that look at your cerebrospinal fluid to help diagnose diseases and conditions that affect the brain and spinal cord.
A CSF analysis may include tests to diagnose:
Infectious diseases of the brain and spinal cord, including meningitis and encephalitis. CSF tests for infections look at white blood cells, bacteria, and other substances in the cerebrospinal fluid
Autoimmune disorders, such as Guillain-Barré Syndrome and multiple sclerosis (MS). CSF tests for these disorders look for high levels of certain proteins in the cerebrospinal fluid. These tests are called albumin protein and igG/albumin.
Bleeding in the brain
Brain tumors
You may need a CSF analysis if you have symptoms of an infection of the brain or spinal cord, or of an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis (MS).
Symptoms of a brain or spinal cord infection include:
Fever
Severe headache
Seizures
Stiff neck
Nausea and vomiting
Sensitivity to light
Double vision
Changes in behavior
Confusion
Symptoms of MS include:
Blurred or double vision
Tingling in the arms, legs, or face
Muscle spasms
Weak muscles
Dizziness
Bladder control problems
Symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome include weakness and tingling in the legs, arms, and upper body.
You may also need a CSF analysis if you've had an injury to your brain or spinal cord, or have been diagnosed with cancer that has spread to the brain or spinal cord.
Your cerebrospinal fluid will be collected through a procedure called a spinal tap, also known as a lumbar puncture. A spinal tap is usually done in a hospital. During the procedure:
You will lie on your side or sit on an exam table.
A health care provider will clean your back and inject an anesthetic into your skin, so you won't feel pain during the procedure. Your provider may put a numbing cream on your back before this injection.
Once the area on your back is completely numb, your provider will insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small backbones that make up your spine.
Your provider will withdraw a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. This will take about five minutes.
You'll need to stay very still while the fluid is being withdrawn.
Your provider may ask you to lie on your back for an hour or two after the procedure. This may prevent you from getting a headache afterward.
You don't need any special preparations for a CSF analysis, but you may be asked to empty your bladder and bowels before the test.
There is very little risk to having a spinal tap. You may feel a little pinch or pressure when the needle is inserted. After the test, you may get a headache, called a post-lumbar headache. About one in 10 people will get a post-lumbar headache. This can last for several hours or up to a week or more. If you have a headache that lasts longer than several hours, talk to your health care provider. He or she may be able to provide treatment to relieve the pain.
You may feel some pain or tenderness in your back at the site where the needle was inserted. You may also have some bleeding at the site.
Your CSF analysis results may indicate that you have an infection, an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis, or another disease of the brain or spinal cord. Your provider will likely order more tests to confirm your diagnosis.
Some infections, such as meningitis caused by bacteria, are life-threatening emergencies. If your provider suspects you have bacterial meningitis or another serious infection, he or she may give you medicine before your diagnosis is confirmed.
005256: Cell Count, Cerebrospinal Fluid | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
CSF Analysis [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis - - American Family Physician [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Cerebrospinal Fluid | Lab Tests | GLOWM [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
CSF Analysis - Neurology - Michigan Medicine Confluence [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Additional Materials (17)
Ventricular system
The Human en:Ventricular system colored and animated
Image by en:Anatomography
Lumbar puncture
Image by BruceBlaus
What is hydrocephalus and what are the different types?
Illustration showing different effects of hydrocephalus on the brain and cranium.
Image by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hydrocephalus - Who gets it and what causes it?
Image by Vimont, Engelmann /Scan by NLM
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Images from a patient with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH)
Image by Nevit Dilmen
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus _ Animated MRI Images from a patient with normal pressure hydrocephalus
Image by Nevit Dilmen
4 vials of human cerebrospinal fluid
4 vials of human cerebral spinal fluid of normal appearance, collected via lumbar puncture from the L3/L4 disk space.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Epidural blood patch
Illustration of Epidural blood patch
Image by Gurch
Lumbar puncture
Lumbar puncture procedure in a new born infant in a Neonatal Medium Care Unit, Maracay, Venezuela.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Image by OpenStax College
Lumbar Vertebrae
3D visualization based on scanned human data of lumbar vertebrae. Strong and wide lumbar vertebrae bear weight of the body and provide stability.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lumbar Puncture
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Lumbar Spine Anatomy
Video by Randale Sechrest/YouTube
Lumbar Puncture
Lumbar Puncture
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Healthy Brain cross section
Brain with Ischemic Stroke cross section
Brain with Hemorrhagic Stroke, cross section
1
2
3
Types of Stroke
Cross Section
1) Healthy Brain - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. The vertebral arteries enter the skull through the foramen magnum. They meet to form the basilar artery, then ultimately branch into the posterior cerebral arteries. The Circle of Willis is a pattern of arteries in the center of the brain, surrounding the pituitary gland. The ventricles are fluid-filled cavities in the brain continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord, housing cells that produce and secrete cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid lubricates and has an immunological function.
2) Ischemic Stroke - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. A portion of dead brain tissue can be seen on the individual's left side of the brain near the surface. The dead tissue is due to an ischemic stroke, most likely a result of blockage in an artery to the brain. The blockage can also occur elsewhere in the body, but break apart and travel through the bloodstream, getting caught in the smaller arteries in the brain. Blood is unable to reach the tissue destination, and therefore that tissue becomes necrotic. The cause of blockage in the first place is likely due to fatty deposits in arterial walls, or atherosclerosis.
3) Hemorrhagic Stroke - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. A hemorrhagic stroke has occurred, as indicated by the area of bleeding on the individual's left side of the brain. A hemorrhagic stroke can occur when a vessel weakened by conditions such as an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation (AVM) ruptures, allowing blood to leak out into the surrounding tissues. These conditions can be congenital, but risks may increase due to high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, and atherosclerosis.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Ventricular system
en:Anatomography
Lumbar puncture
BruceBlaus
What is hydrocephalus and what are the different types?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hydrocephalus - Who gets it and what causes it?
Vimont, Engelmann /Scan by NLM
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Nevit Dilmen
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Nevit Dilmen
4 vials of human cerebrospinal fluid
James Heilman, MD
Epidural blood patch
Gurch
Lumbar puncture
Bobjgalindo
Spinal Cord Cross Section
OpenStax College
Lumbar Vertebrae
TheVisualMD
4:06
Lumbar Puncture
DrER.tv/YouTube
5:32
Lumbar Spine Anatomy
Randale Sechrest/YouTube
Lumbar Puncture
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Types of Stroke
TheVisualMD
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt1
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt2
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Video by Seeker+/YouTube
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
TheVisualMD
Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:11
Complete Blood Count
Tom Wade MD/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
Med Immersion/YouTube
22:14
Complete Blood Count pt2
Med Immersion/YouTube
0:06
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:07
Anemic Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
8:29
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
10:42
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(10<sup>6</sup>)/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{WBC}/uL
4500
11000
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel or fingertip with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a few drops of blood and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
A bacterial or viral infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Sensitive content
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Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
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Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Clotting is the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. There are two types of platelet tests: a platelet count test and platelet function tests.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. A higher than normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or too much clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
Nosebleeds
Unexplained bruising
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to the bone marrow
Cirrhosis
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
Sensitive content
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Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
fL
76
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Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
1
2
3
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
Blood Components
TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
TheVisualMD
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
Also called: SLNB, Biopsy of the Sentinel Lymph Node, Lymph Node Biopsy, Sentinel Node Biopsy, Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping and Biopsy
A sentinel lymph node biopsy is a test that checks lymph nodes for cancer cells. Some cancers, such as breast cancer and melanoma, can spread through the lymphatic system. The sentinel lymph node is the first node where a cancer usually spreads. The test can show whether your cancer is likely to spread.
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
Also called: SLNB, Biopsy of the Sentinel Lymph Node, Lymph Node Biopsy, Sentinel Node Biopsy, Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping and Biopsy
A sentinel lymph node biopsy is a test that checks lymph nodes for cancer cells. Some cancers, such as breast cancer and melanoma, can spread through the lymphatic system. The sentinel lymph node is the first node where a cancer usually spreads. The test can show whether your cancer is likely to spread.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
If your results are negative, it means no cancer cells were found, and it's unlikely that the cancer has spread. You will not need to have any more lymph nodes removed.
Related conditions
Breast cancer
Melanoma
Penile cancer
Endometrial cancer
A sentinel lymph node biopsy is a test that checks lymph nodes for cancer cells. Lymph nodes are part of the lymphatic system, a network of organs and vessels that help the body fight infections and other diseases. Lymph nodes are located throughout the body, including the underarms, neck, chest, abdomen, and groin.
Certain cancers, such as breast cancer and melanoma (the most dangerous form of skin cancer), can spread through the lymphatic system. Cancers spread when cells break off from the original tumor and are carried to other parts of the body. The sentinel lymph node is the first node where these types of cancers are most likely to spread. The node is usually located near the site of the original tumor. Sometimes there is more than one sentinel lymph node.
A sentinel lymph node biopsy can show how likely it is that your cancer is spreading (metastasizing).
Other names: lymph node biopsy, sentinel node biopsy, sentinel lymph node mapping and biopsy
A sentinel lymph node biopsy is used to find out whether an early-stage cancer has spread through the lymphatic system. It's most often used for people who have breast cancer or melanoma.
You may need this test if you've been diagnosed with breast cancer, melanoma, or certain other types of cancer. It can show whether your cancer is spreading.
A sentinel lymph node biopsy may be done in a hospital or an outpatient surgical center. The procedure usually includes a special type of imaging test called lymphoscintigraphy. Lymphoscintigraphy takes pictures of the lymphatic system and is used to locate the sentinel lymph node. The procedure includes the following steps:
A health care provider will apply medicine to numb the skin over the procedure area.
You will be injected with a small amount of a radioactive substance called a tracer near the tumor. The tracer will travel and collect in the sentinel lymph node, or nodes. You may also be injected with a blue dye that stains the lymph node, making it easier to see.
You will be given general anesthesia. General anesthesia is a medicine that makes you unconscious. It makes sure you won't feel any pain during the surgery. A specially trained doctor called an anesthesiologist will give you this medicine.
Once you're unconscious, a camera will take images of the area. The camera finds and records the location of the tracer, which will have settled in the sentinel node.
The node will be removed and sent to a lab, where it will be checked for cancer cells. This part of the test is known as a biopsy.
The original tumor is also usually removed during the procedure.
You will probably need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. You may also need to stop taking blood thinners, such as aspirin, for a certain time before your test. Your provider will let you know when you need to stop taking your medicine and anything else you need to do to prepare for the test.
In addition, be sure to arrange for someone to drive you home. You may be groggy and confused after you wake up from the procedure.
You may have a little bleeding, pain, or bruising at the biopsy site. There is also a small risk of infection, which can be treated with antibiotics. Allergic reactions to the tracer are rare and usually mild.
There is very little exposure to radiation in a sentinel lymph node biopsy. While radiation exposure from the tracer in a sentinel lymph node biopsy is safe for most adults, it can be harmful to an unborn baby. So be sure to tell your provider if you are pregnant or think you may be pregnant.
The results will be given as positive or negative.
If your results are positive, it means cancer was found and may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and/or other organs. Your provider may recommend removing and testing more lymph nodes to check for cancer cells.
If your results are negative, it means no cancer cells were found, and it's unlikely that the cancer has spread. You will not need to have any more lymph nodes removed.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
While sentinel lymph node biopsies are mostly used for people with breast cancer or melanoma, it is currently being studied for use with other types of cancer, including:
Colon cancer
Stomach cancer
Thyroid cancer
Non-small cell lung cancer
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 03, 2024]
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy - NCI. National Cancer Institute. Jun 25, 2019 [accessed on Feb 03, 2024]
Melanoma: Tests After Diagnosis - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Feb 03, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (50)
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy of the Breast
Sentinel lymph node biopsy of the breast. The first of three panels shows a radioactive substance and/or blue dye injected near the tumor; the middle panel shows that the injected material is followed visually and/or with a probe that detects radioactivity to find the sentinel nodes (the first lymph nodes to take up the material); the third panel shows the removal of the tumor and the sentinel nodes to check for cancer cells.
Sentinel lymph node biopsy of the breast. A radioactive substance and/or blue dye is injected near the tumor (first panel). The injected material is detected visually and/or with a probe that detects radioactivity (middle panel). The sentinel nodes (the first lymph nodes to take up the material) are removed and checked for cancer cells (last panel).
Sentinel Lymph Node & Axillary Lymph Node Procedures for Breast Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Surgery for Melanoma Patients: Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy and Complete Lymph Node Dissection
Video by American Cancer Society/YouTube
Sentinel Node Biopsy: Breast Cancer Lymph Node Surgery
Video by Breast Cancer School for Patients/YouTube
Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping for Gynecologic Cancers
Video by Memorial Sloan Kettering/YouTube
Introduction to the Lymphatic System
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Lymphatic System, Part 2
Video by Tammy Moore/YouTube
The Lymphatic System, Part 1
Video by Tammy Moore/YouTube
The lymphatic system's role in immunity | Lymphatic system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
lymphatic system
Diagram of the lymphatic system.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System
Image by NIH
Lymph Node of Head and Neck
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of male revealing lymphatic structures (lacrimal glands, tonsils, salivary glands, thymus, subclavian veins axillary nodes, stomach, cisterna chyli). The lymphatic system works in concert with the immune system. It can be described as an extensive network of vessels that shuttle molecular waste-filled fluid (lymph) through purifiying centers called lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymphatic, circulatory and nervous systems
The systems of the human body consist of: circulatory, digestive, endocrine, immune/lymphatic, integumentary, muscular, reproductive, skeletal, urinary. This image depicts the circulatory, endocrine, immune/lymphatic, nervous
Image by TheVisualMD
Babies Sitting Showing Respiratory Lymphatic Circulatory and Skeletal Systems
One of the most obvious ways that we notice the overall immune health of a baby is through the presence or absence of respiratory infections. Respiratory illness is the leading cause of hospitalization among young children. Lymph nodes and vessels are a direct component of the immune system. Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body especially in the neck, axillae, groin, and thoracic regions. Lymph tissue aids the immune system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body. Lymph vessels transport lymph, a clear fluid derived from intercellular spaces around the body, eventually back into the blood. An infant's circulatory system will face an olympian job over the course of the individual's lifetime; the heart will beat 2.5 billion times and pump millions of gallons of blood through the body's vast network of arteries and veins. An infant's heart doubles in size the first year of life. Nutrition plays a key role in the development and maintenance of a healthy circulatory system by providing building blocks such as iron needed for red blood cell production.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymphatic System
Lymphatic Trunks and Ducts System
Image by OpenStax College
Babies Sitting Showing Respiratory Lymphatic Circulatory and Skeletal Systems
One of the most obvious ways that we notice the overall immune health of a baby is through the presence or absence of respiratory infections. Respiratory illness is the leading cause of hospitalization among young children. Lymph nodes and vessels are a direct component of the immune system. Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body especially in the neck, axillae, groin, and thoracic regions. Lymph tissue aids the immune system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body. Lymph vessels transport lymph, a clear fluid derived from intercellular spaces around the body, eventually back into the blood. An infant's circulatory system will face an olympian job over the course of the individual's lifetime; the heart will beat 2.5 billion times and pump millions of gallons of blood through the body's vast network of arteries and veins. An infant's heart doubles in size the first year of life. Nutrition plays a key role in the development and maintenance of a healthy circulatory system by providing building blocks such as iron, needed for red blood cell production.
Image by TheVisualMD
In Defense of You: Your Immune System
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Node and Lymph interstitial fluid
Lymph Node and Vasculature: The image shows a human lymph node and its vasculature (blood vessels). Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpit, groin, lung, and aortic areas. These aggregations of lymph tissue aid the immunological system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Node with Vasculature
Computer generated illustration of a human lymph node and its vasculature. Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body especially in the neck, axillae, groin, lung and aortic areas. These aggregations of lymph tissue aid the immunological system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Lymph Node Biopsy : When breast cancer spreads beyond the primary tumor site, it usually spreads first to the sentinel lymph node or nodes, the first lymph nodes to receive drainage from a cancer-containing area of the breast. From there, breast cancer generally spreads to the axillary lymph nodes under the arm. So an important part of the breast cancer staging process is to determine whether the cancer has spread from the primary tumor to the sentinel lymph node, and from there into the axillary lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Node Biopsy
Lymph Node Biopsy : When breast cancer spreads beyond the primary tumor site, it usually spreads first to the sentinel lymph node or nodes, the first lymph nodes to receive drainage from a cancer-containing area of the breast. From there, breast cancer generally spreads to the axillary lymph nodes under the arm. So an important part of the breast cancer staging process is to determine whether the cancer has spread from the primary tumor to the sentinel lymph node, and from there into the axillary lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Node Biopsy
Lymph Node Biopsy : When breast cancer spreads beyond the primary tumor site, it usually spreads first to the sentinel lymph node or nodes, the first lymph nodes to receive drainage from a cancer-containing area of the breast. From there, breast cancer generally spreads to the axillary lymph nodes under the arm. So an important part of the breast cancer staging process is to determine whether the cancer has spread from the primary tumor to the sentinel lymph node, and from there into the axillary lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
This is a picture of the first radio-guided sentinel lymph node biopsy using real-time imaging by means of a portable gamma camera (Sentinella) in a patient with colon cancer
The lobes and ducts of the breast, and nearby lymph nodes (above) are areas that cancer can attack. The temporary inconvenience of a mammogram can save you from troublesome and costly treatment and surgery by catching breast cancer early, when it is easiest to treat.
Image by NIH
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Breast Cancer Surgery
Breast surgeon Dr. Nora Jaskowiak of The University of Chicago Medical Center explains how far mastectomies and other breast surgeries have come and the impact on the patient's life.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Mastectomy (Simple)
Title Mastectomy (Simple) Description Treatment for breast cancer - removal of breast and a sample of underarm lymph nodes.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
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Mastectomy
Total (simple) Mastectomy Description Total (simple) mastectomy; drawing shows removal of the breast and lymph nodes. The dotted line shows where the entire breast is removed. Some lymph nodes under the arm may also be removed.
Image by National Cancer Institute
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Radical Mastectomy
Mastectomy (Radical) Description Halsted radical mastectomy. Removal of the entire breast and chest muscles, as well as lymph nodes in underarm area for the treatment of breast cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Front view of the breast
Diagram showing the front view of the breast.
Image by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Side view of the breast
Diagram showing the side view of the breast.
Image by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
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Breast and adjacent lymph nodes
Illustration of Breast and Adjacent Lymph Nodes Description: The female breast along with lymph nodes and vessels. An inset shows a close-up view of the breast with the following parts labeled: lobules, lobe, ducts, nipple, areola, and fat.
Image by National Cancer Institute, Don Bliss (Illustrator)
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Breast and Adjacent Lymph Nodes
The female breast (nipple, areola, ducts, lobes, lobules, and fatty tissue) and adjacent lymph nodes and lymph vessels (no labels appear in the illustration).
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI) / Don Bliss (Illustrator)
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Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2): Aggressive Breast Cancers
Most breast cancers begin in the lobules or ducts of the breast, which produce breast milk and carry it to the nipples after pregnancy. Invasive cancers spread outside of the lobules and ducts and penetrate into the surrounding breast tissue. From there, cancer cells may travel to lymph nodes in the armpit area. In stage IV breast cancer, cancer cells have spread into other parts of the body, such as the lungs or bones. HER2-positive breast cancer is aggressive and is likely to spread quickly. It is also resistant to hormone therapy. However, treatment with the drugs trastuzumab and/or lapatinib may help women who test positive for HER2.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Metastatic Breast Cancer in Pleural Fluid
Image by Ed Uthman/Flickr
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Diagram showing the network of lymph nodes in and around the breast.
Diagram showing the network of lymph nodes in and around the breast.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
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Breast lobes and ducts
Diagram showing the lobes and ducts of a breast.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
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Breast
Breast and Adjacent Lymph Nodes Description The female breast along with lymph nodes and vessels. An inset shows a close-up view of the breast with the following parts labeled: lobules, lobe, ducts, nipple, areola, and fat.
Image by National Cancer Institute
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Breast Anatomy
Breast Anatomy; observe lobes, lobules, ducts, areola, nipple, fat, lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Don Bliss (Illustrator)
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External and Internal Anatomy of Breast
The breast is made up of a variety of tissues and structures, including fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, ligaments, and nerves. The mammary gland is embedded in the breast's fatty tissue and contains 15-20 lobes, each of which is subdivided into smaller lobules. The breast milk that is produced drains from the lobes into the nipple via the lactiferous ducts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Nodes
Lymph Nodes
Lymph Nodes
Lymph Nodes
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Breast Lymph Nodes
Lymph vessels form a network in each breast, draining into lymph nodes in the underarm and along the breast bone. Cancer cells may break away from the main tumor and spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy of the Breast
Sentinel lymph node biopsy of the breast. The first of three panels shows a radioactive substance and/or blue dye injected near the tumor; the middle panel shows that the injected material is followed visually and/or with a probe that detects radioactivity to find the sentinel nodes (the first lymph nodes to take up the material); the third panel shows the removal of the tumor and the sentinel nodes to check for cancer cells.
Sentinel lymph node biopsy of the breast. A radioactive substance and/or blue dye is injected near the tumor (first panel). The injected material is detected visually and/or with a probe that detects radioactivity (middle panel). The sentinel nodes (the first lymph nodes to take up the material) are removed and checked for cancer cells (last panel).
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative bone marrow biopsy results indicates that the bone marrow didn’t have any significant findings with all of the testing that was done. This may mean that certain diseases were not found. It may also mean that the bone marrow is functioning normally.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells, including:
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
Platelets, which help with blood clotting
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer.
There are two types of procedures used to collect bone marrow samples for testing:
Bone marrow aspiration removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid and cells
Bone marrow biopsy removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy are usually done at the same time.
Other names: bone marrow examination
Bone marrow tests are used to:
Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets
Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as:
Anemia (when the cause is unknown)
Polycythemia vera
Thrombocytopenia
Diagnose bone marrow disorders
Diagnose and monitor treatment for certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
Diagnose the cause of an unexplained fever, which could be from an infection in the bone marrow
Your health care provider may order a bone marrow aspiration and a bone marrow biopsy if other blood tests show your levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are not normal.
Too many or too few blood cells may mean you have a medical condition, such as cancer that starts in your blood or bone marrow. If you are being treated for another type of cancer, these tests can find out if the cancer has spread to your bone marrow.
Bone marrow tests may also be used to see how well cancer treatment is working.
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy procedures are usually done at the same time. A health care provider will collect the marrow samples for testing. Usually, the samples can be collected in about ten minutes.
Before the procedure, you may be asked to put on a hospital gown. Your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature will be checked.
You may choose to have a mild sedative, which is medicine to help you relax. You may also have the choice to use stronger medicine that will make you sleep. Your provider can help you decide which option is best for you.
During the procedure:
You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used to get the samples. Most bone marrow samples are taken from the back of the hip bone, called the iliac crest. But other bones may be used.
An area of skin over the bone will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
You will get an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the skin and the bone underneath. It may sting.
When the area is numb, the provider will make a very small incision (cut) in your skin and insert a hollow needle. You will need to lie very still during the procedure:
The bone marrow aspiration is usually done first. The provider will push the needle into the bone and use a syringe attached to the needle to pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a brief, sharp pain. The aspiration takes only a few minutes.
The bone marrow biopsy uses a special hollow biopsy needle inserted through the same skin opening. The provider will twist the needle into the bone to take out a small piece, or core, of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
After the test, the health care provider will cover your skin with a bandage.
If you didn't use medicine to relax or sleep, you'll usually need to stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure that the bleeding has stopped. Afterwards, you can do your usual activities as soon as you are able. If you used medicine to relax or sleep, you'll need to stay longer before you can go home. You may also need to rest the next day.
Your provider will tell you whether you need to fast (not eat or drink) for a few hours before the procedure.
Plan to have someone take you home after the test, because you may be drowsy if you are given medicine to help you relax or sleep during the procedure.
You'll receive instructions for how to prepare, but be sure to ask your provider any questions you have about the procedure.
After a bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days.
Your provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Don't take any pain medicine your provider hasn't approved. Certain pain relievers, such as aspirin, could increase your risk of bleeding.
Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
Increased pain or discomfort where the sample was taken
Redness, swelling, bleeding, or other fluids leaking from at the site
Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your provider.
It may take several days or even weeks to get your bone marrow test results. Your provider may have ordered many different types of tests on your marrow sample, so the results often include a lot of complex information. Your provider can explain what your results mean.
In certain cases, if your test results are not normal, you may need to have more tests to confirm a diagnosis or to decide which treatment would be best.
If you have cancer that affects your bones and marrow, your test results may provide information about your cancer stage, which is how much cancer you have in your body and how fast it may be growing.
If you are already being treated for cancer, your test results may show:
How well your treatment is working
Whether your treatment is affecting your bone marrow
Bone Marrow Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 16, 2024]
Additional Materials (22)
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Video by Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
Image by doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.
Image by CNX Openstax
This browser does not support the video element.
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue
Video by TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.
Image by CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.
Image by Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
3:24
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
2:12
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
5:56
Having a bone marrow test
Design Science/YouTube
2:20
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:38
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
4:03
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
0:06
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Chest X-Ray Test
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
X rays are electromagnetic waves. They use ionizing radiation to create pictures of the inside of your body. A chest x ray takes pictures of the inside of your chest. The different tissues in your chest absorb different amounts of radiation. Your ribs and spine are bony and absorb radiation well. They normally appear light on a chest x ray. Your lungs, which are filled with air, normally appear dark.
Related conditions
A chest x ray is a painless, noninvasive test that creates pictures of the structures inside your chest, such as your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. "Noninvasive" means that no surgery is done and no instruments are inserted into your body. This test is done to find the cause of symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), and fever.
Chest x rays help doctors diagnose conditions such as pneumonia (nu-MO-ne-ah), heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, and sarcoidosis (sar-koy-DO-sis). Doctors also may use chest x rays to see how well treatments for certain conditions are working. Also, doctors often use chest x rays before surgery to look at the structures in the chest.
Chest x rays are the most common x-ray test used to diagnose health problems.
Doctors may recommend chest x rays for people who have symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), or fever. The test can help find the cause of these symptoms.
Chest x rays look for conditions such as pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis. The test also is used to check how well treatments for certain conditions are working.
Chest x rays also are used to evaluate people who test positive for tuberculosis (tu-ber-kyu-LO-sis) exposure on skin tests.
Sometimes, doctors recommend more chest x rays within hours, days, or months of an earlier chest x ray. This allows them to follow up on a condition.
People who are having certain types of surgery also may need chest x rays. Doctors often use the test before surgery to look at the structures inside the chest.
Depending on your doctor's request, you'll stand, sit, or lie for the chest x ray. The technician will help position you correctly. He or she may cover you with a heavy lead apron to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The x-ray equipment usually consists of two parts. One part, a box-like machine, holds the x-ray film or a special plate that records the picture digitally. You'll sit or stand next to this machine. The second part is the x-ray tube, which is located about 6 feet away.
Before the pictures are taken, the technician will walk behind a wall or into the next room to turn on the x-ray machine. This helps reduce his or her exposure to the radiation.
Usually, two views of the chest are taken. The first is a view from the back. The second is a view from the side.
For a view from the back, you'll sit or stand so that your chest rests against the image plate. The x-ray tube will be behind you. For the side view, you'll turn to your side and raise your arms above your head.
If you need to lie down for the test, you'll lie on a table that contains the x-ray film or plate. The x-ray tube will be over the table.
You'll need to hold very still while the pictures are taken. The technician may ask you to hold your breath for a few seconds. These steps help prevent a blurry picture.
Although the test is painless, you may feel some discomfort from the coolness of the exam room and the x-ray plate. If you have arthritis or injuries to the chest wall, shoulders, or arms, you may feel discomfort holding a position during the test. The technician may be able to help you find a more comfortable position.
When the test is done, you'll need to wait while the technician checks the quality of the x-ray pictures. He or she needs to make sure that the pictures are good enough for the doctor to use.
You don't have to do anything special to prepare for a chest x ray. However, you may want to wear a shirt that's easy to take off. Before the test, you'll be asked to undress from the waist up and wear a gown.
You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the x-ray picture. Let the x-ray technician (a person specially trained to do x-ray tests) know if you have any body piercings on your chest.
Let your doctor know if you're pregnant or may be pregnant. In general, women should avoid all x-ray tests during pregnancy. Sometimes, though, having an x ray is important to the health of the mother and fetus. If an x ray is needed, the technician will take extra steps to protect the fetus from radiation.
Chest x rays have few risks. The amount of radiation used in a chest x ray is very small. A lead apron may be used to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The test gives out a radiation dose similar to the amount of radiation you're naturally exposed to over 10 days.
Chest x rays show the structures in and around the chest. The test is used to look for and track conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity. For example, chest x-ray pictures may show signs of pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis.
Chest x rays do have limits. They only show conditions that change the size of tissues in the chest or how the tissues absorb radiation. Also, chest x rays create two-dimensional pictures. This means that denser structures, like bone or the heart, may hide some signs of disease. Very small areas of cancer and blood clots in the lungs usually don't show up on chest x rays.
For these reasons, your doctor may recommend other tests to confirm a diagnosis.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-x-ray [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003804.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/chestrad [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.emedicinehealth.com/chest_x-ray/article_em.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (50)
Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min
Video by Nick Smith/YouTube
How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Tuberculosis X-ray
An anteroposterior X-ray of a patient diagnosed with advanced bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis. This AP X-ray of the chest reveals the presence of bilateral pulmonary infiltrate (white triangles), and caving forma.
Image by CDC / Der Lange
Respiratory Syncytial Virus
This highly-magnified, 1981 transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image, reveals some of the morphologic traits exhibited by a human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The virion is variable in shape, and size, with an average diameter between 120-300nm. RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children, under 1-year of age.
Image by CDC/ E. L. Palmer
Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray
Combination of two x-rays (A) normal chest x-ray (B) x-ray documenting Q fever pneumonia.
Image by US Gov
Chest X Ray
A Lateral Chest X-Ray with the heart shadow outlined.
Image by US Army
Projectional radiography
Image relating focal spot size to geometric unsharpness in projectional radiography.
Image by Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
X-ray of Healthy Lung
This image shows an x-ray of healthy lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cancer screening
Cancer Imaging: X-Rays : Chest X-rays can be used to show the presence of tumors, as for lung cancer, but they may also indicate problems associated with cancer. An X-ray may produce images suggestive of fluid accumulation, masses, or enlarged lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lung Cancer
Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute
Chest X Ray
Mediastinal structures on a chest radiograph.
Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators
CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion
CT scan of chest showing loculated pleural effusion in left side. Some thickening of pleura is also noted. From my personal collection. Permission obtained from patient.
Image by Drriad
Chest X-ray (Cancer)
This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer
This browser does not support the video element.
CT Scans (VIDEO)
This video shows how modern science of scanning can expose the health condition of the patient. The video starts with a patient undergoing CT scanning, an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Visible are the heart, lungs, and arteries of a patient.
Video by TheVisualMD
Chest X-Ray
Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings
Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Gallstones
Gallstones as seen on plain x-ray.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hemoptysis x-ray
Hemoptysis can be discovered with the help of radiology.
Image by Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.
X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema
Within the lungs, the main airways (bronchi) branch off into smaller passageways, the smallest of which are called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs (alveoli). Pulmonary edema is a condition caused when excess fluid collects in these air sacs, making it difficult to breathe. Fluid in the lungs can be caused by pneumonia, acute respiratory distress and other conditions, but in most cases, the cause of pulmonary edema is heart problems (when a damaged heart can't pump enough blood and fluid leaks into the lungs).
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery
A normal chest X-ray after placement of an ICD, showing the ICD generator in the upper left chest and the ICD lead in the right ventricle of the heart. Note the 2 opaque coils along the ICD lead.
Image by Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC
This browser does not support the video element.
Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]
NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a Chest X-ray. This video is silent.
Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view
Most aneurysms are detected in the course of an exam, such as a physical exam or a chest X-ray, being performed for a different reason.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural Effusion: Tests
Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.
Image by CDC InvictaHOG
Coccidioidomycosis
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed pulmonary changes indicative of pulmonary fibrosis in a case of coccidioidomycosis, caused by fungal organisms of the genus, Coccidioides. Because these changes also resemble those seen in other lung infections including tuberculosis, the findings uncovered with a chest x-ray needs to be coupled with serologic testing, as well as possible tissue biopsy. The degree of fibrotic changes, indicative of scarring found on x-ray, can be directly correlated to the severity of the fungal infection.
Image by CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg
How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?
Chest X-Ray: Acute respiratory distress syndrome on plain Xray
Image by James Heilman, MD
How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?
Early Asbestosis in a Retired Pipe Fitter : Chest X-ray in asbestosis shows plaques above diaphragm
Image by Clinical Cases
Aspergillosis
This was a photomicrograph of a lung tissue specimen, harvested from a caged, sulfur-crested cockatoo, that depicted some of the histopathologic changes that had been caused by the fungal organism, Aspergillus fumigatus, in a case of avian pulmonary aspergillosis. Here, you are able see how the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, revealed A. fumigatus ultrastructural morphology including conidial heads and mycelium.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
Pleural Effusion - Defined
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by Drriad
Pleural Effusion: Tests
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by James Heilman MD
Breast implants
Chest X-ray showing breast implants
Image by James Heilman
Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
No cure is available for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) yet. Your symptoms may get worse over time. As your symptoms worsen, you may not be able to do many of the things that you did before you had IPF.
However, lifestyle changes and ongoing care can help you manage the disease.
If you're still smoking, the most important thing you can do is quit. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. Ask family members and friends not to smoke in front of you or in your home, car, or workplace.
Image by Drriad
Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)
A chest x-ray showing increased opacity in both lungs, indicative of pneumonia, in a patient with SARS.
Image by CDC
Chilaiditi syndrome
Chest X-ray showing obvious Chilaiditi's sign, or presence of gas in the right colic angle between the liver and right hemidiaphragm (left side of the image).
Piper's Sign: In days gone by the lateral chest x-ray (demonstrating greater opacity in the aortic arch and descending aorta than the thoracic spine) gave an indication to the degree of calcified plaque burden a patient had. This has been known as Piper's sign and can often be seen in elderly persons particularly those with concomitant osteoporosis.
Image by U4077905
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Image by Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Image by Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
(a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on skin; (b) Trichophyton violaceum, shown in this bright field light micrograph, causes superficial mycoses on the scalp; (c) Histoplasma capsulatum is an ascomycete that infects airways and causes symptoms similar to influenza. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit b: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit c: modification of work by M. Renz, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
Pneumocystis jirovecii is the causative agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), one of the most frequent and severe opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis organisms represent a large group of species of atypical fungi with universal distribution and pulmonary tropism, and each species has a strong specificity for a given mammalian host species.
Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Image by Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
PA view Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child. Released per permission of mother.
Image by Samir (talk)
Chest X Ray
Structures shown: Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings. Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Thoracic diaphragm
X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.
Image by OpenStax College
Chest X Ray
Roentgenogram or Medical X-ray image. May not be to scale.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.
7:02
Reading a chest X-ray
Osmosis/YouTube
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Stages
Lumbar puncture
Image by Bobjgalindo
Lumbar puncture
Lumbar puncture procedure in a new born infant in a Neonatal Medium Care Unit, Maracay, Venezuela.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Stages of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
The following tests and procedures may be used to determine if the leukemia has spread from the blood to other parts of the body:
Lumbar puncture : A procedure used to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle between two bones in the spine and into the CSF around the spinal cord and removing a sample of the fluid. The sample of CSF is checked under a microscope for signs that leukemia cellshave spread to the brain and spinal cord. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap.
Biopsy of the testicles, ovaries, or skin: The removal of cells or tissues from the testicles, ovaries, or skin so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. This is done only if something unusual about the testicles, ovaries, or skin is found during the physical exam.
There is no standard staging system for childhood AML, childhood acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML), childhood chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), or myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS).
The extent or spread of cancer is usually described as stages. Instead of stages, treatment of childhood AML, childhood APL, JMML, childhood CML, and MDS is based on one or more of the following:
The type of disease or the subtype of AML.
Whether leukemia has spread outside the blood and bone marrow.
Whether the disease is newly diagnosed, in remission, or recurrent.
Newly diagnosed childhood AML
Newly diagnosed childhood AML has not been treated except to relieve signs and symptoms such as fever, bleeding, or pain, and one of the following is found:
More than 20% of the cells in the bone marrow are blasts (leukemia cells).
or
Less than 20% of the cells in the bone marrow are blasts and there is a certain change in the chromosome.
Childhood AML in remission
In childhood AML in remission, the disease has been treated and the following are found:
The complete blood count is almost normal.
Less than 5% of the cells in the bone marrow are blasts (leukemia cells).
There are no signs or symptoms of leukemia in the brain, spinal cord, or other parts of the body.
Recurrent childhood AML has come back after it has been treated.
In recurrent childhood AML, the cancer may come back in the blood and bone marrow or in other parts of the body, such as the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
In refractory childhood AML, the cancer does not respond to treatment.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (3)
Lumbar puncture
Image by BruceBlaus
Lumbar Puncture
Lumbar Puncture
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Ep. 1: Needle in a Haystack | MedscapeTV
Video by Medscape/YouTube
Lumbar puncture
BruceBlaus
Lumbar Puncture
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
6:51
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Ep. 1: Needle in a Haystack | MedscapeTV
Medscape/YouTube
Treatment
young girl receiving chemotherapy
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer) / National Cancer Institute
young girl receiving chemotherapy
young girl receiving chemotherapy
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer) / National Cancer Institute
Treatment of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
KEY POINTS
There are different types of treatment for children with acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies.
Treatment is planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood leukemia and other diseases of the blood.
The treatment of childhood AML and other myeloid malignancies usually has two phases.
Seven types of standard treatment may be used for childhood AML and other myeloid malignancies.
Chemotherapy
Radiation therapy
Stem cell transplant
Targeted therapy
Other drug therapy
Watchful waiting
Supportive care
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
Treatment for childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies may cause side effects.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
There are different types of treatment for children with acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies.
Different types of treatment are available for children with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM), acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), and myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS). Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment.
Because AML and other myeloid disorders are rare in children, taking part in a clinical trial should be considered. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not yet started treatment.
Treatment is planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood leukemia and other diseases of the blood.
Treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist works with other healthcare providers who are experts in treating children with leukemia and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:
Pediatrician.
Hematologist.
Medical oncologist.
Pediatric surgeon.
Radiation oncologist.
Neurologist.
Neuropathologist.
Neuroradiologist.
Pediatric nurse specialist.
Social worker.
Rehabilitation specialist.
Psychologist.
The treatment of childhood AML and other myeloid malignancies usually has two phases.
The treatment of childhood AML is done in phases:
Induction therapy: This is the first phase of treatment. The goal is to kill the leukemia cells in the blood and bone marrow. This puts the leukemia into remission.
Consolidation/intensification therapy: This is the second phase of treatment. It begins once the leukemia is in remission. The goal of therapy is to kill any remaining leukemia cells that are hiding and may not be active but could begin to regrow and cause a relapse.
Treatment called central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis therapy may be given during the induction phase of therapy. Because standard doses of chemotherapy may not reach leukemia cells in the CNS (brain and spinal cord), the leukemia cells are able to hide in the CNS. Intrathecal chemotherapy is able to reach leukemia cells in the CNS. It is given to kill the leukemia cells and lessen the chance the leukemia will recur (come back).
The treatment of childhood APL includes a third phase called maintenance. The goal of maintenance is to kill any remaining leukemia cells that may regrow and cause a relapse. Often the cancer treatments are given in lower doses than those used during the remission induction and consolidation/intensification phases.
Seven types of standard treatment may be used for childhood AML and other myeloid malignancies.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (intrathecal chemotherapy), an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one chemotherapy drug.
The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type of cancer being treated. In AML, chemotherapy given by mouth, vein, or into the cerebrospinal fluid is used.
In AML, the leukemia cells may spread to the brain and/or spinal cord. Chemotherapy given by mouth or vein to treat AML may not cross the blood-brain barrier to get into the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Instead, chemotherapy is injected into the fluid-filled space to kill leukemia cells that may have spread there (intrathecal chemotherapy).
Intrathecal chemotherapy. Anticancer drugs are injected into the intrathecal space, which is the space that holds the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). There are two different ways to do this. One way, shown in the top part of the figure, is to inject the drugs into an Ommaya reservoir (a dome-shaped container that is placed under the scalp during surgery; it holds the drugs as they flow through a small tube into the brain). The other way, shown in the bottom part of the figure, is to inject the drugs directly into the CSF in the lower part of the spinal column, after a small area on the lower back is numbed.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the area of the body with cancer.
In childhood AML, external radiation therapy may be used to treat a myeloid sarcoma that does not respond to chemotherapy.
Stem cell transplant
Chemotherapy is given to kill cancer cells or other abnormal blood cells. Healthy cells, including blood-forming cells, are also destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cell transplant is a treatment to replace the blood-forming cells. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the patient completes chemotherapy, the stored stem cells are thawed and given to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
Stem cell transplant. (Step 1): Blood is taken from a vein in the arm of the donor. The patient or another person may be the donor. The blood flows through a machine that removes the stem cells. Then the blood is returned to the donor through a vein in the other arm. (Step 2): The patient receives chemotherapy to kill blood-forming cells. The patient may receive radiation therapy (not shown). (Step 3): The patient receives stem cells through a catheter placed into a blood vessel in the chest.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do. Types of targeted therapy include the following:
Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks the enzyme, tyrosine kinase, that causes stem cells to become more white blood cells (blasts) than the body needs. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors may be used with chemotherapy drugs as adjuvant therapy (treatment given after the initial treatment, to lower the risk that the cancer will come back).
Imatinib, dasatinib, and nilotinib are used to treat childhood chronic myelogenous leukemia.
Sorafenib, midostaurin, and gilteritinib, which target a mutated (changed) form of a gene called FLT3, are being studied to treat childhood AML.
Trametinib is being studied in children with recurrent or refractory juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia.
Monoclonal antibodies: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.
Gemtuzumab ozogamicin is a type of monoclonal antibody that is attached to a chemotherapy drug. It is used in the treatment of AML.
Other drug therapy
Lenalidomide may be used to lessen the need for transfusions in patients who have myelodysplastic syndromes caused by a specific chromosome change.
Arsenic trioxide and tretinoin are drugs that kill certain types of leukemia cells, stop the leukemia cells from dividing, or help the leukemia cells mature into white blood cells. These drugs are used in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia.
Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient’s condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change. It is sometimes used to treat transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM).
Supportive care
Supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment. All patients with leukemia receive supportive care treatments. Supportive care may include the following:
Transfusion therapy: A way of giving red blood cells or platelets to replace blood cells destroyed by disease or cancer treatment. The blood may be donated from another person or it may have been taken from the patient earlier and stored until needed.
Antifungal agents: Drugs, such as Caspofungin or fluconazole, used to prevent or treat infections caused by a fungus (a type of microorganism). This is important in the care of patients with AML.
Drug therapy, such as antibiotics.
Leukapheresis: A procedure in which a special machine is used to remove white blood cells from the blood. Blood is taken from the patient and put through a blood cell separator where the white blood cells are removed. The rest of the blood is then returned to the patient's bloodstream. Leukapheresis is used to treat patients with very high white blood cell counts.
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
Treatment for childhood acute myeloid leukemia and other myeloid malignancies may cause side effects.
Regular follow-up exams are very important. Side effects from cancer treatment that begin after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Late effects of cancer treatment may include the following:
Physical problems that affect the following:
Heart, lung, or endocrine function.
Bone development.
Fertility (ability to have children).
Energy level.
Changes in mood, feelings, thinking, learning, or memory.
Second cancers (new types of cancer), such as breast cancer.
Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important that parents of children who are treated for AML or other blood diseases talk with their child's doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on their child.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your child's condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (7)
Leukemia In Children and Teens
Video by The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society of Canada/YouTube
Treating Leukemia in Children
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
A Case-based Tumor Board
Video by American Society of Hematology/YouTube
LHC Better Living: Stem Cell Transplant
Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
Stem Cell Transplants: Offering Hope in Blood Cancer Treatment
Video by uvahealth/YouTube
How Monoclonal Antibodies Treat Cancer
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Monoclonal Antibodies: Making Cancer a Target
Video by Cancer Research Institute/YouTube
10:42
Leukemia In Children and Teens
The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society of Canada/YouTube
2:05
Treating Leukemia in Children
Lee Health/YouTube
1:17:23
A Case-based Tumor Board
American Society of Hematology/YouTube
3:35
LHC Better Living: Stem Cell Transplant
LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
1:52
Stem Cell Transplants: Offering Hope in Blood Cancer Treatment
uvahealth/YouTube
3:20
How Monoclonal Antibodies Treat Cancer
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
1:43
Monoclonal Antibodies: Making Cancer a Target
Cancer Research Institute/YouTube
Treatment by Types
Who Needs a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant?
Image by beat_ranger
Who Needs a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant?
The picture shows a bone marrow transplantation.
Image by beat_ranger
Treatment by Types of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Treatment of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Treatment of newly diagnosed childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) during the induction phase may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy.
Central nervous system prophylaxis therapy with intrathecal chemotherapy.
Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody (gemtuzumab ozogamicin).
A clinical trial of targeted therapy (sorafenib).
A clinical trial of chemotherapy and targeted therapy (gilteritinib).
Supportive care.
Treatment of childhood AML during the remission phase (consolidation/intensification therapy) depends on the subtype of AML and may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy.
High-dose chemotherapy followed by using blood stem cells from a donor.
Targeted therapy (such as FLT3 inhibitors).
Treatment of refractory childhood AML may include the following:
Chemotherapy.
Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody (gemtuzumab ozogamicin).
Radiation therapy to treat a myeloid sarcoma that does not completely respond to chemotherapy.
Treatment of recurrent childhood AML may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy.
Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody (gemtuzumab ozogamicin).
Radiation therapy to treat locally recurring myeloid sarcoma.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy (midostaurin, sorafenib, or gilteritinib).
Combination chemotherapy and , for patients who have had a second complete remission.
A second , for patients whose disease came back after the first stem cell transplant.
Treatment of Transient Abnormal Myelopoiesis or Children with Down Syndrome and AML
Transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM) usually goes away on its own. For newly diagnosed TAM that does not go away on its own or causes other health problems, treatment may include the following:
Supportive care, including transfusion therapy or leukapheresis.
Chemotherapy.
Treatment of newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in children aged 4 years or younger who have Down syndrome may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy plus central nervous system prophylaxis therapy with intrathecal chemotherapy.
A clinical trial of a new chemotherapy regimen that depends on how the child responds to initial chemotherapy.
Treatment of newly diagnosed AML in children older than 4 years who have Down syndrome may be the same as treatment for children without Down syndrome.
Treatment of Childhood Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia
Treatment of newly diagnosed childhood acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) may include the following:
Tretinoin with arsenic trioxide.
Tretinoin plus chemotherapy with or without arsenic trioxide.
Supportive care.
Treatment of childhood APL during the remission phase (consolidation/intensification therapy) may include the following:
Tretinoin with arsenic trioxide.
Tretinoin plus chemotherapy with or without arsenic trioxide.
Treatment of childhood APL during the remission phase (maintenance therapy) may include the following:
Tretinoin with combination chemotherapy.
Treatment of recurrent childhood APL may include the following:
Arsenic trioxide therapy with or without tretinoin.
Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody (gemtuzumab ozogamicin).
Stem cell transplant using blood stem cells from the patient or a donor.
Treatment of Juvenile Myelomonocytic Leukemia
Treatment of newly diagnosed juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant.
Treatment of refractory or recurrent childhood JMML may include the following:
A second stem cell transplant, for patients whose disease came back after the first stem cell transplant.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (trametinib).
Treatment of Childhood Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
Treatment of newly diagnosed chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) may include the following:
Targeted therapy with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (imatinib, dasatinib, or nilotinib).
A clinical trial to study the rate of CML recurrence after stopping tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy, and the ability to achieve remission again if CML recurs in children with CML who are in remission for at least 2 years after receiving treatment with the same tyrosine kinase inhibitor for at least 3 years.
Treatment of refractory or recurrent childhood CML may include the following:
Targeted therapy with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (dasatinib or nilotinib).
Stem cell transplant using blood stem cells from a donor.
Treatment of Childhood Myelodysplastic Syndromes
Treatment of newly diagnosed childhood myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) may include the following:
Stem cell transplant using blood stem cells from a donor.
Supportive care, including transfusion therapy and antibiotics.
Steroid therapy.
Lenalidomide therapy, for patients with certain gene changes.
If the MDS becomes acute myeloid leukemia (AML), treatment will be the same as treatment for newly diagnosed AML.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (2)
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Video by Medscape/YouTube
Acute leukemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
10:15
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Medscape/YouTube
9:42
Acute leukemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Prognosis
Zara strong, after her AML diagnosis
Image by Courtesy photo
Zara strong, after her AML diagnosis
Tech. Sgt. Jean “Jay” Fleurantin, 723d Aircraft Maintenance Squadron electronic warfare technician, and his daughter, Zara, pose for a photo at Shands Children’s Hospital in Gainesville, Fla. Zara was diagnosed with cancer in January 2017 and after numerous unsuccessful rounds of chemotherapy, Jay donated bone marrow as a last resort and in May 2017 the doctors announced Zara’s cancer was in full remission. (Courtesy photo)
Image by Courtesy photo
Prognosis of Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options for childhood AML depend on the following:
The age of the child when the cancer is diagnosed.
The race or ethnic group of the child.
Whether the child is greatly overweight.
Number of white blood cells in the blood at diagnosis.
Whether the AML occurred after previous cancer treatment.
The subtype of AML.
Whether there are certain chromosome or gene changes in the leukemia cells.
Whether the child has Down syndrome. Most children with AML and Down syndrome can be cured of their leukemia.
Whether the leukemia is in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
How quickly the leukemia responds to treatment.
Whether the AML is newly diagnosed (untreated) or has recurred after treatment.
The length of time since treatment ended, for AML that has recurred.
The prognosis for childhood APL depends on the following:
Number of white blood cells in the blood at diagnosis.
Whether there are certain chromosome or gene changes in the leukemia cells.
Whether the APL is newly diagnosed (untreated) or has recurred after treatment.
The prognosis and treatment options for JMML depend on the following:
The age of the child when the cancer is diagnosed.
The type of gene affected and the number of genes that have changes.
How many monocytes (a type of white blood cell) are in the blood.
How much hemoglobin is in the blood.
Whether the JMML is newly diagnosed (untreated) or has recurred after treatment.
The prognosis and treatment options for childhood CML depend on the following:
How long it has been since the patient was diagnosed.
How many blast cells are in the blood.
Whether and how fully the blast cells disappear from the blood and bone marrow after therapy has started.
Whether the CML is newly diagnosed (untreated) or has recurred after treatment.
The prognosis and treatment options for MDS depend on the following:
Whether the MDS was caused by previous cancer treatment.
How low the numbers of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are.
Whether the MDS is newly diagnosed (untreated) or has recurred after treatment.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (2)
What Is AML?
Video by Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Young cancer survivor endures three transplants to beat AML
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
1:27
What Is AML?
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
1:50
Young cancer survivor endures three transplants to beat AML
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Childhood Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes a large number of abnormal blood cells. Learn about risk factors, signs and symptoms, treatment options, and prognosis for this condition.