Ovarian cancer is cancer that originates in the ovaries. It's hard to detect early. Women with ovarian cancer may have no symptoms or mild symptoms until the disease is in an advanced stage. Learn what causes ovarian cancer, how to reduce your risk, how it's diagnosed, and the treatments available.
Ovarian cancer
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About
Female Reproductive Organ
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Reproductive Organ
Lateral view of cross-sectioned uterus as well as fallopian tubes and ovaries. Every month, an egg is released and drawn into a fallopian tube from one of the two ovaries. If fertilization occurs, the egg moves down the fallopian tube and implants itself in the wall of the uterus, a pear-shaped, hollow, muscular organ that will grow and expand to support a developing baby. If the egg is not fertilized, the egg and uterine lining are shed during menstruation, and will pass out of the uterus through the cervix to the muscular vagina, and out of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Is Ovarian Cancer?
Cancer is a disease in which abnormal cells in the body grow out of control. Cancer is usually named for the part of the body where it starts, even if it spreads to other body parts later.
Ovarian cancer is a group of diseases that originates in the ovaries, or in the related areas of the fallopian tubes and the peritoneum. Women have two ovaries that are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries make female hormones and produce eggs for reproduction. Women have two fallopian tubes that are a pair of long, slender tubes on each side of the uterus. Eggs pass from the ovaries through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The peritoneum is the tissue lining that covers organs in the abdomen.
When ovarian cancer is found in its early stages, treatment works best. Ovarian cancer often causes signs and symptoms, so it is important to pay attention to your body and know what is normal for you. Symptoms may be caused by something other than cancer, but the only way to know is to see your doctor, nurse, or other health care professional.
Some mutations (changes in genes) can raise your risk for ovarian cancer. Mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes 1 and 2 (BRCA1 and BRCA2), and those associated with Lynch syndrome, raise ovarian cancer risk.
Ovarian cancers come in a variety of different tumor types. The most common tumor type is high-grade serous carcinoma, occurring in about 70% of ovarian cancer cases.
This diagram shows different parts of a woman’s reproductive system.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (2)
Ovarian Cancer
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Gynecologic Cancer Education: Genetics & Ovarian Cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:00:50
Ovarian Cancer
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
32:35
Gynecologic Cancer Education: Genetics & Ovarian Cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Causes
What is Cancer
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute
What is Cancer
Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably. There are many different types of cancer, and each begins when a single cell acquires a genomic change (or mutation) that allows the cell to divide and multiply unchecked. Additional mutations can cause the cancer to spread to other sites. Such mutations can be caused by errors during DNA replication or result from DNA damage due to environmental exposures (such as tobacco smoke or the sun’s ultraviolet rays). In certain cases, mutations in cancer genes are inherited, which increases a person’s risk of developing cancer.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute
What Causes Ovarian Cancer?
Most cases of ovarian cancer occur sporadically in people with little to no family history of the condition. They are due to random changes (mutations) that occur only in the cells of the ovary. These mutations (called somatic mutations) accumulate during a person's lifetime and are not inherited or passed on to future generations.
However, approximately 10-25% of ovarian cancers are thought to be "hereditary." These cases are caused by an inherited predisposition to ovarian cancer that is passed down through a family. In some of these families, the underlying genetic cause is not known. However, many of these cases are part of a hereditary cancer syndrome. For example, the following cancer syndromes are associated with an elevated risk of ovarian cancer and several other types of cancer:
Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome due to mutations in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene is the most common known cause of hereditary ovarian cancer.
Lynch syndrome is caused by mutations in the MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2 or EPCAM gene
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome is caused by mutations in the STK11 gene
Of note, some research suggests that inherited mutations in several other genes (including BARD1, BRIP1, MRE11A, NBN, RAD51, RAD50, CHEK2, and PALB2) may also be associated with an increased risk for ovarian cancer. However, the risk associated with many of these genes is not well understood. Most are termed "moderate- or low-penetrant" genes which means that, on their own, they would be expected to have a relatively small effect on ovarian cancer risk. However, in combination with other genes and/or environmental factors, these genes may lead to a significant risk of ovarian cancer.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (6)
Genetic mutations
Illustration of a mutation on a gene on a chromosome in a cell within the human body.
Image by NIAID
Types of Genetic Mutations
Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Mutation - DNA fails to copy accurately
Most of the mutations that we think matter to evolution are "naturally-occurring." For example, when a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA — and sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the original DNA sequence is a mutation.
Image by University of California Museum of Paleontology
Female Reproductive System
3D visualization of the female reproductive system reconstructed from scanned human data. Remaining dormant until puberty, the ultimate goal of the female reproductive system is to produce offspring. In order to do this, the body must produce gametes and prepare to nurture a developing embryo for 9 months. The primary reproductive organs of the female, the ovaries, serve two purposes. They create and nurture gametes and produce the female sex hormones, estrogens and progesterone. Accessory structures serve the needs of the reproductive cells and the developing fetus. These structures include the uterine tubes, uterus and vagina and make up the internal genitalia. The external genitalia include the structures which reside on the exterior of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ovarian cancer: beyond resistance
Video by nature video/YouTube
Sex cord-stromal ovarian cancer- causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Genetic mutations
NIAID
Types of Genetic Mutations
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Mutation - DNA fails to copy accurately
University of California Museum of Paleontology
Female Reproductive System
TheVisualMD
2:22
Ovarian cancer: beyond resistance
nature video/YouTube
9:04
Sex cord-stromal ovarian cancer- causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology
Osmosis/YouTube
Risk Factors
Endometriosis
Image by TheVisualMD
Endometriosis
Endometriosis
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Risk Factors for Ovarian Cancer?
There is no way to know for sure if you will get ovarian cancer. Most women get it without being at high risk. However, several factors may increase a woman’s risk for ovarian cancer, including if you—
Are middle-aged or older.
Have close family members (such as your mother, sister, aunt, or grandmother) on either your mother’s or your father’s side, who have had ovarian cancer.
Have a genetic mutation (abnormality) called BRCA1 or BRCA2, or one associated with Lynch syndrome.
Have had breast, uterine, or colorectal (colon) cancer.
Have an Eastern European or Ashkenazi Jewish background.
Have endometriosis (a condition where tissue from the lining of the uterus grows elsewhere in the body).
Have never given birth or have had trouble getting pregnant.
In addition, some studies suggest that women who take estrogen by itself (without progesterone) for 10 or more years may have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.
If one or more of these factors is true for you, it does not mean you will get ovarian cancer. But you should speak with your doctor about your risk. If you or your family have a history of ovarian cancer, speak to your doctor about genetic counseling.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (3)
Family, Love, Mother
Image by actaylorjr/Pixabay
Ovarian Cancer Risk Factors and Prevention
Video by OCRA/YouTube
Risks for Ovarian Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Family, Love, Mother
actaylorjr/Pixabay
6:15
Ovarian Cancer Risk Factors and Prevention
OCRA/YouTube
1:53
Risks for Ovarian Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
Reduce The Risk
Types of Hysterectomies
Image by BruceBlaus
Types of Hysterectomies
Types of Hysterectomies: Partial Hysterectomy, Total Hysterectomy, Radical Hysterectomy.
Image by BruceBlaus
What Can I Do to Reduce My Risk of Ovarian Cancer?
There is no known way to prevent ovarian cancer, but these things are associated with a lower chance of getting ovarian cancer—
Having used birth control pills for five or more years.
Having had a tubal ligation (getting your tubes tied), both ovaries removed, or a hysterectomy (an operation in which the uterus, and sometimes the cervix, is removed).
Having given birth.
Breastfeeding. Some studies suggest that women who breastfeed for a year or more may have a modestly reduced risk of ovarian cancer.
Talk to your doctor about ways to reduce your risk. While these things may help reduce the chance of getting ovarian cancer, they are not recommended for everybody, and risks and benefits are associated with each. For instance, birth control pills can increase your chance of getting breast cancer. Although you may be able to lower your risk, it does not mean you will not get cancer.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (1)
Ovarian Cancer: Risk Factors, Prevention and Early Detection Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Video by Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube
5:51
Ovarian Cancer: Risk Factors, Prevention and Early Detection Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube
Inheritance
Genetic / Inheritance
Image by TheVisualMD
Genetic / Inheritance
Genetic / Inheritance
Image by TheVisualMD
How Is Ovarian Cancer Inherited?
Most cases of ovarian cancer occur sporadically in people with little to no family history of the condition. However, approximately 10-25% of ovarian cancer is thought to be inherited. In some of these families, the underlying genetic cause is not known. However, many of these cases are part of a hereditary cancer syndrome such as BRCA1 or BRCA2 hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome, Lynch syndrome and Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, which are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. This means that a person only needs a change (mutation) in one copy of the responsible gene in each cell to have a hereditary predisposition to ovarian cancer and other cancers associated with these syndromes. In some cases, an affected person inherits the mutation from an affected parent. Other cases may result from new (de novo) mutations in the gene. A person with one of these syndromes has a 50% chance with each pregnancy of passing along the altered gene to his or her child.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (2)
Ideogram of human chromosome 14
Selected genes, traits, and disorders associated with the chromosome listed; (blue and violet) regions reflecting the unique patterns of light and dark bands seen on human chromosomes stained to allow viewing through a light microscope; (red) the centromere, or constricted portion, of each chromosome; (yellow) chromosomal regions that vary in staining intensity and sometimes are called hererochromatin (meaning “different color”); (lines between yellow) variable regions, called stalks, that connect a very small chromosome arm (a “satellite”) to the chromosome.
Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Understanding Genetics in Gynecologic Cancers
Video by Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube
Ideogram of human chromosome 14
Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
6:57
Understanding Genetics in Gynecologic Cancers
Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube
Screening
CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)
Image by TheVisualMD
CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)
As our understanding of cancer has deepened and treatment options expanded, the emphasis has shifted to early detection and aggressive treatment. The hope is that earlier and more accurate diagnoses will push survival rates for ovarian cancer higher.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Should I Know About Ovarian Cancer Screening?
There is no simple and reliable way to screen for ovarian cancer in women who do not have any signs or symptoms.
Screening is when a test is used to look for a disease before there are any symptoms. Cancer screening tests work when they can find disease early, when treatment works best. Diagnostic tests are used when a person has symptoms. The purpose of diagnostic tests is to find out, or diagnose, what is causing the symptoms. Diagnostic tests also may be used to check a person who is considered at high risk for cancer.
The Pap test does not check for ovarian cancer. The only cancer the Pap test screens for is cervical cancer. Since there is no simple and reliable way to screen for any gynecologic cancer except for cervical cancer, it is especially important to recognize warning signs, and learn what you can do to reduce your risk.
Here is what you can do—
Pay attention to your body, and know what is normal for you.
If you notice any changes in your body that are not normal for you and could be a sign of ovarian cancer, talk to your doctor about them.
Ask your doctor if you should have a diagnostic test, like a rectovaginal pelvic exam, a transvaginal ultrasound, or a CA-125 blood test if you have any unexplained signs or symptoms of ovarian cancer. These tests sometimes help find or rule out ovarian cancer.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (4)
Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound
Ovarian cancer is the deadliest of gynecologic cancers. More than 21,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed each year, with more than 15,000 deaths; less than 20% of cases are found at an early stage, when treatment is most effective. When ovarian cancer is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a pelvic exam to check for masses or growths on the ovaries. Other diagnostic tests include a transvaginal ultrasound, which produce detailed images of the ovaries and other reproductive organs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Understanding CA-125 Screening for Ovarian Cancer
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Ovarian cancer screening test shows promise
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
Ovarian Cancer Screening: What You Need to Know Following the FDA's Alert
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound
TheVisualMD
2:25
Understanding CA-125 Screening for Ovarian Cancer
Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
1:37
Ovarian cancer screening test shows promise
MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
1:27
Ovarian Cancer Screening: What You Need to Know Following the FDA's Alert
Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Genetic Testing
Genetic testing
Image by genome.gov
Genetic testing
Genetic testing fact sheet
Image by genome.gov
Genetic Testing to Learn About Your Risk of Breast and Ovarian Cancer: Questions for the Doctor
Genetic Testing for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer
Key points
Your genetic counselor or other health care provider may recommend genetic testing based on your personal and family history of cancer, your ancestry, and whether you have a family member with a genetic mutation.
Genetic test results may help you understand and manage your risk for breast, ovarian, and other cancers.
How genetic testing can help you
Genetic testing can help you understand and manage your risk for breast, ovarian, and other cancers. Knowing whether or not you have a genetic mutation that makes you more likely to get cancer can help you decide what steps to take to prevent cancer or find it early.
Genetic counseling before genetic testing is important to find out if you and your family are likely to benefit from genetic testing.
Who should be tested
Usually, genetic testing is recommended if you have:
A strong family health history of breast and ovarian cancers.
A moderate family health history of breast and ovarian cancers and are of Ashkenazi or Eastern European Jewish ancestry.
A personal history of breast cancer and meet certain criteria related to age of diagnosis, type of cancer, presence of certain other cancers or cancer in both breasts, ancestry, and family health history.
A personal history of ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer.
A known mutation in the breast cancer (BRCA) genes in someone in your family.
A genetic counselor can help you determine the best testing plan for you and your family. Whenever possible, the first person tested in your family should be someone who has had breast, ovarian, or another BRCA-related cancer.
Types of tests
Genetic testing for hereditary breast and ovarian cancers looks for mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Your genetic counselor may suggest testing using a multigene panel. A multigene panel looks for mutations in several genes, including BRCA1 and BRCA2, at the same time.
If you are of Ashkenazi or Eastern European Jewish ancestry, your genetic counselor may suggest testing for three specific BRCA gene mutations, called founder mutations. These are the most common mutations in people of Ashkenazi or Eastern European Jewish ancestry.
Genetic testing is done with a blood or saliva sample. The sample may be taken in a laboratory, doctor's office, hospital, or clinic. Or a kit may be sent to your home, and you send the kit to a laboratory that does the tests. It may take several weeks or longer to get the test results.
If your test result is positive
The test showed that you have a mutation known to cause hereditary breast and ovarian cancers.
What it means for you
You can take steps to make it less likely that you will get cancer or to find cancer early if you get it.
If you have had breast or ovarian cancer, a positive test result can help guide your treatment decisions.
What it means for your family
If other adult family members decide to get genetic testing, their test should check for the same mutation you have.
Your parents, children, sisters, and brothers each have a 1 in 2 (50%) chance of having the same mutation.
If your test result is negative
The test didn't find a mutation. But what this means for you depends on whether you have had breast or ovarian cancer, and whether another relative is known to have a mutation.
If you have had breast or ovarian cancer
What it means for you
The test did not find a mutation that caused your cancer.
Further testing may be available.
What it means for your family
The cancers in your family are less likely to be due to a genetic mutation, unless another relative is known to have a mutation.
Genetic testing in your family members who have not had breast or ovarian cancer is unlikely to be helpful, unless another relative is known to have a mutation.
Genetic testing may be helpful for family members who have had breast or ovarian cancer. This is because there may be a genetic mutation in your family, but you did not inherit it.
If you have not had breast or ovarian cancer
If a genetic mutation has not been found in another family member, you are still at higher risk for the cancers that run in your family.
If a genetic mutation has been found in another family member and the test showed you do not have the mutation, you are not at higher risk than the average person for breast or ovarian cancer. You also cannot pass the mutation on to your children.
If your test result is variant of uncertain significance (VUS)
The test found a mutation in one of the genes associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancers, but doctors don't know if that mutation causes cancer. Some mutations prevent genes from working properly, while others have no effect. It is not always easy to tell whether or not a mutation in a gene has a harmful effect.
If you have had breast or ovarian cancer, it is unclear whether the mutation found in the test caused your cancer. Further testing may be available.
Whether or not you have had breast or ovarian cancer, you are at higher risk for the cancers that run in your family.
Are you worried about getting a genetic test?
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act protects Americans from discrimination based on their genetic information in health insurance and employment. This Act does not cover long-term care, disability, or life insurance.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (12)
How Do Genetic Changes Affect Cancer Treatment?
Each person's cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. Specific genetic changes may make a person's cancer more or less likely to respond to certain treatments.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Genetic Testing
Image by Pixabay
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.
The breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 normally help prevent cancer by repairing damaged DNA. Certain inherited mutations in these genes, however, can impair this function and result in a greatly increased risk of breast cancer or ovarian cancer (there are hundreds of different BRCA mutations, but are very rare or not linked with an increased risk of cancer). Of 200,000 women diagnosed each year with breast cancer and 20,000 diagnosed with ovarian cancer, 5-10% are due to BRCA mutations.
Image by TheVisualMD
BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern
In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person's chance of developing cancer. Although breast cancer is more common in women than in men, the mutated gene can be inherited from either the mother or the father.
Image by YassineMrabet / NIH
Mutation
A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can result from DNA copying mistakes made during cell division, exposure to ionizing radiation, exposure to chemicals called mutagens, or infection by viruses.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
BRCA Genes
The BRCA genes are tumor suppressor genes pictured here on their respective chromosomes. BRCA 1 has the cytogenetic location 17q21 or the q arm of Chromosome 17 at position 21. BRCA 2 has the cytogenetic location 13q12.3 or the q arm of Chromosome 13 at position 12.3. Both genes produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA, keeping the genetic material of the cell stable. A damaged BRCA gene in either location can lead to increased risk of cancer, particularly breast or ovarian in women.
Image by Tessssa13/Wikimedia
BRCA gene test Q & A
Video by Mayo Clinic Health System/YouTube
What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?
Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
Video by JAMA Network/YouTube
Gynecologic Cancer Education: Genetics & Ovarian Cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
BRCA Gene and Ovarian Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Home genetic test for ovarian cancer
Video by UW Medicine/YouTube
How Do Genetic Changes Affect Cancer Treatment?
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Genetic Testing
Pixabay
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.
TheVisualMD
BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern
YassineMrabet / NIH
Mutation
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
BRCA Genes
Tessssa13/Wikimedia
1:42
BRCA gene test Q & A
Mayo Clinic Health System/YouTube
1:28
What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
4:39
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
JAMA Network/YouTube
32:35
Gynecologic Cancer Education: Genetics & Ovarian Cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:49
BRCA Gene and Ovarian Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
1:54
Home genetic test for ovarian cancer
UW Medicine/YouTube
Symptoms
Pelvic Pain
Image by TheVisualMD
Pelvic Pain
Pelvic Pain
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer?
Ovarian cancer may cause the following signs and symptoms—
Vaginal bleeding (particularly if you are past menopause), or discharge from your vagina that is not normal for you.
Pain or pressure in the pelvic area.
Abdominal or back pain.
Bloating.
Feeling full too quickly, or difficulty eating.
A change in your bathroom habits, such as more frequent or urgent need to urinate and/or constipation.
Pay attention to your body, and know what is normal for you. If you have unusual vaginal bleeding, see a doctor right away. If you have any of the other signs for two weeks or longer and they are not normal for you, see a doctor. They may be caused by something other than cancer, but the only way to know is to see a doctor.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (5)
Female with Visible Nervous System Experiencing Back Pain
Individuals with chronic back pain are at least four times more likely to experience major depression than people in the general population. Many are reluctant to accept a separate diagnosis of depression, feeling that the \"depressive\" symptoms diagnosed by a doctor would disappear if only the pain would go away. In another case of mind-body give-and-take, individuals with depression are also more prone to developing back pain. The reasons remain unclear. Often, depressed individuals experience pain without an observable physical stimulus,although it is never-the-less real. This is called neuropathic pain.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Warning Signs of Ovarian Cancer?
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Understanding Ovarian Cancer Stages and Symptoms
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Know the Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer
Video by Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube
Ovarian cancer patient: How I coped with losing my hair
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
Female with Visible Nervous System Experiencing Back Pain
TheVisualMD
2:20
What Are the Warning Signs of Ovarian Cancer?
Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
1:55
Understanding Ovarian Cancer Stages and Symptoms
Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
1:03
Know the Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer
Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube
1:06
Ovarian cancer patient: How I coped with losing my hair
MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
Diagnosis
An ovarian cancer as seen on CT
Image by James Heilman, MD
An ovarian cancer as seen on CT
An ovarian cancer as seen on CT
Image by James Heilman, MD
How Is Ovarian Cancer Diagnosed?
If ovarian cancer is suspected based on the presence of certain signs and symptoms, the following tests and procedures may be recommended:
Physical evaluation and pelvic exam to check for signs of ovarian cancer (i.e. lumps or swelling) and to examine the size, shape and location of the ovaries
Ultrasound and other imaging studies to look for abnormal growths
Blood tests such as a CA-125 assay which may be elevated in people with ovarian cancer
A biopsy of the tumor is the only way to confirm a diagnosis of ovarian cancer
The National Cancer Institute offers more detailed information regarding the tests used to diagnose ovarian cancer.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (2)
New hope for ovarian cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Insight from a young ovarian cancer patient
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
3:33
New hope for ovarian cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:32
Insight from a young ovarian cancer patient
MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
BRCA Genetic Test
BRCA Genetic Test
Also called: BRCA Gene Mutation Analysis, BRCA1/2 Testing, BRCA Mutation Testing, BRCA Test, Breast Cancer Susceptibility Genes 1 and 2, Germline BRCA Testing, BRCA1 Genetic Test
A BRCA gene test checks for certain changes (mutations) in your BRCA genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are called tumor suppressor genes. Certain BRCA mutations may put you at higher risk for getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and other cancers. Not everyone who has a harmful BRCA mutation will get cancer.
BRCA Genetic Test
Also called: BRCA Gene Mutation Analysis, BRCA1/2 Testing, BRCA Mutation Testing, BRCA Test, Breast Cancer Susceptibility Genes 1 and 2, Germline BRCA Testing, BRCA1 Genetic Test
A BRCA gene test checks for certain changes (mutations) in your BRCA genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are called tumor suppressor genes. Certain BRCA mutations may put you at higher risk for getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and other cancers. Not everyone who has a harmful BRCA mutation will get cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative (normal) result means that the test didn't find any harmful changes in your BRCA genes. How this affects your cancer risk depends on whether you've already had cancer and whether a member of your family has a harmful BRCA variant.
Related conditions
A BRCA gene test uses a sample of your blood, saliva (spit), or cells from inside of your cheek to look for changes in your BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that may increase your risk of cancer. Changes in your genes are called gene variants or mutations. Not all gene variants are harmful.
Genes are parts of DNA that you inherit from your parents. They carry information that controls what you look like and how your body works. BRCA genes repair damaged DNA in your cells and protect you from getting certain types of cancer. If you have a harmful variant in your BRCA genes, they may not work properly. This increases your risk of getting cancer.
The most common cancers linked to harmful BRCA variants are:
Breast cancer. BRCA is short for breast cancer gene. The increased risk for breast cancer mostly affects females. But the breast cancer risk for males who have a harmful BRCA variant is higher than for other males.
Ovarian cancer. This is cancer of the female reproductive glands where eggs form.
Prostate cancer. This is cancer of the male reproductive gland that makes fluid for semen.
Pancreatic cancer. This is cancer of the pancreas, an organ that helps you digest food and makes important hormones.
Not everyone who has a harmful variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2 will get cancer. And if you find out you have a harmful variant, you may be able to take steps to lower your risk and protect your health.
This test is used to find out if you have harmful changes in your BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes that increase your risk of getting certain cancers, especially breast, ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancer.
Harmful BRCA gene variants are rare. They affect only about 0.2 percent of the U.S. population. So, BRCA testing is not recommended for most people.
You and your family members are more likely to have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 variant if either side of your family has a strong history of breast or ovarian cancer. If you're concerned that you may have a harmful variant in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, your health care provider or a genetic counselor can review your personal and family health history to see if you need this test.
In general, it's important to talk with a provider about BRCA testing if your personal or family health history includes:
Breast cancer, especially:
Before age 50
In both breasts
In a male
Triple negative breast cancer which has limited treatment options, including chemotherapy and/or surgery
Cancer of the ovaries, fallopian tubes (tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus), or peritoneum (tissue that covers your belly organs).
Prostate cancer that spreads to other parts of the body (metastatic cancer).
Pancreatic cancer.
Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish ancestry. BRCA variants are much more common in this group compared with the general population. They are also more common in people from other parts of Europe, including Iceland, Norway, and Denmark.
A relative already diagnosed with a harmful gene variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2.
When you think about your family health history, consider all breast, ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancers on both sides of your family. And consider the health of your grandparents, parents, aunts and uncles, siblings, half-siblings, nieces and nephews, and grandchildren.
A BRCA test can use either a sample of your blood, saliva, or a cheek swab.
For a blood test: A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a saliva test: You'll spit into a container or use a cotton pad to soak up some saliva.
For a cheek swab: A health care professional will wipe the inside of your cheek with a small tool to remove some cells. You may have the option of doing it yourself.
An at-home test kit is available to buy without a prescription. It allows you to collect a saliva sample to send to a lab for testing. The test checks for the three most common harmful variants in BRCA genes. But there are more than 1000 known variants. So, a home test can't rule out the possibility that you have a variant. Ask your provider whether an at-home test is right for you.
For a blood test: You don't need any special preparations.
For a saliva test: A half hour before the test, you may need to stop eating, drinking, or smoking. Follow all the instructions your provider gives you or the instructions in an at-home kit.
For a cheek swab: You may be asked to rinse your mouth before the test.
With any type of genetic test, you may want to meet with a genetic counselor first to see if testing is right for you. Your counselor can explain the pros and cons of learning more about your cancer risk. After your test, a counselor can help with the medical and emotional impact that your results may have on you and your family.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There are no risks linked to providing a saliva sample or having a cheek swab.
Your provider or genetic counselor will need to explain how your results affect your risk for certain cancers. That's because the meaning of your test results depends on the exact type of variant you have and your personal and family health history.
In general, your results may be reported using these terms:
A negative (normal) result means that the test didn't find any harmful changes in your BRCA genes. How this affects your cancer risk depends on whether you've already had cancer and whether a member of your family has a harmful BRCA variant.
An uncertain result may also be called a "variant of uncertain significance (VUS)". It means that a variant in your BRCA genes was found, but researchers don't know whether that variant causes cancer.
A positive result may also be called a "likely pathogenic variant." It means that you have a harmful gene variant that is known to increase the risk of certain cancers. But the test cannot tell whether you will develop cancer.
If your results show that you have a harmful variant in your BRCA genes, talk with your provider about ways to lower your cancer risk. You may discuss:
Your schedule for cancer screening tests. Should you get tested for cancer sooner and more often than usual? These are important questions for all adults who have a harmful BRCA variant.
Taking certain medicines and/or having surgery to reduce the risk of cancer. Surgery may include removing both breasts and/or the ovaries and fallopian tubes.
BRCA Genetic Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
BRCA Mutations: Cancer Risk and Genetic Testing Fact Sheet - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
BRCAssure BRCA1 and 2 Analysis [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
BRCA Gene Mutation Testing - Testing.com. Nov 9, 2021 [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene testing: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
Additional Materials (13)
Chances of Developing Breast Cancer by Age 70
Specific inherited mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancers.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Examination
Mammograms use low-dose X-rays to create images of the breast on film. Screening mammograms typically image the breast from above and from an angled side view. Yearly mammograms are recommended for women 40 and over. Women at high risk should have an MRI scan and a mammogram every year, beginning at age 30. Mammograms can also be used for diagnosis of cancer and to guide biopsy of suspicious lesions. The National Cancer Institute estimates that women with certain mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a 60% lifetime risk of breast cancer, which is five times higher than the general population. Only 0.2% of women have these specific mutations. Women who test negative for high-risk mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes still have a 12% lifetime risk of breast cancer and a 1.4% lifetime risk of ovarian cancer, which means the most of these cancers are caused by factors other than BRCA genes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
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Breast Self-Exam (BSE)
When done correctly and regularly, breast self-exam (BSE) can help save lives. Women who perform BSE are more likely to be diagnosed with smaller tumors, and cancer is less likely to have spread to their underarm lymph nodes. An important part of BSE is self-awareness. Women should be aware of what their breasts normally feel and look like so that they notice any change, and they should bring that change to the attention of their doctor immediately.
Image by TheVisualMD
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This media may include sensitive content
BRCA: Breasts
In the 1990s, researchers discovered that certain inherited mutations of the genes increased a woman's risk of developing breast or ovarian cancer. But genes are not destiny; early detection, preventive surgery and drug therapies can also play roles.
Image by TheVisualMD
What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?
Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
Video by JAMA Network/YouTube
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
Video by TheJAMAReport/YouTube
BRCA Genes and Breast Cancer
Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
Understanding BRCA Mutations and Risk
Video by Dr. Susan Love Foundation/YouTube
BRCA Genes
The BRCA genes are tumor suppressor genes pictured here on their respective chromosomes. BRCA 1 has the cytogenetic location 17q21 or the q arm of Chromosome 17 at position 21. BRCA 2 has the cytogenetic location 13q12.3 or the q arm of Chromosome 13 at position 12.3. Both genes produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA, keeping the genetic material of the cell stable. A damaged BRCA gene in either location can lead to increased risk of cancer, particularly breast or ovarian in women.
Image by Tessssa13/Wikimedia
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Cancer
More than 225,000 cases of invasive breast cancer are diagnosed annually in the U.S. and 40,000 die from the disease. In recent years, however, great strides have been made in early diagnosis and treatment. Imaging techniques have been refined to spot ever-tinier tumors, biomarkers have been developed to reflect physiological changes produced by cancer, and genetic tests such as those for the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have been devised to identify increased familial risk of breast cancer. The majority of breast cancers start in the mammary ducts; most of the remainder arise in the lobules. Breast cancers are divided into in situ and invasive cancers. In situ cancers remain confined to the duct or gland where they began. Invasive cancers break through the walls of the duct or gland and penetrate into the surrounding tissue.
Image by TheVisualMD
BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern
In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person's chance of developing cancer. Although breast cancer is more common in women than in men, the mutated gene can be inherited from either the mother or the father.
Image by YassineMrabet / NIH
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.
The breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 normally help prevent cancer by repairing damaged DNA. Certain inherited mutations in these genes, however, can impair this function and result in a greatly increased risk of breast cancer or ovarian cancer (there are hundreds of different BRCA mutations, but are very rare or not linked with an increased risk of cancer). Of 200,000 women diagnosed each year with breast cancer and 20,000 diagnosed with ovarian cancer, 5-10% are due to BRCA mutations.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chances of Developing Breast Cancer by Age 70
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Examination
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Breast Self-Exam (BSE)
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
BRCA: Breasts
TheVisualMD
1:28
What is a BRCA Gene Mutation?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
4:39
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
JAMA Network/YouTube
2:20
BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Testing in Young Women With Breast Cancer
TheJAMAReport/YouTube
3:12
BRCA Genes and Breast Cancer
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
3:52
Understanding BRCA Mutations and Risk
Dr. Susan Love Foundation/YouTube
BRCA Genes
Tessssa13/Wikimedia
BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 Genes, Breast Cancer
TheVisualMD
BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations: autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance pattern
YassineMrabet / NIH
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that produce proteins that help repair damaged DNA.
TheVisualMD
CA-125 Blood Test
CA-125 Blood Test
Also called: CA-125 Tumor Marker, Glycoprotein Antigen, Ovarian Cancer Antigen, CA-125
This test measures the amount of a protein called CA-125 in the blood. CA-125 levels are high in many women with ovarian cancer. It is not a screening test, but it can help find out if cancer treatment is working.
CA-125 Blood Test
Also called: CA-125 Tumor Marker, Glycoprotein Antigen, Ovarian Cancer Antigen, CA-125
This test measures the amount of a protein called CA-125 in the blood. CA-125 levels are high in many women with ovarian cancer. It is not a screening test, but it can help find out if cancer treatment is working.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(i.U.)/mL
35
Your result is Normal.
Having a normal CA-125 result doesn't mean you don't have ovarian cancer. Some women with early ovarian cancer have a normal CA-125 level.
Related conditions
This test measures the amount of a protein called CA-125 (cancer antigen 125) in a sample of your blood. CA-125 is a type of tumor marker. High levels of certain tumor markers in your blood may be a sign of cancer. If you have cancer, measuring certain tumor markers may help provide important information about how to treat your disease.
High levels of CA-125 are often found in people who have ovarian cancer. The ovaries are a pair of female reproductive glands that store ova (eggs) and make female hormones. Ovarian cancer happens when the cells in an ovary begin to grow out of control.
If you have ovarian cancer, CA-125 blood tests can help show whether your treatment is working.
Other names: cancer antigen 125, glycoprotein antigen, ovarian cancer antigen, CA-125 tumor marker
A CA-125 blood test may be used:
To see if ovarian cancer treatment is working and to check for ovarian cancer that has come back. This is the most common use of CA-125 blood testing.
To learn more about a growth or lump in your pelvis (the area below your belly). If a suspicious lump shows up on imaging, such as an ultrasound, your health care provider may check your CA-125 levels along with other tests to find out whether the lump could be ovarian cancer. But a CA-125 blood test alone can't diagnose cancer.
To screen for ovarian cancer if you're risk is very high. If your family health history includes ovarian cancer, your provider may suggest a CA-125 blood test and other tests to look for signs of cancer. But a CA-125 test is not used as a routine screening test for people who don't have a high risk for ovarian cancer. That's because many common conditions that aren't cancer can also cause high CA-125 levels, such as endometriosis or even a menstrual period.
If you've been diagnosed with ovarian cancer, you may have several CA-125 blood tests:
During your treatment to see if your cancer is going away. If CA-125 levels go down, it usually means your treatment is working
After your treatment, to check whether your cancer has returned
If you have a lump in your pelvis that could be ovarian cancer, you may need a CA-125 test to help find out if it could be ovarian cancer. But only a biopsy can diagnose ovarian cancer.
If you have a very high risk of getting ovarian cancer, your health care provider may suggest checking your CA-125 levels. If they're high, you'll probably need more tests to find out if you have cancer. You're more likely to get ovarian cancer if you:
Have a mother or sister, or two or more other relatives who had ovarian cancer
Have family members who have had breast cancer or colorectal cancer (colon cancer)
Have inherited certain gene changes or conditions that increase your risk of ovarian cancer, such as:
Changes in your genes, including BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 genes
Lynch syndrome (also called hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer), an inherited disorder that increases the risk for many types of cancer
Have had breast, uterine (uterus), or colorectal cancer
If you're concerned about getting ovarian cancer, talk with your provider about your risk.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a CA-125 blood test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your provider will review your CA-125 test results along with other information about your condition. Together, you can discuss how your results affect your diagnosis, treatment, and need for more testing.
In general:
If you are being treated for ovarian cancer, and the results of several tests show that your CA-125 levels are going down, it usually means that the treatment is helping. If your levels go up or stay the same over time, it may mean that the treatment isn't working.
If you have finished your treatment for ovarian cancer and your CA-125 levels begin to increase over time, your cancer may be coming back.
If you have a high risk for ovarian cancer or have a suspicious pelvic lump, a high CA-125 levels could be a sign of cancer. Your provider will usually order more tests to make a diagnosis.
A high CA-125 level doesn't always mean cancer. Other conditions may increase CA-125, including:
Endometriosis
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
Uterine fibroids
Liver disease
Pregnancy
Your menstrual period, at certain times during your cycle
A normal CA-125 test result doesn't rule out ovarian cancer. That's because CA-125 levels may be low in the early stages of cancer. And not everyone with ovarian cancer makes high levels of CA-125.
Talk with your provider if you have questions about your results.
The most common type of ovarian cancer is epithelial ovarian cancer. If you have been treated for this type of cancer, you may be tested for a tumor marker called HE4 along with CA-125. Some studies show that measuring both tumor markers provides more accurate information to check whether treatment is working and to look for the return of this type of cancer.
CA 125 Blood Test (Ovarian Cancer): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer is the deadliest of gynecologic cancers. More than 21,000 new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed each year, with more than 15,000 deaths. A particular blood protein called cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) is often elevated in women with ovarian cancer, though small amounts of CA-125 are produced by normal tissues throughout the body and levels of CA-125 can be elevated by other conditions. The CA-125 test is used primarily to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for ovarian cancer. There are three different kinds of ovarian cancer: the most common type is epithelial ovarian cancer (90%) which originates from the surface epithelium of the ovary and is more likely to affect older women; germ cell ovarian cancer (5%), which originates from the cells that produce eggs and is more likely to affect younger women; and stromal ovarian cancer (5%), which originates from the connective tissue within the ovary. After age, the most important risk factor for ovarian cancer is family history. Ovarian cancer is relatively uncommon, but is the fifth leading cause of cancer death in women, partly due to diagnosis difficulty; its symptoms are vague, and ovarian cancer can shed cells that can invade other internal organs long before the presence of disease is even suspected.
Image by TheVisualMD
CA-125: Ovaries and Uterus
The cancer antigen 125 test (CA-125) is used to monitor treatment for ovarian cancer. If blood levels of CA-125 fall during treatment, it usually means the cancer is responding; if levels rise after treatment is complete, it may indicate that the cancer has returned.
Image by TheVisualMD
CA-125: Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound
When ovarian cancer is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a pelvic exam to check for masses or growths on the ovaries. Other diagnostic tests include a transvaginal ultrasound, which produce detailed images of the ovaries and other reproductive organs.
Image by TheVisualMD
CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)
As our understanding of cancer has deepened and treatment options expanded, the emphasis has shifted to early detection and aggressive treatment. The hope is that earlier and more accurate diagnoses will push survival rates for ovarian cancer higher.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ovarian Cancer Fact Sheet
Ovarian cancer is cancer that begins in the ovaries.
The ovaries make female hormones and produce a
woman’s eggs. Ovarian cancer is a serious cancer that
is more common in older women. Treatment is most
effective when the cancer is found early.
Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment
Video by MainMD/YouTube
Premature Ovarian Aging and Early Menopause
Video by Center for Human Reproduction/YouTube
Ovarian cancer: beyond resistance
Video by nature video/YouTube
Ovarian Cancer
TheVisualMD
CA-125: Ovaries and Uterus
TheVisualMD
CA-125: Uterus and Ovaries in Ultrasound
TheVisualMD
CA-125: Female Reproductive System - A carbohydrate antigen that occurs in tumors of the ovary as well as in breast, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract tumors and normal tissue. While it is tumor-associated, it is not tumor-specific and may have a protective function against particles and infectious agents at mucosal surfaces. (NCBI/NIH)
TheVisualMD
Ovarian Cancer Fact Sheet
Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
A female pelvic ultrasound is a test that uses an ultrasound machine to assess the size, shape, and location of the organs and tissues inside a woman’s pelvis, including the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and bladder.
A female pelvic ultrasound is a test that uses an ultrasound machine to assess the size, shape, and location of the organs and tissues inside a woman’s pelvis, including the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and bladder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
This means that your uterus, ovaries, and bladder are of a normal shape and size, without any abnormal masses or tissues.
Related conditions
A female pelvic ultrasound is a test that uses an ultrasound machine to examine the organs and tissues inside your pelvis, including your cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, uterus, vagina, and bladder.
Your doctor may want to order a female pelvic ultrasound to diagnose and assist in the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as:
Abnormalities in the structure of the uterus and endometrium (lining of the uterus)
Abnormalities in the structure of the ovaries
Growths such as fibroid tumors, cysts, and other types of tumors within the pelvis
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID, which is an infection of your uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries)
Ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy that occurs outside of the uterus)
Abnormal bleeding or pelvic pain
Postmenopausal bleeding
Find an intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD)
As part of the work-up for infertility and assisted reproduction techniques
There are two ways to perform a female pelvic ultrasound, which are transabdominal (external, through the abdominal wall) and transvaginal (internal, through the vagina).
Transabdominal pelvic ultrasound
For the transabdominal pelvic ultrasound, you will be asked to unzip your pants, uncover your abdomen, and lie on your back on the medical exam table. Then, a healthcare practitioner will apply a water-based gel on the skin of your lower abdominal area and then place a small probe to visualize your pelvic organs on a screen.
Transvaginal pelvic ultrasound
For the transvaginal pelvic ultrasound, you will be asked to remove your underwear and lie on your back. Then, a healthcare practitioner will apply a water-based gel on a probe that has been previously covered with a plastic/latex sheath, and the probe will be carefully inserted on your vagina. During the procedure, the healthcare practitioner will move the probe a little bit to examine your organs properly.
Either of these procedures usually takes no more than 20 minutes, and there is no need for an anesthetic because they’re painless.
For the transabdominal pelvic ultrasound you must have a full bladder; therefore, you will be asked to drink about 32 ounces of liquid at least 1 hour before the exam.
For the transvaginal pelvic ultrasound your bladder must be empty, so you will be asked to urinate right before the exam.
There are no risks related to a female pelvic ultrasound test.
A normal result means that your uterus, ovaries, and bladder are of a normal shape and size, without any abnormal masses or tissues.
An abnormal result indicates that a problem was detected, including but not limited to:
Fibroid tumors
Cysts
Ovarian torsion
Pelvic masses
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Ectopic pregnancy
Miscarriage
Free liquid in the pelvic cavity
Endometrial hyperplasia, which is a thickening of the endometrium
This test can provide information about the location, size, and structure of pelvic masses, but cannot provide a definite diagnosis of cancer or several other conditions.
Pelvic Ultrasound: Purpose, Procedure, Risks, Results [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
Pelvic Ultrasound [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
Pelvic Ultrasound | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
Transvaginal Ultrasound: Purpose, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
Pelvic Ultrasound - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
HEM Ultrasound | Female Pelvic Ultrasound [accessed on Dec 27, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
What to Expect From a Female Pelvic Ultrasound Exam
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
2:19
What to Expect From a Female Pelvic Ultrasound Exam
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
OVA1® Test
OVA1® Test
Also called: 5-Protein signature, OVA1
An OVA1® test is used to identify and measure 5 proteins in the blood of women with ovarian tumors who have already been scheduled for surgery to help assess their risk of having ovarian cancer.
OVA1® Test
Also called: 5-Protein signature, OVA1
An OVA1® test is used to identify and measure 5 proteins in the blood of women with ovarian tumors who have already been scheduled for surgery to help assess their risk of having ovarian cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
5
7
Your result is Low-risk.
A low-risk result (normal) means that you can continue to be managed by your obstetrician/gynecologist because the mass is probably benign.
Related conditions
Low probability of ovarian cancer
Diabetes
Endometriosis
Hepatitis
Anemia
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Malnutrition
The OVA1 test identifies 5 proteins (CA125, prealbumin, transferrin, beta-2-microglobulin, and apolipoprotein A1) in a sample of your blood to help assess your risk of ovarian cancer.
Your doctor may want to order an OVA1 test if you are a woman over 18 years of age who has already been diagnosed with an ovarian mass that cannot be clearly defined as benign or malign and you are scheduled for surgery.
The OVA1 test is not intended to be used as a screening tool to assess the risk of ovarian cancer in women who do not meet the criteria described above.
A small amount of blood will be drawn from a vein in your arm by using a needle.
Fasting may be required. You should refrain from taking vitamin B7 (biotin) supplements for at least 12 hours before the test is done.
Follow the instructions your healthcare provider gives you.
Only the risks related to blood extraction, which are temporary discomfort, bruising, little bleeding, and risk of infection in the place where the needle was inserted.
The OVA1 test indicates your risk score of ovarian malignancy.
A low-risk result (normal) means that you can continue to be managed by your obstetrician/gynecologist because the mass is probably benign.
A high-risk result (abnormal) means that you need to be referred to a gynecologic oncologist for surgical treatment. Having an abnormal result does not necessarily indicate you have cancer, just that you have an increased risk for malignancy.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment
Video by MainMD/YouTube
3:04
Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment
MainMD/YouTube
Tumor Markers
Tumor Marker Tests
Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or normal cells in response to cancer in the body. These tests can help find out if your cancer has spread, if treatment is working, or if cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.
Tumor Marker Tests
Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or normal cells in response to cancer in the body. These tests can help find out if your cancer has spread, if treatment is working, or if cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.
These tests look for tumor markers, sometimes called cancer markers, in the blood, urine, or body tissues. Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in the body. Some tumor markers are specific to one type of cancer. Others can be found in several types of cancers.
Because tumor markers can also show up in certain noncancerous conditions, tumor marker tests are not usually used to diagnose cancer or screen people at low risk of the disease. These tests are most often done on people already diagnosed with cancer. Tumor markers can help find out if your cancer has spread, whether your treatment is working, or if your cancer has come back after you've finished treatment.
Tumor marker tests are most often used to:
Plan your treatment. If tumor marker levels go down, it usually means the treatment is working.
Help find out if a cancer has spread to other tissues
Help predict the likely outcome or course of your disease
Check to see if your cancer has come back after successful treatment
Screen people at high risk for cancer. Risk factors can include family history and previous diagnosis of another type of cancer
You may need a tumor marker test if you are currently being treated for cancer, have finished cancer treatment, or have a high risk of getting cancer because of family history or other reasons.
The type of test you get will depend on your health, health history, and symptoms you may have. Below are some of the most common types of tumor markers and what they are used for.
CA 125 (cancer antigen 125)
Tumor marker for:
ovarian cancer
Used to:
See if cancer treatment is working
See if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment
CA 15-3 and CA 27-29 (cancer antigens 15-3 and 27-29)
Tumor markers for:
breast cancer
Used to:
Monitor treatment in women with advanced breast cancer
PSA (prostate-specific antigen)
Tumor marker for:
prostate cancer
Used to:
Screen for prostate cancer
Help diagnose prostate cancer
Monitor treatment
Check to see if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment
CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen)
Tumor marker for:
colorectal cancer, and also for cancers of the lung, stomach, thyroid, pancreas, breast, and ovary
Used to:
See if cancer treatment is working
See if cancer has come back after you've finished treatment
AFP (Alpha-fetoprotein)
Tumor marker for:
liver cancer, and cancers of the ovary or testicles
Used to:
Help diagnose liver cancer
Find out if cancer has spread (the stage of cancer)
See if cancer treatment is working
Predict chances for recovery
B2M (Beta 2-microglobulin)
Tumor marker for:
multiple myeloma, some lymphomas, and leukemias
Used to:
See if cancer treatment is working
Predict chances for recovery
There are different ways to test for tumor markers. Blood tests are the most common type of tumor marker tests. Urine tests or biopsies may also be used to check for tumor markers. A biopsy is a minor procedure that involves removing a small piece of tissue for testing.
If you are getting a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
If you are getting a urine test, ask your health care provider for instructions on how to provide your sample.
If you are getting a biopsy, a health care provider will take out a small piece of tissue by cutting or scraping the skin. If your provider needs to test tissue from inside your body, he or she may use a special needle to withdraw the sample.
You usually don't need any special preparations for a blood or urine test. If you are getting a biopsy, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the procedure. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions about preparing for your test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is no risk to a urine test.
If you have had a biopsy, you may have a little bruising or bleeding at biopsy site. You may also have a little discomfort at the site for a day or two.
Depending in what type of test you had and how it was used, your results may:
Help diagnose the type or stage of your cancer.
Show whether your cancer treatment is working.
Help plan future treatment.
Show if your cancer has returned after you've finished treatment.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Tumor markers can be very useful, but the information they provide can be limited because:
Some noncancerous conditions can cause tumor markers.
Some people with cancer don't have tumor markers.
Not all types of cancer have tumor markers.
So, tumor markers are almost always used with other tests to help diagnose and monitor cancer.
Tumor Markers - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
Tumor Markers [accessed on Oct 04, 2018]
Additional Materials (7)
What to Know About Germ Cell Tumor Markers, with Timothy Gilligan, MD
Video by Cancer.Net/YouTube
Why Don't We Have Cancer-Sniffing Dogs?
Video by SciShow/YouTube
Tumor Markers in Cancer Detection, Diagnosis and Management
Video by USMLEVideoLectures/YouTube
Tumor Markers in Cancer diagnosis and Monitoring
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Clinical Chemistry - Tumor Markers as Diagnostic Tests for Cancer
Video by قناة لابوتيوب LaboTube Channel/YouTube
Understanding CA-125 Screening for Ovarian Cancer
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Tracking cancer with a blood test
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
3:07
What to Know About Germ Cell Tumor Markers, with Timothy Gilligan, MD
Cancer.Net/YouTube
6:33
Why Don't We Have Cancer-Sniffing Dogs?
SciShow/YouTube
9:15
Tumor Markers in Cancer Detection, Diagnosis and Management
USMLEVideoLectures/YouTube
9:47
Tumor Markers in Cancer diagnosis and Monitoring
Pathology Simplified/YouTube
4:49
Clinical Chemistry - Tumor Markers as Diagnostic Tests for Cancer
An AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) tumor marker test measures the level of AFP in your blood. High levels of AFP can be a sign of liver cancer, cancer of the ovaries or testicles, and noncancerous liver disorders.
An AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) tumor marker test measures the level of AFP in your blood. High levels of AFP can be a sign of liver cancer, cancer of the ovaries or testicles, and noncancerous liver disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
ng/mL
8.3
Your result is Normal.
AFP is normally elevated in pregnant women since it is produced by the fetus. However, AFP is not usually found in the blood of adults.
Related conditions
{"label":"AFP-L3% reference range","description":"An AFP-L3 percent test (AFP-L3%) compares the amount of L3 to the amount of total AFP in your blood. AFP-L3 is a subfraction of AFP that is produced by malignant hepatocytes, a type of liver cells involved in hepatocellular carcinoma.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"Normal results can vary depending on the method used for testing by the laboratory.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":100},"text":"Elevated AFP-L3% levels have been associated with an increased risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) and with a poorer prognosis for people with this type of cancer. <br \/>\n","conditions":["Hepatocellular carcinoma"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
10
Your result is Negative.
Normal results can vary depending on the method used for testing by the laboratory.
Related conditions
An AFP tumor marker test is a blood test that measures the level of AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) in a sample of your blood. It's usually used to help diagnose certain types of cancer and to check how well treatment is working.
AFP is a protein that the liver makes when its cells are growing and dividing to make new cells. AFP is normally high in unborn babies. After birth, AFP levels drop very low. Healthy children and adults who aren't pregnant have very little AFP in their blood.
AFP in non-pregnant people is mainly measured as a tumor marker. Tumor markers are substances that are often made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer. High levels of AFP can be a sign of cancer of the liver, ovaries or testicles.
An AFP tumor marker test cannot be used by itself to screen for or diagnose cancer. That's because other conditions can increase AFP levels, including liver diseases that aren't cancer. And some people who do have liver, ovarian, or testicular cancer will have normal AFP levels. So, an AFP tumor marker test can't rule out cancer for sure. But when used with other tests and exams, AFP tumor marker testing can help diagnose and monitor cancers that cause high AFP levels.
Other names: total AFP, alpha-fetoprotein-L3 Percent
An AFP tumor marker test may be used during the diagnosis and/or treatment of cancer of the liver, ovaries, or testicles that make high levels of AFP. It is used to:
Help confirm or rule out a cancer diagnosis when used with other exams and tests.
Predict how cancer may behave over time.
Monitor cancer treatment. AFP levels often go up if cancer is growing and go down when treatment is working.
Check whether cancer has returned after treatment.
In certain cases, results from an AFP tumor marker test may be used to guide treatment choices for specific types of cancer. The test may also be used to monitor your health if you have chronic (long lasting) hepatitis or cirrhosis of the liver. These conditions aren't cancer, but they increase your risk of developing liver cancer.
You may need an AFP tumor marker test if:
A physical exam and/or other tests suggest that you may have cancer of the liver, ovaries, or testicles.
You are currently being treated for a cancer that causes high AFP levels. Measuring your AFP test can show how well your treatment is working.
You have completed treatment for a cancer that increased your AFP level. You may need an AFP tumor marker test from time to time to check whether your cancer is coming back.
If you have chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis, you have a higher risk of developing liver cancer. A very high level of AFP or a sudden increase can be an early sign of liver cancer. Most medical experts don't recommend measuring AFP levels to screen for cancer in these diseases. But, some health care providers may still use an AFP tumor marker test with other tests to watch for liver cancer.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an AFP tumor marker test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you haven't been diagnosed with cancer, test results that show:
High levels of AFP may be a sign of cancer of the liver, ovaries, or testicles. But having a high AFP level doesn't mean you have cancer or that you will get cancer. Liver injury and liver diseases that aren't cancer can also cause high AFP levels. Less often, high levels of AFP may be a sign of other cancers, including lymphoma or lung cancer. Your provider will use your medical history and other test results to make a diagnosis.
Normal levels of AFP mean you're less likely to have a cancer that causes high AFP levels. But a normal test result doesn't rule out cancer because some people with these cancers have normal AFP levels.
If you're being treated for a cancer that increased your AFP levels, you may be tested several times during treatment. Your provider will look at all your AFP test results to see how your levels have changed over time. If your results show:
Your AFP levels are increasing, it may mean that your treatment isn't working.
Your AFP levels are decreasing, it may mean your treatment is working.
Your AFP levels have stayed the same, it may mean your disease is stable and hasn't gotten better or worse.
If you've finished treatment for cancer that caused high AFP levels and your test results are:
Not normal, it may mean that you still have some cancer in your body.
Higher now than they were shortly after treatment, it may mean your cancer is growing again.
If you have a long-lasting liver disease that's not cancer, you may need other tests to check for liver cancer if your test results show a sudden increase in AFP or your level is very high.
Ask your provider to explain what your test results mean for your health.
In the U.S., the most common AFP tumor marker test measures all forms of AFP in your blood. A less common AFP test may be used to check the risk of liver cancer in people who have chronic liver disease. It measures a form of AFP called L3.
An AFP-L3 percent test (AFP-L3%) compares the amount of L3 to the amount of total AFP in your blood. If the portion of L3 increases, it may mean you have a high risk of developing a serious form of the most common liver cancer called hepatocellular carcinoma.
You may have heard of another type of AFP test that's used during pregnancy. This test measures total AFP levels in the blood, but it's not a tumor marker test for cancer. It's used to check for the risk of certain birth defects in an unborn baby.
Alpha Fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 12, 2024]
Lab Tests Online: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) Tumor Marker [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
URMC / Encyclopedia / Alpha-Fetoprotein Tumor Marker (Blood) [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
Arrieta, Oscar et al. “The Progressive Elevation of Alpha Fetoprotein for the Diagnosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis.” BMC Cancer 7 (2007): 28. PMC. Web. 24 Aug. 2018. [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
AAFP: Serum Tumor Markers; Am Fam Physician. 2003 Sep 15;68(6):1075-1082. [accessed on Aug 24, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Genes and Genetic Defects
Genetic testing isn't new. In the 1960s, doctors were able to test newborn babies for certain rare single-gene disorders, such as phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare metabolic disease that causes mental retardation. (PKU can be prevented with a special diet if it's detected early, which was why it was critical to test newborns.)
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Prenatal Diagnostic Testing
If a pregnant woman has an abnormal genetic screening test result, a doctor may suggest a prenatal diagnostic test be done to determine with more certainly whether or not a fetus has a particular disorder. There are two main diagnostic testing procedures, chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis. Both of these tests involve collecting a sample from inside the womb, which is then examined to detect diseases such as Down Syndrome, Edwards Syndrome, neural tube defects, cystic fibrosis, fragile-x, and spinal muscular atrophy. Prenatal diagnostic tests provide valuable information on the health of the fetus and can help alleviate the stress of expectant parents.
Video by TheVisualMD
Mapping Your Future: Screening for Disease Risk
Image by TheVisualMD
Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis is a prenatal test that gathers information about a fetus` health from a sample of amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid is the fluid that surrounds the fetus in the uterus. It contains cells from the fetus that naturally slough off during development. If a woman is at high risk for a genetic disease, a doctor may recommend an "amnio" to determine whether a fetus has certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, among other diseases.
Image by TheVisualMD
Megacystis
Megacystis in fetus : Ultrasound revealing megacystis in a fetus with Down syndrome.
Image by X.Compagnion
Maternal Serum Screening (MSS)
Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube
The test measures the amount of beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids, usually in the blood. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body in small amounts. High levels of B2M in body fluids may be indicative of certain cancers. The B2M tumor marker is used to determine prognosis and follow response to treatment.
The test measures the amount of beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids, usually in the blood. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body in small amounts. High levels of B2M in body fluids may be indicative of certain cancers. The B2M tumor marker is used to determine prognosis and follow response to treatment.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
μg/mL
2.7
Your result is Normal.
Healthy people have small amounts of B2M in their blood. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
{"label":"B2M (CSF) reference range","description":"This test measures the amount of B2B (beta-2 microglobulin) in a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). B2M is a protein found on the surface of most cells in the body and it can be used as a tumor marker. Increased values in CSF are ascribed to an activation of immune system.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.7,"max":1.8},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.8,"max":5},"text":"Increased levels of B2M means that a disease is likely to be present, and further testing needs to be done. Usually, higher levels correspond with higher stages of the disease; hence, worse prognosis.","conditions":["Non-Hodgkin lymphoma","Acute lymphocytic leukemia","HIV progression","Chronic inflammation","Multiple sclerosis","Acute viral infection","Neurologic processes"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/mL","code":"ug\/mL","name":"microgram per milliliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":1.2}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
μg/mL
1.8
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
{"label":"B2M (Urine) reference range","description":"This test measures the amount of B2M (beta-2 microglobulin) in a sample of urine. B2M is a protein found on the surface of most cells in the body, rising B2M levels in a person's urine usually indicate kidney damage.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":300},"text":"Healthy people have small amounts of B2M in their blood. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":300,"max":500},"text":"Increased urine B2M levels indicate kidney damage, and further testing needs to be done. Usually, higher levels correspond with higher stages of the disease; hence, worse prognosis.","conditions":["Renal tubular damage","Pyelonephritis","Balkan nephropathy","Exposure to cadmium","Exposure to mercury","Exposure to lithium","Aminoglycoside toxicity"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/L","code":"ug\/L","name":"microgram per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":150}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
μg/L
300
Your result is Normal.
Healthy people have small amounts of B2M in their blood. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test measures the amount of a protein called beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) in your body fluids. The test usually uses a sample of your blood. It may also be done using urine (pee) or in rare cases cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
B2M is a type of tumor marker. Tumor markers are substances that are often made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in the body. B2M is found on most of the cells in your body. Normally, you have only small amounts of B2M in your blood and urine. High levels of B2M in body fluids are often caused by these blood and bone marrow cancers:
Multiple myeloma
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
Certain types of lymphoma
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test can't diagnose cancer or any other condition. That's because there are so many conditions that can cause high levels of B2M. But if you've already been diagnosed with one of these blood and bone marrow cancers, a B2M test can provide important information about your cancer including:
How much cancer you have in your body and how fast it's growing
How your cancer may behave in the future
How much your treatment is helping
This information can help you and your health care provider plan your care.
Other names: total beta-2 microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, B2M, B2MG, thymotaxin
A beta-2 microglobulin tumor marker test is most often used if you have been diagnosed with certain cancers of the bone marrow or blood. Testing your B2M levels can help:
Find out how much cancer is in your body
Predict how your cancer will develop
Pick your treatment and check whether it's working
Check whether cancer has spread to your brain and/or spinal cord (This is done only if you have symptoms.)
If you have been diagnosed with multiple myeloma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, or certain types of lymphoma, you may need a B2M test to find out how serious your disease is. B2M testing can help monitor your cancer and check whether your treatment is working.
If you have multiple myeloma, you may need a B2M test to see whether your cancer is spreading. A test of a urine sample may also be needed to check whether your disease is affecting your kidneys.
A beta-2 microglobulin test usually uses a sample of your blood. In certain cases, you may need to provide a 24-hour urine sample, which means collecting all your urine for a full day. If your provider suspects that cancer has spread to your brain or spine, you may have a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a 24-hour urine sample, you will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate (pee) in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in the refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
For a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, a provider will do a procedure called a spinal tap (also known as a lumbar puncture). A spinal tap is usually done in a hospital. A provider numbs your skin with medicine and uses a thin, hollow needle to remove some fluid from between the bones in your lower spine. You usually go home the same day.
For blood and urine tests, there are no special preparations.
For a CSF analysis (spinal tap), you may be asked to empty your bladder (pee) and bowels (poop) before the test.
With a blood test, there is very little risk. After the test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
With a urine test, there is no known risk.
With a CSF analysis, there is very little risk from a spinal tap. You may feel a little pinch or pressure when the needle is inserted. After the test, you may feel some pain or tenderness in your back or have some bleeding where the needle was inserted. You may also get a headache. The headache may last for several hours or up to a week or more. Your provider may suggest treatment to relieve the pain.
If your B2M levels were measured to learn about your cancer:
The higher your B2M levels, the more cancer you have in your body. Higher levels are linked to cancers that tend to grow faster.
If you have multiple myeloma, higher levels of B2M are linked with kidney problems.
If your B2M levels were measured to check how well your treatment is working, your provider may look at several test results over time to look for a trend:
Increasing B2M levels may mean your treatment is not working.
Decreasing B2M levels may mean your treatment is working.
B2M levels that don't change may mean that your disease is stable and hasn't gotten better or worse.
If you have questions about your test results, talk with your provider.
B2M levels may be higher than normal in many conditions that aren't cancer. The amount of B2M in body fluids may be measured in conditions such as:
Kidney disease
HIV/AIDS
Multiple sclerosis
Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Tumor Marker Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Tumor Marker Tests in Common Use - NCI. National Cancer Institute. Dec 7, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Beta 2 Microglobulin (B2M) Test. City of Hope. [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
Electrophoresis - concentration - b-Globulin
Beta globulins are a group of globular proteins in plasma that are more mobile in alkaline or electrically charged solutions than gamma globulins, but less mobile than alpha globulins. Examples of beta globulins include beta-2 microglobulin, plasminogen, angiostatins, properdin, sex hormone-binding globulin, & transferrin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Electrophoresis - concentration - b-Globulin
TheVisualMD
CA 15-3 Test
CA 15-3 Test
Also called: CA 15-3 Tumor Marker, Cancer Antigen 15-3, Cancer Antigen-Breast, CA 15-3
CA 15-3 testing is mostly used in women who have been diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to monitor the response to treatment and to help watch for recurrence of the disease.
CA 15-3 Test
Also called: CA 15-3 Tumor Marker, Cancer Antigen 15-3, Cancer Antigen-Breast, CA 15-3
CA 15-3 testing is mostly used in women who have been diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to monitor the response to treatment and to help watch for recurrence of the disease.
{"label":"CA 15-3 reference range","description":"This test measures the amount of a protein called CA 15-3 in the blood. It is mostly used in women who have been diagnosed with invasive breast cancer to monitor the response to treatment and to help watch for recurrence of the disease. ","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":25},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":["Suggests limited tumor burden (less cancer is present)","Suggests breast-cancer patient is responding well to treatment"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"Usually, the more advanced the breast cancer is, the higher the CA 15-3 level will be. The highest levels of CA 15-3 often are seen when the disease has already spread to other tissues (metastasized).","conditions":["Localized breast cancer","Metastatic breast cancer","Colon cancer","Lung cancer","Pancreatic cancer","Ovarian cancer","Prostate cancer","Liver cancer","Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis)","Benign breast disease"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(i.U.)\/mL","code":"[IU]\/mL","name":"international unit per milliliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":12.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(i.U.)/mL
25
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Suggests limited tumor burden (less cancer is present)
Suggests breast-cancer patient is responding well to treatment
Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3) is a protein that is produced by normal breast cells, and its production increases when cancerous breast tumors are present. Therefore, this antigen can be used as a tumor marker (meaning that if you have high levels of it, there is a good chance that you have cancer).
This test measures CA 15-3 levels in a sample of your blood.
Since not all women with breast cancer will have an increased CA 15-3 level, this test is not useful in all cases and should not be used as a screening tool to detect breast cancer in healthy women.
Hence, your doctor might want to test your CA 15-3 levels to monitor your response to treatment after the diagnosis of advanced breast cancer has already been made and to control whether the disease has recurred.
A small amount of blood will be drawn from a vein in your arm by using a needle.
No fasting is needed. Your doctor may recommend you not to take multivitamins or dietary supplements containing biotin (vitamin B7) for 12 hours prior to the test.
Only the risks related to blood extraction, which are temporary discomfort, bruising, little bleeding, and risk of infection in the place where the needle was inserted.
Normal values of CA 15-3 are less than 30 units/mL. However, reference ranges can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Usually, the more advanced the breast cancer is, the higher the CA 15-3 level will be. The highest levels of CA 15-3 often are seen when the disease has already spread to other tissues (metastasized).
Nevertheless, besides breast cancer, CA 15-3 levels can be mild to moderately increased in other conditions, including:
Colon cancer
Lung cancer
Pancreatic cancer
Ovarian cancer
Prostate cancer
Liver cancer
Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis)
Benign breast disease
Having normal or elevated CA 15-3 levels does not discard or confirm the presence of cancer as this antigen should not be interpreted alone, but rather taking into consideration other tests and procedures.
Some women with breast cancer can have normal CA 15-3 levels because it may be too early in the disease process for this antigen to be detected, or the woman may fall in the category of individuals with advanced breast cancer whose tumor do not shed CA 15-3.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
CA 15-3: Breast Tumor Size When Found by Imaging or Touch
The foods in the image represent the average size of breast cancer tumors when discovered by mammogram, by regular breast self-exam, or by accident. Breast calcifications too small to be felt can be seen as white spots on a mammogram, as shown by the sesame seeds (far left). The blueberry represents the average size of a lump detected by routine mammogram (.43 inches/1.1 cm). The hazelnut shows average tumor size when discovered in a first mammogram (.59 inches/1.5 cm). The grape represents average tumor size when detected by regular breast self-exam (.83 inches/2.1 cm), and the strawberry shows average tumor size when found accidentally (1.42 inches/3.6 cm).
Image by TheVisualMD
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CA 15-3: Breast Tissue and Lymph Node Network
Breast tissue isn't found only in the breast itself: It extends from the breastbone to the armpit, and from below the collarbone to the level of the sixth or seventh rib. The breast contains lymphatic vessels that drain into a network of lymph nodes. These nodes are located around the edges of the breast, in the underarm area, and near the collarbone. Breast cancer often spreads first to the underarm lymph nodes. That's why breast self-examination should include feeling and checking the appearance of the underarm area, with arm only slightly raised.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are Tumor Markers for Breast Cancer?
Video by Breast Cancer Answers®/YouTube
Biomarker Testing
Video by Merck/YouTube
Cancer
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
CA 15-3: Breast Tumor Size When Found by Imaging or Touch
TheVisualMD
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CA 15-3: Breast Tissue and Lymph Node Network
TheVisualMD
2:42
What Are Tumor Markers for Breast Cancer?
Breast Cancer Answers®/YouTube
1:36
Biomarker Testing
Merck/YouTube
CA 19-9 Blood Test
CA 19-9 Blood Test
Also called: CA 19-9 Tumor Marker, Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Pancreatic Cancer Antigen, CA 19-9
CA 19-9 testing is mostly used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment in individuals who have been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. However, this antigen can also be elevated in other conditions, diseases, or types of cancer.
CA 19-9 Blood Test
Also called: CA 19-9 Tumor Marker, Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Pancreatic Cancer Antigen, CA 19-9
CA 19-9 testing is mostly used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment in individuals who have been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. However, this antigen can also be elevated in other conditions, diseases, or types of cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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U/mL
35
75
Your result is Low.
Low amounts of CA 19.9 may be detected in healthy people. Low or stable counts may also indicate positive response to treatment or stabilized tumor growth.
Related conditions
A CA 19-9 test measures the amount of a protein called CA 19-9 (cancer antigen 19-9) in a sample of your blood. CA 19-9 is a type of tumor marker. Tumor markers are substances made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in your body.
Healthy people can have small amounts of CA 19-9 in their blood. High levels of CA 19-9 are often a sign of pancreatic cancer. But high levels can also be a sign of other types of cancer or certain conditions that aren't cancer. For example, gallstones and cirrhosis of the liver can cause high CA 19-9 levels.
Because high levels of CA 19-9 can mean different things, the test is not used by itself to screen for or diagnose cancer or other diseases. But it can help monitor your cancer and check how well your treatment is working.
Other names: cancer antigen 19-9, carbohydrate antigen 19-9, CA 199 measurement, CA 19-9 radioimmunoassay (RIA)
CA 19-9 blood tests may be used to:
Monitor certain types of cancer and cancer treatment. CA 19-9 levels often go up as cancer grows and go down as tumors shrink.
Help predict how cancer may behave over time.
Check whether cancer has returned after treatment.
Help diagnose certain cancers and other diseases when used with other tests.
Some people do not make CA 19-9 even when they have a cancer that usually produces high levels of CA 19-9. For these people, a CA 19-9 tumor marker test is not useful.
You may need a CA 19-9 blood test if you've been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer or another type of cancer that causes high CA 19-9. These include cancers of the:
Bile duct
Colon and rectum
Stomach
Ovaries
Bladder
During cancer treatment, your health care provider may test you on a regular basis to see if your treatment is working.
After your treatment is complete, you may need to have CA 19-9 tests to check whether the cancer has come back. High levels of CA 19-9 may be one of the first signs that cancer cells are growing again.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually, you don't need any special preparations for a CA 19-9 blood test. But ask your provider to be sure. If you take certain vitamins, you may need to stop them before the test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you're being treated for cancer, you may be tested several times during your treatment. Your provider will look at all your test results to see how your CA 19-9 levels have changed. Your results may show:
Your levels of CA 19-9 are increasing. This may mean your tumor is growing, and/or your treatment is not working. More tests are usually needed to find out for sure.
Your levels of CA 19-9 are decreasing. This may mean your tumor is shrinking and your treatment is working.
Your levels of CA 19-9 have stayed the same. This may mean your disease is stable and hasn't gotten better or worse.
Your CA 19-9 levels decreased after treatment, but increased later. This may mean your cancer has come back or grown. You'll need more tests to check whether cancer is really causing the higher level of CA 19-9.
If you don't have cancer but your test results show a high level of CA 19-9, you may not a health problem that needs treatment. Healthy people can have high CA 19-9 levels. But high levels may be a sign of a condition, such as:
Pancreatitis, inflammation of the pancreas
Gallstones
Bile duct disease, including a blockage or infection
Liver disease
Cystic fibrosis
Talk with your provider about what your results may mean.
If your provider thinks you may have one of these conditions, you will probably need other tests to find out for sure.
Labs use different methods to measure the amount of CA 19-9 in your blood sample. The test method can affect your results. If you're having regular tests to monitor cancer, it's important to have your tests done the same way, and usually in the same lab. This allows your provider to compare your results over time. Your test report usually says what method was used to measure your CA 19-9 levels. If you have any questions about how your tests are done, talk with your provider.
CA 19-9 Blood Test (Pancreatic Cancer): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (7)
Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer: In Situ : The summary staging system categorizes cancer (shown here in the pancreas) according to its spread. In situ cancer is present only in cells in which it began.
Image by TheVisualMD
Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer
Amylase is one of several enzymes produced by the pancreas and secreted into the digestive tract to help break down nutrients (amylase is also produced by the salivary glands). The enzyme is usually present in the blood and urine only in small quantities, but when pancreatic tissue is injured, inflamed (pancreatitis) or when the pancreatic duct is blocked or a tumor is present, amylase can leak into the blood and urine. As cancerous tissue overwhelms the pancreas, its function is compromised and enzyme levels fall.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer
Diagram showing the pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Pancreatic Cancer
Cancer Types _ Pancreatic Cancer Cells or Tissue _ Abnormal Cells or Tissue
Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI
Doctor explains Ca 19-9 blood test used in PANCREATIC CANCER | LAB TESTS explained
Video by Doctor O'Donovan/YouTube
Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
T1 stage - the tumor is inside the pancreas and is 2cm or less in any direction.
T2 stage - the cancer is more than 2cm but no more than 4cm in size in any direction.
T3 stage - the cancer is more than 4cm in size.
T4 stage - the cancer has grown outside the pancreas, into the nearby large blood vessels.
Node (N) describes whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes. It is further divided into N0 and N1 stages.
Metastasis (M) describes whether the cancer has spread to a different part of the body. It is further divided into M0 and M1 stages.
1
2
3
4
5
6
TNM Staging for Pancreatic Cancer
TNM stands for Tumour, Node, Metastasis. This system describes the size of a primary tumour (T), whether there are lymph nodes with cancer cells in them (N) and whether the cancer has spread to a different part of the body (M).
Interactive by Cancer Research UK
Pancreatic Cancer
TheVisualMD
Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer
TheVisualMD
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Pancreas joined to the small bowel after pylorus preserving surgery for pancreatic cancer
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Pancreatic Cancer
Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI
5:17
Doctor explains Ca 19-9 blood test used in PANCREATIC CANCER | LAB TESTS explained
Doctor O'Donovan/YouTube
5:55
Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
TNM Staging for Pancreatic Cancer
Cancer Research UK
CEA Test
CEA Test
Also called: Carcinoembryonic Antigen, CEA Assay, CEA Tumor Marker, CEA
A CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) test measures CEA in a sample of blood or other body fluid. It helps check if treatment for certain cancers is working. The test is most commonly used in colorectal cancer.
CEA Test
Also called: Carcinoembryonic Antigen, CEA Assay, CEA Tumor Marker, CEA
A CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) test measures CEA in a sample of blood or other body fluid. It helps check if treatment for certain cancers is working. The test is most commonly used in colorectal cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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ng/mL
3
5
20
Your result is Normal.
Related conditions
CEA stands for carcinoembryonic antigen. CEA is a protein that is a type of "tumor marker." Tumor markers are substances that are often made by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer.
High levels of CEA are normal in healthy, unborn babies. After birth, CEA levels become very low or disappear completely. So, healthy adults should have little or no CEA in their bodies.
Cancers that may cause high levels of CEA include cancers of the:
Colon and rectum (colorectal or bowel cancer)
Prostate
Ovary
Lung
Thyroid
Liver
Pancreas
Breast
If you've been diagnosed with a cancer that can cause high CEA levels, CEA testing may help your health care provider learn more about your cancer and chance of recovery. The test is often used with other tests to check if cancer treatment is working.
CEA tests are not used to screen for or diagnose cancer. That's because:
Cancers that often cause high CEA levels don't always cause high levels. You can have normal CEA test results even though you have one of these cancers.
Many other health problems that aren't cancer can make CEA levels rise, including certain conditions that affect your liver, digestion, or breathing.
Most CEA tests use a sample of your blood to measure your CEA level. Sometimes the test uses a sample of fluid from your spine, chest, or abdomen (belly), but this is less common.
A CEA test is mostly used in people who have been diagnosed with cancers that often increase CEA levels. It's most commonly used in colorectal cancer. A provider may order a CEA test along with other tests to:
Learn more about a cancer soon after it has been diagnosed. CEA levels can help predict the likelihood of recovery and/or the chance that cancer will come back after treatment.
Check how well cancer treatment is working.
See if cancer has returned after treatment.
If you've been diagnosed with a type of cancer that can cause high CEA levels, you may need CEA testing:
Before treatment to:
Help understand how serious your cancer is.
Help guide treatment decisions.
Get a measurement of your CEA level before treatment to compare with CEA levels after treatment.
During cancer treatment to see if the treatment working.
After treatment to check whether cancer has come back. You may need to have tests on a regular schedule.
CEA is usually measured with a blood sample. During a CEA blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Sometimes, CEA is tested in other body fluids. For these tests, your provider will remove a small sample of fluid using a thin needle.
For a CEA blood test, you usually don't need to prepare. If you smoke, you may need to stop for a while before your test. That's because smoking increases CEA levels.
A CEA blood test has very little risk. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
To understand your CEA test results, your provider will consider the results of other tests and exams. Ask your provider to explain what your test results mean for your health and treatment.
If you had a test before starting cancer treatment, in general:
A low level of CEAmay mean your tumor is small and the cancer has not spread to other parts of your body. But some cancers don't make much CEA, so your provider may use other tests to learn more about how much cancer you have and if it's spread.
A high level of CEAmay mean you have a larger tumor and/or your cancer has spread. You'll need other tests to confirm how serious your cancer is.
If you had a test to monitor your cancer during or after treatment, your provider will compare your current CEA test results with your past test results. In general:
Decreases in CEA over time often mean that treatment is working.
Increases in CEA or high levels that stay highmay mean that treatment isn't working. For example, if you had surgery for colorectal cancer, these levels may mean that the entire tumor wasn't removed or the cancer is growing back.
Decreases in CEA after treatment followed by increasesmay mean cancer has come back.
CEA levels that remain high or increase after treatment don't always mean that treatment isn't working, or cancer is growing. So, if your CEA levels don't come down, your provider will likely order other tests to find out why.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Labs use different methods to measure CEA. The test method can affect your results. So, its best to have your tests done the same way, and usually in the same lab. This allows your provider to compare your results over time. If you have questions about how your tests are done, ask your provider.
CEA Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 09, 2023]
https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/diagnosis/tumor-markers-fact-sheet [accessed on Mar 13, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/21906/carcinoembryonic-antigen-cea [accessed on Oct 03, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (20)
Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA in Colorectal Cancer Staging and Treatment
CEA tests are not used to screen for colorectal cancer, but they're frequently performed after the cancer has been diagnosed. CEA is useful in staging--performing tests to determine if the cancer has spread within the intestine or to distant parts of the body. CEA may also be used for treatment planning, as elevated levels may indicate a poorer prognosis. After surgery, CEA levels may be measured periodically to see if the cancer has spread. It is important to note that CEA is not a perfect predictor of how a patient will respond to treatment, nor is it conclusive in determining if cancer has spread. The American Society of Clinical Oncologists (ASCO) states that CEA should not be used as the sole basis for decision-making in colorectal cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA Testing During Chemotherapy
Whether CEA is tested during systemic treatment for colorectal cancer depends on the stage of the cancer. After surgery, the American Society of Clinical Oncologists (ASCO) recommends that patients with stage II or stage III cancer have a CEA test every 3 months, for a minimum of 3 years. However, if the patient is receiving chemotherapy, CEA testing should be delayed until after chemotherapy is completed. On the other hand, CEA is the marker of choice for monitoring stage IV (metastatic) colorectal cancer during systemic treatment. Patients with metastatic cancer, in which the cancer has spread to distant parts of the body, should have a CEA test every 1-3 months during chemotherapy to see if the treatment is working and whether the cancer is still spreading. ASCO recommends other tests be done in conjunction with the CEA tests.
Image by TheVisualMD
The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Colon cancer: Essential facts
Video by Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube
The Colon and Colon Cancer
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Colon Cancer: Don't Ignore Your Symptoms
Video by American Cancer Society/YouTube
Colorectal Cancer Screening
Video by Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Treating Colon Cancer
This animation explains how colon cancer forms and how it can be treated through chemotherapy and surgery.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Colorectal Cancer Screening
Colorectal cancer is one of the few preventable forms of cancer thanks to effective screening. For many people, screening for colorectal cancer is an unpleasant thought, but knowing your options and taking a pro-active approach especially if you're over 50 can save your life. In this video, you can learn the "ins and outs" of colonoscopy, as well as learn about a new technique called virtual colonoscopy, which uses high-tech CT scans to screen the colon.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Colorectal Cancer Clip 6
Colorectal Cancer Clip 6
Video by TheVisualMD
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Dr. O'Kieffe and patient on preparing for a colonoscopy
A recent colonoscopy patient and gastroenterologist Dr. Donald O'Kieffe of Metro Gastroenterology, Chevy Chase, MD, explain what's involved in the preparation for your screening.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Dr. Klein on who should be screened
Dr. Mark Klein, a radiologist and colorectal cancer screening specialist at Washington Radiology Associates in Washington, DC, discusses who should be screened for colorectal cancer, and when.
Video by TheVisualMD
Colon cancer staging
Colon cancer staging : After colon cancer has been diagnosed, the next step is to perform tests to determine if the cancer has spread within the intestine or to distant parts of the body. This is called staging. Staging helps the doctor to decide the most appropriate treatment for the cancer at its current stage.
Image by TheVisualMD
Colorectal Cancer Types of Surgery
Surgery is the main treatment for colorectal cancer. Polyps and very early stage cancers (Stage 0 and some early Stage I tumors) can be removed during a colonoscopy, using a variety of techniques. In late Stage I and in Stage II and III cancer, the cancerous part of the colon is removed surgically. The surgeon may perform a resection, consisting of a partial colectomy (removing the cancer and a small amount of healthy tissue around it) and an anastomosis (sewing the parts of the colon back together). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed and biopsied. If it isn't possible to perform a resection (for instance, if the cancer is at the outlet of the rectum), a colostomy may be performed. In a colostomy, a portion of the large intestine is brought through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body, where it empties into a special bag. The colostomy may be temporary in order to allow the colon or rectum time to heal after surgery, or it may be permanent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Colon Anatomy & Function
Image by TheVisualMD
Colostomy
Colostomy Illustration
Image by Blausen.com staff. \"Blausen gallery 2014\". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 20018762
Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer refers to cancer of the colon and cancer of the rectum. The colon is the longest part of the large intestine, and the rectum is the last several inches of the large intestine, closest to the anus.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Is Colorectal Cancer?
The process of cell growth in the body is normally an orderly one. Cells grow and divide as necessary to produce more cells as they are needed. Cells that are old or damaged die, and are replaced with new cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Treating Colorectal Cancer
There are three main treatment options for colorectal cancer:
Image by TheVisualMD
Colorectal Cancer Spread to Body Stage 4
Cancer spreads in three ways: by invading surrounding tissue, by invading the lymph system and traveling through lymph vessels to other places in the body, and by invading veins and capillaries and traveling through the bloodstream to other places in the body. Stage IV: Cancer may have spread to nearby lymph nodes and has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs. Stage IV colorectal cancer is not considered curable. Image 5 of 5.
Image by TheVisualMD
Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA in Colorectal Cancer Staging and Treatment
TheVisualMD
Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): CEA Testing During Chemotherapy
TheVisualMD
1:23
The Importance of Good Bowel Preparation During Colonoscopy
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
2:49
Colon cancer: Essential facts
Institute for Cancer Genetics and Informatics/YouTube
10:05
The Colon and Colon Cancer
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
6:06
Colon Cancer: Don't Ignore Your Symptoms
American Cancer Society/YouTube
2:42
Colorectal Cancer Screening
Mechanisms in Medicine/YouTube
3:45
Treating Colon Cancer
TheVisualMD
4:13
Colorectal Cancer Screening
TheVisualMD
0:05
Colorectal Cancer Clip 6
TheVisualMD
0:48
Dr. O'Kieffe and patient on preparing for a colonoscopy
Also called: PSA, Prostate-Specific Antigen, PSA (Free-To-Total)
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is a blood test that checks the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a protein made by the prostate gland. The amount of PSA may be higher in men who have prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or infection or inflammation of the prostate.
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test
Also called: PSA, Prostate-Specific Antigen, PSA (Free-To-Total)
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is a blood test that checks the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a protein made by the prostate gland. The amount of PSA may be higher in men who have prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or infection or inflammation of the prostate.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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ng/mL
4
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Your result is Normal.
PSA is always present in low concentrations in the blood of adult males. However, there is no specific normal or abnormal level of PSA in the blood, and levels may vary over time in the same man. Various factors can cause a man’s PSA level to fluctuate, such as inflammation, infections and medications among other factors.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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%
10
25
Your result is Lower risk.
When total PSA is in the range of 4.0-10.0 ng/mL and free PSA is above 25% it indicates a 9% to 16% risk of prostate cancer, depending on age. Studies have shown that men with a total PSA in this "gray area" and a free PSA greater than 25% are more likely to have a benign condition than to have cancer, making a biopsy unnecessary.
Related conditions
A prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is a blood test that measures the level of PSA in a sample of your blood. PSA is a protein made by your prostate. The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. It lies just below the bladder. It makes the fluid part of semen.
It's normal to have a low level of PSA in your blood. A high PSA level may be caused by:
Prostate cancer
An enlarged prostate (BPH) (benign prostatic hyperplasia)
Other common prostate problems
Taking certain medicines
A PSA test can't show what is causing abnormal PSA levels. So, if your level is high, you may need other tests.
Other names: total PSA free PSA
A PSA test is used to screen for prostate cancer. Cancer screening means looking for signs of cancer before it causes symptoms. But screening tests can't diagnose cancer. If a screening test finds signs of cancer, you'll need other tests to find out if you have cancer and how serious it may be.
Most types of prostate cancer grow very slowly. They don't spread beyond the prostate and may never cause health problems. In fact, you can live a long life with prostate cancer and never know you have it. The goal of prostate cancer screening is to help find cancers that may be more likely to spread so they can be treated early. But there are challenges and possible harms from using a PSA test to screen for prostate cancer:
A PSA test can't tell the different between abnormal PSA levels from prostate cancer and noncancerous conditions. If your PSA level is high, a prostate biopsy is the only way to find out if the cause is cancer. And prostate biopsies have possible harms.
A PSA test may lead to finding and treating prostate cancer that would never have affected your health. If prostate cancer is found:
It can be difficult to tell the difference between slow-growing cancers and those that are likely to grow faster and spread in your body.
You could have prostate cancer treatment that you never really needed. And cancer treatment may cause serious harms, such as:
Erectile dysfunction
Urinary incontinence
Problems controlling your bowels (poop)
To decide whether a PSA test to screen for prostate cancer is right for you, talk with your health care provider about:
Your risk for developing a serious type of prostate cancer. If your risk is high, the possible benefits of finding cancer early may outweigh the possible harms.
Your general health. Are you well enough to have treatment for prostate cancer if it's found?
Your preferences. How do you feel about the possible benefits and harms of screening, diagnosis, and treatment?
PSA testing may also be used to:
Help diagnose the cause of prostate conditions that aren't cancer
Monitor treatment for a prostate condition, including cancer
It's your choice whether to have a PSA test to screen for cancer. You and your prover may consider your risk for developing a serious cancer that could spread if you don't catch it early. Your risk for serious prostate cancer may be higher depending on your:
Age. The risk of prostate cancer increases after age 50.
Your family health history. If members of your family have had prostate cancer, your risk may be higher.
Your race. Prostate cancer is more common in African Americans. They also have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer at a younger age and having more serious disease.
You may also have a PSA test if:
You have symptoms of a prostate condition, such as:
Painful or frequent urination (peeing)
Blood in urine or semen
Pelvic and/or back pain
You have prostate cancer. Your provider may use PSA testing to monitor your condition or to see how well treatment is working.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You will need to avoid having sex or masturbating for 24 hours before your PSA test. That's because releasing semen can increase your PSA levels, which may make your results less accurate. Also, certain medicines may affect your test results, so tell your provider about any medicines you take.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is no specific normal or abnormal level for PSA in blood. In general, the higher your PSA level, the more likely it is that you have cancer. But it's possible to have a high PSA without prostate cancer, or a low PSA with prostate cancer.
If you had a PSA test for a prostate cancer screening or because you have prostate symptoms:
High PSA levels can mean you have prostate cancer or a prostate condition that's not cancer, such as an infection (prostatitis) or an enlarged prostate. If your PSA levels are higher than normal, your provider may talk with you about having more tests to diagnose the cause. These tests may include:
Another PSA test, more commonly if you don't have any symptoms. PSA levels can go up and down, so it helpful to see if your PSA levels change over time.
A digital rectal exam (DRE). For this test, your provider inserts a gloved, lubricated finger into your rectum to feel your prostate for lumps or anything unusual.
A urine test. A sample of your urine is tested for infection.
A prostate biopsy. A biopsy is minor surgery. A doctor removes samples of tissue from your prostate so it can be studied under a microscope to look for cancer cells. A biopsy is the only way to diagnose cancer. It may be recommended if your provider thinks you may have prostate cancer.
If you had a PSA test to monitor prostate cancer or treatment, ask your provider what a high PSA level means. Your provider will usually look at several tests results over time to get a fuller understanding of your condition.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Feb 29, 2024]
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
PSA - Clinical: Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Diagnostic, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
PSA. Lab Tests Online. [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
010322: Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (29)
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Prostate Gland
Prostate Description Line drawing showing lateral view of the prostate gland, rectum, bladder, penis and testis.
Image by National Cancer Institute
Normal vs enlarged prostate
BPH - Prostate enlargement problems
Image by Akcmdu9
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What Is Prostate Cancer?
Delve into the prostate, understand this complex disease found in men that is challenging to diagnose and witness a cutting edge procedure that may change how prostate cancer is diagnosed in the future.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Prostate Cancer Treatment
Once someone is diagnosed with prostate cancer, the patient and his doctors decide a course of action, and create a treatment plan. Very often with prostate cancer, that means simply keeping an eye on the progression of the disease. Here, top doctors lay out the most common prostate cancer treatment options, explain the tools and methods used as well as the risk factors involved.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Standard Biopsy for Prostate Cancer
National Cancer Institute urologist and surgeon Dr. Peter Pinto explains the process of the standard multi-core or "blind" biopsy of the prostate.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Visualizing the Prostate
Unlike for many other cancers, there are no standardized imaging protocols, apart from the use of transrectal ultrasound (TRUS), for the early detection and diagnosis of prostate cancer. This is a critical need. Prostate cancer is a disease for which it is crucial to detect and diagnose cancers early and accurately, both because early prostate cancer is usually without symptoms and because treatment side effects can be severe. Fortunately, new technologies are currently being developed, and even being used in some medical facilities, with promising results. By providing more specific and accurate detection and diagnosis results, these more sophisticated forms of prostate imaging and analysis will help in detecting early cancers, and in making the decision of whether to treat for prostate cancer when abnormalities are detected.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Moving Forward with Prostate Imaging
Unlike for many other cancers, there are no standardized imaging protocols, apart from the use of transrectal ultrasound (TRUS), for the early detection and diagnosis of prostate cancer. This is a critical need. Prostate cancer is a disease for which it is crucial to detect and diagnose cancers early and accurately, both because early prostate cancer is usually without symptoms and because treatment side effects can be severe. Fortunately, new technologies are currently being developed, and even being used in some medical facilities, with promising results. By providing more specific and accurate detection and diagnosis results, these more sophisticated forms of prostate imaging and analysis will help in detecting early cancers, and in making the decision of whether to treat for prostate cancer when abnormalities are detected.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Prostate Cancer Prognosis
A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Risks of Overdiagnosis of Prostate Cancer
University of Chicago Hospital radiologist Dr. Aytekin Oto talks about the challenge that doctors face in treating less aggressive forms of prostate cancer.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Risks of Treatment for Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer patients are likely to have a number of treatment options to choose from. If you have prostate cancer, you may feel pressured to make a decision quickly. But take the time to learn as much as you can about prostate cancer, your prognosis, and the treatments that are appropriate for your case. Talk to your doctor and, preferably, get a second opinion as well. Bear in mind that a surgeon may tend to recommend surgery and a radiation oncologist to recommend radiation therapy. Consider your own feelings about these treatments and their possible side effects.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Treatment Options for Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer patients are likely to have a number of treatment options to choose from. If you have prostate cancer, you may feel pressured to make a decision quickly. But take the time to learn as much as you can about prostate cancer, your prognosis, and the treatments that are appropriate for your case. Talk to your doctor and, preferably, get a second opinion as well. Bear in mind that a surgeon may tend to recommend surgery and a radiation oncologist to recommend radiation therapy. Consider your own feelings about these treatments and their possible side effects.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
MRI for Prostate Cancer
A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.
Video by TheVisualMD
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PET/CT for Prostate Cancer
A cancer's stage (how far it has progressed) is a very important factor in deciding on treatment and estimating the patient's prognosis. After biopsy confirms the presence of cancer in the prostate, the cancer is staged, meaning that more tests are done to find out how far the cancer has spread in the prostate and if it has spread outside the gland to adjacent tissues or to other sites in the body.
Video by TheVisualMD
Prostate Anatomy by Zones with insets
Prostate cancer usually starts in certain zones of the prostate. Knowledge of these different zones helps the doctor to decide where to biopsy tissue and where to look for cancer spread. In this image, the central zone is shown as orange, the transition zone is shown as green, and the peripheral zone is shown as yellow.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland Zones
The prostate gland is a small gland that sits below the bladder (the gland lies close to the wall of the rectum, which allows it to be felt in a digital rectal exam). The prostate gland can be divided up in two different ways, by lobes or zones; there are four lobes and five zones. The zone system of classification is used mostly for pathology; the largest zone, the peripheral zone, comprises about three-quarters of the prostate and is where most cancer occurs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle
Visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of a posterior view of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, ductus deferens and Cowper's glands. The ductus deferens joins with the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct. The seminal vesicles act to secrete a thick alkaline fluid that mixes with the sperm as it passes into the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra. The prostate gland secretes a lubricant that helps to prevent infection in the urethra and protects and energizes sperm. The Cowper's gland produces a lubricating fluid which is secreted into the urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Reproductive System Showing Prostate Cancer
Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral cross-section of an enlarged cancerous prostate, as well as bladder, penis, and testicles. Prostate cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in men over the age of 75 and the third leading cause of cancer death in men of all ages. Prostate enlargement in older men is usually benign but can be monitored for malignancy through the use of a blood test for prostate specific antigen (PSA) as well as through more invasive exams such as transrectal ultrasound and tranperineal biospy. Early cancers are sometimes treated with removal of the prostate while late-stage cancers are often treated with hormone and/or radiation therapy in combination with removal of the testicles (orchidectomy) to lower the level of testosterone and decrease cell growth. 2 of 2.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
Visualization of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is the largest accessory gland of the male reproductive system. Two thirds of the prostate is glandular while the remaining third is fibromuscular. Prostatic secretions help to prevent infection in the urethra, energizes sperm and keep the urethral lining moist.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Male Reproductive System
Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Lateral cross-section of a healthy, normal prostate, as well as bladder, penis, and testicles. Prostate cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in men over the age of 75 and the third leading cause of cancer death in men of all ages. Prostate enlargement in older men is usually benign (noncancerous) but can be monitored for malignancy through the use of a blood test for prostate specific antigen (PSA) as well as through more invasive exams such as transrectal ultrasound and tranperineal biospy. Early cancers are sometimes treated with removal of the prostate while late-stage cancers are often treated by hormone and/or radiation therapy in combination with removal of the testicles (orchidectomy) to lower the level of testosterone and decrease cell growth. 1 of 2.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Is Prostate Cancer?
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Symptoms
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Function
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Grading with Gleason Scale
After biopsy, cancer cells are graded
Image by TheVisualMD
Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer
Some risk factors for prostate cancer are controllable, some aren't. Knowing what the risk factors are can help you to lower your chances of getting prostate cancer and to make decisions about beginning screening. Every man should talk with his general practitioner or urologist and discuss the benefits and shortcomings of PSA screening and whether to have it. Risk factors for prostate cancer include: AGE Risk increases dramatically after age 50. RACE Men of African descent are at higher risk. LIFESTYLE Men in North America and northwestern Europe have an increased risk. FAMILY HISTORY Having a brother or father who has the disease raises risk. GENETICS Some genes have been linked to prostate cancer. DIET High-fat diet increases the chances of getting prostate cancer. HORMONES High levels of testosterone can cause or accelerate the disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Symptoms
Prostate cancer usually causes no symptoms in its early stages. Often there are no symptoms until the disease has spread beyond the prostate gland. Symptoms of advanced prostate cancer can include: 1) blood in the urine or semen, 2) difficulty, pain, or frequency in urinating, 3) pain in the lower back, pelvis, hips, or thigh bones, 4) compression of the spine, 5) pain with ejaculation, and 6) anemia and fatigue.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
Prostate and Seminal Vesicles sagittal and axial slices : Derived from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data, the axial and sagittal slices (cross sections) through the prostate reveal the glandular tissue of the prostate as well as the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra. The inner coils of the seminal vesicles are also visible within the slices. Seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles mixes with sperm from the testes, via the ductus deferens, within the ejaculatory duct. The contents of the ejaculatory duct are then deposited into the urethra. There prostatic fluid is added to the mix along with contributions from the bulbourethral glands, forming semen. The prostatic urethra most often carries urine from the bladder and through the prostate.
Image by TheVisualMD
Side Effects of Treatment for Prostate Cancer
The side effects of prostate cancer treatment can be severe and sometimes permanent. They include impotence, incontinence, bleeding, and nerve damage.
Image by TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
MRI Slices of the Prostate : Radiologists view different cross-sectional slices of the prostate, including the sagittal and axial slices, in order to detect any abnormalities.
Image by TheVisualMD
Decipher Test for Prostate Cancer Recurrence
Range of scores for the Decipher test showing low, intermediate, and high risk of prostate cancer metastasis. By estimating the future risk of prostate cancer spread and death, the Decipher test could help patients and their doctors make treatment decisions.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
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Prostate Gland
National Cancer Institute
Normal vs enlarged prostate
Akcmdu9
4:26
What Is Prostate Cancer?
TheVisualMD
2:35
Prostate Cancer Treatment
TheVisualMD
0:51
Standard Biopsy for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
1:00
Visualizing the Prostate
TheVisualMD
0:34
Moving Forward with Prostate Imaging
TheVisualMD
0:39
Prostate Cancer Prognosis
TheVisualMD
0:40
Risks of Overdiagnosis of Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
0:42
Risks of Treatment for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
0:33
Treatment Options for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
0:27
MRI for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
0:33
PET/CT for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
Prostate Anatomy by Zones with insets
TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland Zones
TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle
TheVisualMD
Male Reproductive System Showing Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Male Reproductive System
TheVisualMD
What Is Prostate Cancer?
TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Prostate Function
TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Grading with Gleason Scale
TheVisualMD
Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
Prostate Cancer Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
TheVisualMD
Side Effects of Treatment for Prostate Cancer
TheVisualMD
Prostate Gland
TheVisualMD
Decipher Test for Prostate Cancer Recurrence
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Treatment
Chemotherapy IV
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Chemotherapy IV
A closeup of a chemotherapy IV in a patient's hand.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
How Is Ovarian Cancer Treated?
If your doctor says that you have ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancers, ask to be referred to a gynecologic oncologist—a doctor who was trained to treat cancers of a woman’s reproductive system. Gynecologic oncologists can perform surgery on and give chemotherapy (medicine) to women with ovarian cancer. Your doctor can work with you to create a treatment plan.
Types of Treatment
Treatment for ovarian cancer usually involves a combination of surgery and chemotherapy.
Surgery: Doctors remove cancer tissue in an operation.
Chemotherapy: Using special medicines to shrink or kill the cancer. The drugs can be pills you take or medicines given in your veins, or sometimes both.
Different treatments may be provided by different doctors on your medical team.
Gynecologic oncologists are doctors who have been trained to treat cancers of a woman’s reproductive system. They perform surgery and give chemotherapy (medicine).
Surgeons are doctors who perform operations.
Medical oncologists are doctors who treat cancer with medicine (chemotherapy).
Visit the National Cancer Institute for more information about ovarian cancer treatment.
Which Treatment Is Right for Me?
Choosing the treatment that is right for you may be hard. Talk to your cancer doctor about the treatment options available for your type and stage of cancer. Your doctor can explain the risks and benefits of each treatment and their side effects. Side effects are how your body reacts to drugs or other treatments.
Sometimes people get an opinion from more than one cancer doctor. This is called a “second opinion.” Getting a second opinion may help you choose the treatment that is right for you.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (5)
RNA Nanoparticles in Cancer Cells
Some nanotechnologies use nanomotors, tiny machines capable of assembling ultra-stable RNA structures with a wide range of scientific and biomedical uses. Here a nanomotor was used to assemble a DNA aptamer-based targeting molecule that binds to a receptor which is overexpressed on ovarian cancer cells, Annexin-A2. This image shows the entry of RNA nanoparticles (red) into ovarian cancer cells (blue and green). The goal of this drug delivery system is to target ovarian cancer without damaging healthy tissues.
This image is part of the following collections:
NCI Cancer Close Up 2017
Nanotechnology Image Library
Image by National Cancer Institute \ Ohio State University / Fengmei Pi, Hui Zhang, Peixuan Guo
Hysterectomy Removal of Uterus, Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes Surgery
Video by PreOp.com Patient Engagement - Patient Education/YouTube
Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment
Video by MainMD/YouTube
Surgical Treatment for Ovarian Cancer Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Video by Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube
Chemo for Ovarian Cancer
Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube
RNA Nanoparticles in Cancer Cells
National Cancer Institute \ Ohio State University / Fengmei Pi, Hui Zhang, Peixuan Guo
3:33
Hysterectomy Removal of Uterus, Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes Surgery
Surgical Treatment for Ovarian Cancer Video – Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Brigham And Women's Hospital/YouTube
7:53
Chemo for Ovarian Cancer
Stanford Health Care/YouTube
Drugs Approved for Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Development and Elimination of Cancer Cells as Chemotherapy is Applied
Image by IdkItsKatieB
Development and Elimination of Cancer Cells as Chemotherapy is Applied
The cells shown either reproduce and grow into other healthy cells, or develop a tumor through the quick replication of damaged cells. A chemotherapy drug is applied to inhibit the growth and replication only of the damaged cells.
Image by IdkItsKatieB
Drugs Approved for Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cancer
This page lists cancer drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer. The list includes generic and brand names. This page also lists common drug combinations used in these cancer types. The individual drugs in the combinations are FDA-approved. However, drug combinations themselves usually are not approved, but are widely used.
There may be drugs used in ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer that are not listed here.
Drugs Approved for Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Alkeran (Melphalan)
Alymsys (Bevacizumab)
Avastin (Bevacizumab)
Bevacizumab
Carboplatin
Cisplatin
Cyclophosphamide
Doxorubicin Hydrochloride
Doxil (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome)
Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome
Elahere (Mirvetuximab soravtansine-gynx)
Gemcitabine Hydrochloride
Gemzar (Gemcitabine Hydrochloride)
Hycamtin (Topotecan Hydrochloride)
Infugem (Gemcitabine Hydrochloride)
Lynparza (Olaparib)
Melphalan
Mirvetuximab soravtansine-gynx
Mvasi (Bevacizumab)
Niraparib Tosylate Monohydrate
Olaparib
Paclitaxel
Paraplatin (Carboplatin)
Rubraca (Rucaparib Camsylate)
Rucaparib Camsylate
Tepadina (Thiotepa)
Thiotepa
Topotecan Hydrochloride
Zejula (Niraparib Tosylate Monohydrate)
Zirabev (Bevacizumab)
Drug Combinations Used in Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, or Primary Peritoneal Cancer
BEP
CARBOPLATIN-TAXOL
GEMCITABINE-CISPLATIN
JEB
PEB
VAC
VeIP
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
Catheter, Central Venous
Central venous catheter; drawing of a central venous catheter that goes from a vein below the right collarbone to a large vein above the right side of the heart called the superior vena cava. An inset shows a central venous catheter in the right side of the chest with a clear plastic dressing over it.
Central venous catheter. A central venous catheter is a thin, flexible tube that is inserted into a vein, usually below the right collarbone, and guided (threaded) into a large vein above the right side of the heart called the superior vena cava. It is used to give intravenous fluids, blood transfusions, chemotherapy, and other drugs. The catheter is also used for taking blood samples. It may stay in place for weeks or months and helps avoid the need for repeated needle sticks.
Description: Peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC); drawing of a PICC line that goes from a vein in the upper right arm to a large vein above the right side of the heart called the superior vena cava. An inset shows a PICC line in the arm with a clear plastic dressing over it. An intravenous line attached to the PICC is also shown.
Peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC). A PICC is a thin, flexible tube that is inserted into a vein in the upper arm and guided (threaded) into a large vein above the right side of the heart called the superior vena cava. It is used to give intravenous fluids, blood transfusions, chemotherapy, and other drugs. It is also used for taking blood samples. A PICC line may stay in place for weeks or months and helps avoid the need for repeated needle sticks.
Stages 1 Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 2A to 2C Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 3A to 3C Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 4 Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
1
2
3
4
Stages of Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Stages 1 Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 2A to 2C Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 3A to 3C Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Stages 4 Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
1
2
3
4
Stages of Ovarian Epithelial, Fallopian Tube, and Primary Peritoneal Cancer
Interactive by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
What Is the Long-Term Outlook for People with Ovarian Cancer?
The long-term outlook (prognosis) for women with ovarian cancer depends on many factors including the subtype of cancer and the stage at which the cancer is diagnosed. In general, epithelial ovarian cancers (the most common subtype) are often associated with a worse prognosis than more rare subtypes such as germ cell and stromal ovarian tumors.
Because early stages of ovarian cancer are often not associated with any specific signs or symptoms, many cases are, unfortunately, diagnosed at a later and less treatable stage. Late stage ovarian cancers are generally associated with a poor prognosis. For example, 5-year survival rates for women diagnosed with stage I ovarian cancer range from 79-87%, while the 5-year survival rates for women diagnosed with stage IV ovarian cancer are approximately 11%.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Additional Materials (2)
Research Cures Cancer | Ovarian Cancer | MedscapeTV
Video by Medscape/YouTube
How are the stages of ovarian cancer determined?
Video by Swedish/YouTube
5:57
Research Cures Cancer | Ovarian Cancer | MedscapeTV
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Ovarian Cancer
Ovarian cancer is cancer that originates in the ovaries. It's hard to detect early. Women with ovarian cancer may have no symptoms or mild symptoms until the disease is in an advanced stage. Learn what causes ovarian cancer, how to reduce your risk, how it's diagnosed, and the treatments available.