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Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis

Table of Contents

Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis

PSGN; Acute Proliferative Glomerulonephritis

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, or PSGN, is a rare kidney disease that can develop after group A strep infections. The main way to prevent PSGN is to prevent group A strep infections. Learn more about PSGN, including its causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention.

Glomerulonephritis

Image by TheVisualMD

About

Intermediate Mag - Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

Hi Mag - Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

1

2

3

Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19)

Interactive by Nephron

Intermediate Mag - Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

Hi Mag - Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

1

2

3

Micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19)

Intermediate / High / Very high magnification micrograph of collapsing glomerulopathy. PAS stain. Collapsing glomerulopathy is considered to be a subtype of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). It generally has a poor prognosis, when compared to other types of FSGS. It is as associated with viral infections (HIV, parvovirus B19) and toxins.

Interactive by Nephron

What Is Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis?

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (gloe-mer-u-low-nuh-FRY-tis) — or PSGN — is a rare kidney disease that can develop after group A strep infections.

The main way to prevent PSGN is to prevent group A strep infections.

PSGN is an inflammatory disease

PSGN is a kidney disease that is thought to be an immune response to an earlier infection.

As the body’s defense system, the immune system is important in fighting off infections. But the immune system can mistakenly attack healthy parts of the body and cause damage.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (1)

Glomerulonephritis

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

TheVisualMD

Causes

Strep throat

Image by CDC/ Heinz F. Eichenwald, MD

Strep throat

This image depicts an intraoral view of a patient, who had presented to a clinical setting exhibiting redness and edema of the oropharynx, and petechiae, or small red spots, on the soft palate. A diagnosis of strep throat had been made, caused by group A Streptococcus bacteria. These bacteria are spread through direct contact with mucus from the nose or throat, of persons who are infected, or through contact with infected wounds, or sores on the skin.

Image by CDC/ Heinz F. Eichenwald, MD

What Causes Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis?

How you get PSGN

PSGN can develop after infections caused by bacteria called group A Streptococcus (group A strep). These infections include:

Strep throat
Scarlet fever
Impetigo

PSGN is not a group A strep infection of the kidneys. Instead PSGN results from the body’s immune system fighting off strep throat, scarlet fever, or impetigo.

After the start of strep throat or scarlet fever symptoms, it usually takes about 10 days for PSGN to develop. After the start of impetigo symptoms, it takes about 3 weeks for PSGN to develop.

PSGN is not contagious

People cannot catch PSGN from someone else because it is an immune response and not an infection. However, people with a group A strep infection can spread the bacteria to others.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Risk Factors

Impetigo

Image by CDC

Impetigo

This illustration depicts a right lateral, or side view of a child’s head and neck. You’ll note the lesions on the temple and cheek regions due to the inflammatory skin disease known as impetigo, usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, and sometimes group-A Streptococcus sp. bacteria as well.

Image by CDC

Who Is at Risk for Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis?

Some people are at increased risk

Anyone can get PSGN after having strep throat, scarlet fever, or impetigo. People at increased risk for those infections are also at increased risk for getting PSGN.

Age

PSGN is more common in children than adults.

Developing PSGN after strep throat or scarlet fever is most common in young, school-age children.

Developing PSGN after impetigo is most common in preschool-age children.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Symptoms

Hematuria

Image by James Heilman, MD

Hematuria

Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.

Image by James Heilman, MD

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis?

Symptoms usually point to kidney issues

Symptoms of PSGN can include:

Dark, reddish-brown urine
Edema (swelling), especially in the face, around the eyes, and in the hands and feet
Decreased need to pee or decreased amount of urine
Fatigue due to mild anemia (feeling tired due to low iron levels in the blood)

In addition, someone with PSGN usually has:

Protein in the urine
Hypertension (high blood pressure)

Some people may have no symptoms or symptoms that are so mild that they don’t seek medical help.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (2)

Hematuria

Image by /Wikimedia

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Image by Bobjgalindo

Hematuria

/Wikimedia

Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.

Bobjgalindo

Diagnosis

Blood test

Image by tyfn

Blood test

Blood test

Image by tyfn

How Is Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis Diagnosed?

Doctors look at how well the kidneys are working

Doctors diagnose PSGN by looking at a patient’s medical history and ordering lab tests. Doctors can test urine samples to look for protein and blood. Doctors can also do a blood test to see how well the kidneys are working. They can also determine if a patient recently had a group A strep infection.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Kidney Function Panel

Kidney Function Panel

Also called: Kidney Panel, Renal Function Panel, Renal Panel

Your kidneys filter and clean your blood. Kidney tests include blood, urine, and imaging tests that doctors use to diagnose and monitor kidney diseases.

Kidney Function Panel

Also called: Kidney Panel, Renal Function Panel, Renal Panel

Your kidneys filter and clean your blood. Kidney tests include blood, urine, and imaging tests that doctors use to diagnose and monitor kidney diseases.

Because your kidneys remove waste, toxins, and extra fluid from the blood, a doctor will use a blood test to check your kidney function. The blood tests will show how well your kidneys are doing their job and how quickly the waste is being removed. Here are a few blood tests that are used:
Serum creatinine. A serum creatinine blood test measures the amount of creatinine in your blood. If your kidneys are not working like they should, your serum creatinine level goes up. Normal levels for you will depend on your sex, age, and the amount of muscle mass your body has.
Usually a creatinine level more than 1.2 for women and more than 1.4 for men may be a sign that the kidneys are not working like they should. If your serum creatinine test results are higher than normal, your doctor may want to run other tests.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The GFR is a measure of how well your kidneys remove waste, toxins, and extra fluid from your blood. Your serum creatinine level, age, and sex are used to calculate your GFR number. Like other kidney tests, a normal GFR number for you will depend on your age and sex. If your GFR is low, your kidneys are likely not working as they should. As kidney disease progresses, your GFR goes down. The results of your test can mean the following:
- If you have a GFR number of 60 or more together with a normal urine albumin test, you are in the normal range. But you’ll still want to talk to your doctor about when you should be checked again.
- If you have a GFR number less than 60, it may mean you have kidney disease. You’ll want to talk to your doctor about treatment options that are best for you.
- If you have a GFR number less than 15, it may mean your kidneys are failing. If your results show kidney failure, you’ll likely need dialysis or a kidney transplant. You should know that if your GFR level is less than 20 consistently over a 6- to 12-month period, as a precaution, your doctor may consider you for a kidney transplant.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN). This test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product your body makes from the breakdown of protein in the foods you eat. Healthy kidneys filter urea nitrogen out of your blood and it leaves your body through your urine. This process helps keep your BUN level within a normal range. A normal level of urea nitrogen will depend on your age and other health conditions you may have, but usually ranges from 7 to 20. If your levels are higher than normal, this may be a sign that your kidneys are not working as well as they should. As kidney disease progresses, your BUN level goes up.
If your BUN level reveals signs of kidney disease, your doctor will use your BUN test results, along with other tests, to decide on a treatment plan that best fits your needs.
1. Kidney Testing: Everything You Need to Know | CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 14, 2024]
2. Renal Panel Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 14, 2024]

Additional Materials (35)

Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.

Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube

Stages of Kidney Disease

Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

Video by NKN/YouTube

How can I be tested for kidney disease?

Video by Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

Testing and Treatment for Kidney Disease

Video by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube

BUN and Creatinine

Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

Conquering Lab Interpretation: Basic Metabolic Panel & Renal Labs - MED-ED

Video by MED-ED/YouTube

Drawing of GFR dial

Intended for use by providers when explaining estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) results, this dial shows how certain eGFR values fall into healthy and unhealthy ranges. A GFR that is = 60 or higher is in the normal range. A GFR below 60 may mean kidney disease. A GFR of 15 or lower may mean kidney failure.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Creatinine

Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.

Image by TheVisualMD

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney

Image by Madhero88

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing how the kidneys work

Diagram showing how the kidneys work

Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Kidneys and EPO

Top: process of normal red blood cell production with a healthy kidney. Bottom: process of reduced red blood cell production with a damaged kidney. Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called EPO. EPO prompts the bone marrow to make red blood cells, which then carry oxygen throughout the body. When the kidneys are diseased or damaged, they do not make enough EPO. As a result, the bone marrow makes fewer red blood cells, causing anemia.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Kidney with ACKD

Drawing of a male torso with kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra labeled, and a drawing below of a kidney with sacs of fluid labeled as cysts. Acquired cystic kidney disease happens when a person's kidneys develop fluid-filled sacs called cysts.

Image by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell : We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. Urine Test for Albumin If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin. Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria. A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways: Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine. Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of 30 mg/g or less is normal more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you. If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.

Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Renal Circulation

Kidney Cortex, cross section : The cortex is the outermost region of the kidney. It is densely packed with winding blood vessels, convoluted tubules, and collecting ducts.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Diseased Kidney : This visualization is the anterior view of an unhealthy kidney, damaged from chronic kidney disease and hypertension. This kidney exhibits a severe case of stage five chronic kidney disease (CKD). Shrinkage of the kidney and increased granulation and scarring on the surface are visible.

Image by TheVisualMD

When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Urine Total Protein Test for Diseased Glomerulus : The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, which are recycled in the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diagram of two kidneys (healthy vs polycystic)

The healthy kidney on the lower right is smooth. The polycystic kidney on the upper left has many fluid-filled sacs on the surface. Labels point to the ureter and cysts on the polycystic kidney. The polycystic kidney roughly retains the same shape as the healthy kidney.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Kidney and Adrenal Gland

The kidney (including the surrounding fibrous tissue and fat layer, the renal pelvis, and the ureter) and the adrenal gland, as well as a close-up view of the renal pelvis. Image is included in this publication: See also http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/wyntk/kidney.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)

Healthy and Diseased Kidney Comparison

Each day the kidneys filter 200 quarts of blood, removing toxins and excess salts to produce about 2 quarts of waste and excess water as urine. The kidneys also play a critical role in maintaining the body's equilibrium by constantly adjusting the levels of key chemicals in the blood such as sodium, phosphorus, and potassium. The kidneys monitor oxygen levels in the blood, and respond to low oxygen levels by releasing the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). Chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when the kidneys are increasingly unable to balance levels of electrolytes (like sodium or calcium) and fail to produce enough urine to eliminate toxins and wastes from the blood. Diabetes and hypertension account for 65% of cases of CKD. Kidney damage can easily go unnoticed until the condition is advanced and kidneys are working at just 15% of their normal capacity.

Image by TheVisualMD

Angiogram Showing Artery of Abdomen and Kidney

This angiogram depicts the kidneys, renal vasculature and the major abdominal arteries.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Nephron

Schematics of kidney and nephron. 1: Renal cortex. 2: Medulla. 3: Renal artery. 4: Renal vein. 5: Ureter. 6: Nephrons. 7: Afferent arteriole. 8: Glomerulus. 9: Bowman’s capsule. 10: Tubuli and loop of Henle. 11: Efferent arteriole. 12: Peritubular capillaries.

Image by File:Physiology_of_Nephron.svg: Madhero88 File:KidneyStructures_PioM.svg: Piotr Michał Jaworski; PioM EN DE PL derivative work: Daniel Sachse (Antares42)

Abdomen Revealing Kidney with Chronic Kidney Disease

Right Lateral view of male abdomen visualizing kidney with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Visible: right hand and aorta.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Left Kidney with Adhesive Bandage

Editorial image: managing CKD, repairing and preventing kidney damage

Image by TheVisualMD

Hands Holding Glowing Glass Kidney

Editorial image of two hands holding a glowing glass kidney

Image by TheVisualMD

Spine Between Right and Left Kidney and Ureter

Image showing the anterior view of the kidneys and ureters in relation with skeletal system.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Female Torso Revealing Kidney

Posterior view of female torso with urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder)

Image by TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of kidney stones?

Kidney Stones causing Back Pain : Most types of kidney disease, such as those caused by high blood pressure and diabetes, don't cause pain. Kidney stones and infections do cause pain. Although the pain actually originates in the organ, it may seem to come from the back or from other parts of your body. Pain caused by your kidneys is usually felt in your flank area, at the lower edge of the ribs and on either side of the spine. Kidney pain is usually sharp and severe, and it generally occurs in waves.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease

The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease : Because CKD can progress for years with few or no symptoms, anyone with risk factors should be routinely tested. There are three main types of tests for CKD: urine, blood, and imaging tests. Tests for CKD look for substances that normally are low or missing in the blood or urine, like protein and nitrogen. Other tests look for chemical imbalances or anemia. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.

Image by TheVisualMD

Urinalysis

Kidneys and Related Conditions : The value of routine urinalysis is that abnormal levels of substances such as protein or glucose, for example, will often appear in the urine before patients are aware they may have a problem. It is also used to detect disorders of the urinary tract, most commonly infections. Abnormal urine screens are typically followed up by more specific diagnostic tests.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney Cancer

Kidney Cancer

Image by BruceBlaus

The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The glomerulus and convoluted tubules are located in the kidney cortex, while collecting ducts are located in the pyramids of the medulla. (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)

Image by CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)

15:01

Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.

Medcrine Medical/YouTube

6:58

Stages of Kidney Disease

UC San Diego Health/YouTube

8:29

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

NKN/YouTube

1:40

How can I be tested for kidney disease?

Joslin Diabetes Center/YouTube

1:09

Testing and Treatment for Kidney Disease

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube

5:26

BUN and Creatinine

PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

1:04:51

Conquering Lab Interpretation: Basic Metabolic Panel & Renal Labs - MED-ED

MED-ED/YouTube

Drawing of GFR dial

NIDDK Image Library

Creatinine

TheVisualMD

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Madhero88

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Diagram showing how the kidneys work

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

Kidneys and EPO

NIDDK Image Library

Kidney with ACKD

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Renal Circulation

TheVisualMD

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

TheVisualMD

When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

TheVisualMD

Diagram of two kidneys (healthy vs polycystic)

NIDDK Image Library

Kidney and Adrenal Gland

National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)

Healthy and Diseased Kidney Comparison

TheVisualMD

Angiogram Showing Artery of Abdomen and Kidney

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Nephron

File:Physiology_of_Nephron.svg: Madhero88 File:KidneyStructures_PioM.svg: Piotr Michał Jaworski; PioM EN DE PL derivative work: Daniel Sachse (Antares42)

Abdomen Revealing Kidney with Chronic Kidney Disease

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

TheVisualMD

Left Kidney with Adhesive Bandage

TheVisualMD

Hands Holding Glowing Glass Kidney

TheVisualMD

Spine Between Right and Left Kidney and Ureter

TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

TheVisualMD

Female Torso Revealing Kidney

TheVisualMD

What are the symptoms of kidney stones?

TheVisualMD

The Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease

TheVisualMD

Urinalysis

TheVisualMD

Kidney Cancer

BruceBlaus

The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs

CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIDDK)

Glucose

Blood Glucose Test

Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)

A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.

Blood Glucose Test

Also called: Blood Sugar Level, Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose, Random Glucose, Random Blood Glucose (RPG)

A blood glucose test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your blood. It may be used to help diagnose or monitor diabetes. The test can involve a finger prick or a blood draw from your vein.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
70
100
125
Your result is Normal.
A healthy (normal) fasting blood glucose level for someone without diabetes is 70 to 99 mg/dL (3.9 to 5.5 mmol/L). Values between 50 and 70 mg/dL (2.8 to 3.9 mmol/L) for people without diabetes can be "normal" too.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
80
140
200
Your result is Normal.
In a random blood glucose test, a normal result depends on when you last ate. You may start your day at below 100 mg/dL in the morning before breakfast and your blood glucose may rise as high as 140 mg/dL about 2 hours after meals during the day. Most of the time, the blood glucose level will be below 125 mg/dL (6.9 mmol/L).
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
140
Your result is Normal.
Within 2 hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. Normal blood glucose values in people who don't have diabetes are less than 140 mg/dL, and in people with diabetes are less than 180 mg/dL.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a blood glucose test if you have symptoms of high glucose levels or low glucose levels.
Symptoms of high blood glucose levels include:
- Increased thirst and urination (peeing)
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
- Sores that don't heal
- Weight loss when you're not trying to lose weight
- Numbness or tingling in your feet or hands
Symptoms of low blood glucose levels include:
- Feeling shaky or jittery
- Hunger
- Fatigue
- Feeling dizzy, confused, or irritable
- Headache
- A fast heartbeat or arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Having trouble seeing or speaking clearly
- Fainting or seizures
You may also need a blood glucose test if you have a high risk for developing type 2 diabetes. You're more likely to develop diabetes if you:
- Are overweight or have obesity
- Are age 45 or older
- Have a family history of diabetes
- Have high blood pressure
- Don't exercise enough
- Have a history of heart disease or stroke
- Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes that happens only during pregnancy)
If you are pregnant, you will likely get a blood glucose test between the 24th and 28th week of your pregnancy to check for gestational diabetes.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
For some types of glucose blood tests, you will drink a sugary liquid and wait for an hour before your blood sample is taken:
- A glucose challenge test is used to test for gestational diabetes in pregnancy. If your blood glucose level is higher than normal, you may have gestational diabetes. You'll need an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to get a diagnosis.
- An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is used to diagnose gestational diabetes, and type 2 diabetes and prediabetes in people who aren't pregnant. A blood sample will be taken before you have a sugary drink and then again, every hour for the next 2 or 3 hours.
If your results show higher than normal glucose levels, it may mean you have or are at risk for getting diabetes. High glucose levels may also be a sign of:
- Hyperthyroidism
- Pancreas disorders
- Stress from surgery, very serious illness, or trauma
If you have diabetes, lower than normal glucose levels may be caused by:
- Side effects from certain diabetes medicines
- Not eating enough, especially after taking diabetes medicine
- Being more physically active than usual
If you don't have diabetes, low blood glucose levels may be a sign of:
- Liver disease
- Kidney disease
- Underactive adrenal, pituitary, or thyroid gland (hypothyroidism)
- Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
If your glucose results are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines and stress can affect glucose levels. To learn what your test results mean, talk with your health care provider.
If you have diabetes, you may need to do blood sugar testing at home every day to help manage your blood glucose levels. There are two ways to do this:
- Blood glucose meters require you to prick your finger with a small device called a lancet. You apply a drop of blood to a test strip and insert it into a small, electronic glucose meter, which measures the glucose is in your blood.
- Continuous glucose monitors (CGM) use a tiny sensor that you insert under your skin. Every few minutes, the sensor measures glucose levels in fluids between your cells. If your glucose is too high or too low, you use a blood glucose meter to check your blood levels before making changes to raise or lower your glucose level.
1. Blood Glucose Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 12, 2022]
2. Blood sugar test: Health Article | MedlinePlus - NIH [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
3. Random glucose test - Wikipedia [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
4. 001032: Glucose | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
5. 001818: Glucose, Plasma | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
6. 090400: Diabetes Risk–Asymptomatic Adults | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]
7. Glucose (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Sep 07, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (10)

This browser does not support the video element.

Fasting Plasma Glucose

The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, also known as the fasting blood sugar test, measures blood sugar levels and is used to diagnose diabetes.

Video by TheVisualMD

Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Glucose Molecule

Carbohydrates feed your cells. Once broken down by digestive enzymes, carbohydrates are absorbed into the blood stream as simple sugars. The liver converts digestable carbohydrates into glucose as needed so they're easily used by the cells of the body. The pancreas, a banana-sized gland within the abdomen, produces a hormone called insulin. As the blood-sugar (glucose) level rises, the pancreas releases insulin. This hormone is needed to move the sugar food from your blood into your cells, where the sugar is utilized for energy. Once glucose is inside a cell, it enters the many small mitochondria which use t to produce adenosine triphophate (ATP). ATP is used to power the cell's function, such as muscle contraction.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Pancreas

The pancreas is a large gland (located behind the stomach) that secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum (small intestine), which then combine with bile, produced in the liver. The pancreas also produces the hormone insulin, which helps control blood sugar levels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)

Our brains need a continuous supply of fuel in the form of glucose because they can't store energy as fat or glycogen. Though the brain represents only about 2% of the body's mass, it consumes 60% of the sugar coursing through our bloodstreams.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glucose: Insulin & Glucose

The body's ability to use glucose depends on the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. Blood levels of glucose rise after meals, but insulin keeps glucose levels within a narrow range; excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Random glucose (pink) in a capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diabetes and insulin injection

There are 3 main types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes develops when the body's immune system destroys the pancreatic cells that produce the hormone insulin. Type 2 diabetes develops when cells can no longer use insulin effectively, which can result in the pancreas gradually losing its ability to produce insulin. Both types of diabetes can require insulin injections to compensate for this deficiency. A third type, gestational diabetes, is a form of glucose intolerance that appears in some women during pregnancy.

Image by TheVisualMD

0:23

Fasting Plasma Glucose

TheVisualMD

9:19

Molecular structure of glucose | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy

Khan Academy/YouTube

7:24

Glucose Insulin and Diabetes

Khan Academy/YouTube

5:11

How do carbohydrates impact your health? - Richard J. Wood

TED-Ed/YouTube

Glucose Molecule

TheVisualMD

Glucose: Pancreas

TheVisualMD

Glucose: Neurons (Utilize Glucose)

TheVisualMD

Glucose: Insulin & Glucose

TheVisualMD

Random glucose (pink) in a capillary

TheVisualMD

Diabetes and insulin injection

TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

Phosphate Blood Test

Also called: Phosphate Blood Levels, Phosphorus, PO4

A phosphate in blood test measures the level of phosphate in your blood. Phosphate blood levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of kidney disease or other serious health problems.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
1
2.5
4.5
Your result is Normal.
The terms phosphate and phosphorus can mean the same thing in test results. So your results may show phosphorus levels rather than phosphate levels.
Related conditions
A phosphate in blood test measures the amount of phosphate in a sample of your blood. Phosphate contains the mineral phosphorus. So, a phosphate test is sometimes called a phosphorus test.
Phosphate is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Your body also needs phosphates for many other important processes, such as:
- Building strong bones and teeth. Most of the phosphate in your body is found in your bones where it is combined with the mineral calcium.
- Making energy.
- Helping your nerves and muscles work properly.
The phosphorus in phosphate comes from the foods you eat, including nuts and seeds, dairy products, dried beans, meats, poultry, and eggs. Your body tightly controls the amount of phosphate in your blood mainly through your:
- Kidneys. They filter extra phosphate from your blood and get rid of it through urine (pee). If your phosphate level is low, your kidneys limit the amount lost through urine.
- Intestines. They control how much phosphorous you absorb from the foods you eat.
The amount of phosphate in your blood is also linked to your levels of:
- Calcium. When blood calcium levels increase, phosphate levels decrease. And when calcium levels decrease, phosphate levels increase.
- Vitamin D. It helps your body use phosphate.
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone is made by parathyroid glands in your neck. It helps balance phosphate and calcium levels in your blood.
Abnormal phosphate levels may be a sign of problems with the systems in your body that control phosphate levels. To help understand the cause of abnormal levels, the test is often done with blood tests that measure calcium, vitamin D, and PTH.
Other names: phosphorus test, P, PO4, phosphorus-serum, phosphate, inorganic phosphorus
A phosphate in blood test is often used with other tests to help diagnose and/or monitor:
- Kidney disease, especially chronic kidney disease. High phosphate levels are a common sign that the kidneys aren't working well to get rid of extra phosphate in the blood.
- Bone disorders. High phosphate levels can pull calcium out of bones and weaken them over time.
- Parathyroid disorders. Parathyroid hormones control the balance of phosphate and calcium in the blood. A phosphate test can help show how well the parathyroid glands are working.
A phosphate test may also be used to monitor people who:
- Have diabetes that isn't well controlled
- Have signs of an acid-base imbalance (having too much or too little acid in your blood)
Phosphate levels that are either high or mildly low usually don't cause any symptoms on their own. But you may need a phosphate test with other tests if you:
- Have had an abnormal result on a calcium blood test. A calcium test may be part of a routine exam. Abnormal levels are often linked to abnormal phosphate levels.
- Have symptoms of low calcium levels. High levels of phosphate can lower calcium levels in your blood, which can cause symptoms, such as:
  Nails that break easily, and/or hair that becomes coarse
  Rash and/or itchy skin
  Muscle cramps
  Bone pain
  Seizures
  Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Have symptoms of severely low phosphate levels. This condition can become life-threatening and needs immediate treatment. Symptoms may include:
  Muscle pain and/or weakness
  Bone pain
  Changes in your mental condition, such as feeling confused or very irritable
  Seizures
  Coma
You may also need to have your phosphate levels checked if you have or may have a condition that can cause abnormal phosphate levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Malnutrition
- Malabsorption syndrome
- A parathyroid gland disorder
- Using certain medicines
The results of your phosphate test may say "phosphorus levels" or "phosphate levels." These terms mean the same thing. The meaning of your test results depends on your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other tests.
In general:
A higher than normal phosphate level is called hyperphosphatemia. High levels are linked to many conditions, including:
- Late stages of chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. If damaged kidneys can't filter out extra phosphate, it can build up in your blood. If you have a condition that affects your kidneys, eating too much phosphorus-rich food may also lead to high phosphate levels.
- Hypoparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands don't make enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). When PTH is low, calcium levels are low and phosphate levels are high.
- Acidosis. This means having too much acid in your blood from a pH imbalance. It may be caused by a lung disorder or other health conditions, including kidney disease.
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include steroids, laxatives, and enemas that contain phosphate.
A lower than normal phosphate level is called hypophosphatemia. Mildly low levels often aren't a health problem. But many conditions that cause low levels may need treatment, including:
- Hyperparathyroidism. With this condition, your parathyroid glands make too much parathyroid hormone, which leads to high levels of blood calcium and low levels of phosphate.
- Vitamin D deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to osteomalacia, a condition that causes soft bones. In children, this condition is called rickets.
- Getting too little phosphorus from food. This is uncommon in the U.S. But some people are more likely to have trouble getting enough phosphorus, including:
  Premature babies
  People who have certain rare genetic disorders, severe malnutrition, alcohol use disorder, or problems absorbing nutrients
- Long-term use of certain medicines. These include antacids that contain aluminum hydroxide or calcium carbonate and certain prescription diuretics ("water pills").
If your phosphate levels are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Also, children often have higher phosphate levels because their bones are still growing. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/33136/phosphorus [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]
2. https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8408 [accessed on Sep 07, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (11)

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods : The phosphorus test is used to monitor the levels of phosphorus in the blood. Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

Along with calcium, phosphorus is an important building block of teeth.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. A wide variety of foods, such as meat, eggs, fish, dairy, beans, peas, nuts, and grains contain significant amounts of phosphorus. Plant-based sources of phosphorus, however, are less available to the body because we lack digestive enzymes to fully utilize them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

Phosphorus is an essential mineral, required by every cell in the body for normal function. It helps filter kidney waste; plays a critical role in energy storage and use; helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of all tissues, and cells; and is involved in the production of DNA and RNA. Phosphorus aids in the balance and use of many vitamins and minerals. It works closely with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. Phosphorus is found in milk, grains, and protein-rich foods.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Space filling model of Phosphate

Image by Benjah-bmm27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

Video by familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. About 80% of phosphorus resides in the bones and teeth. Because alcohol can leach phosphorus from the bones, phosphorus deficiency is often associated with alcoholism, especially when combined with malnutrition.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Higher-than-normal levels of phosphorus are often caused by kidney disease or a diet that has too much phosphorus and too little calcium; a fine balance must be maintained between dietary calcium and phosphorus for optimum bone density.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

Most of the body's phosphorus is in a form combined with calcium to help form bones and teeth, but it is also found in muscle, nerve tissue, and, in tiny but crucial amounts, within cells throughout the body, where it is a component of key molecules such as DNA. Phosphorus assists in the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction and the regulation of heartbeat. Using phosphorus supplements along with potassium supplements may elevate potassium levels, which can result in life-threatening arrhythmias.

Image by TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Test and Phosphorus Rich Foods

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Tooth

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus: Heart Function

TheVisualMD

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

Plate of High Phosphorus Food

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus Ion

TheVisualMD

Phosphate

Benjah-bmm27

19:27

Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency (G6PD Deficiency) - English

familyhealthservice/YouTube

Phosphorus, Chronic Alcoholism

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Kidney Failure

TheVisualMD

Phosphorus, Heart Function (EKG)

TheVisualMD

Calcium

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

Calcium Blood Test

Also called: Calcium, Hypocalcemia Test, Hypercalcemia Test

A calcium test measures the level of calcium in your blood. Abnormal calcium levels may be a sign of kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

{"label":"Calcium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":8.2},"text":"Abnormally low levels may result in abdominal cramps, muscle cramps, or tingling fingers.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malnutrition","Vitamin D deficiency","Magnesium deficiency","Pancreatitis","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Neurological disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8.2,"max":10.2},"text":"A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10.2,"max":18},"text":"Abnormally high levels of calcium can result in fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, increased thirst and urination.","conditions":["Excess vitamin D intake","Hyperparathyroidism","Paget's disease of the bone","Overuse of antacids","Certain cancers","Sarcoidosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":9.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
8.2
10.2
Your result is Normal.
A normal total calcium result supported by other normal findings generally means that your calcium metabolism is normal and blood levels are being appropriately regulated.
Related conditions
{"label":"Calcium (ionized) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4.5},"text":"Low blood levels of ionized calcium can cause your heart rate to slow down or speed up, cause muscle spasms, and even result in a coma.","conditions":["Hypoparathyroidism","Malabsorption","Osteomalacia","Pancreatitis","Renal failure","Rickets","Vitamin D deficiency"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":5.6},"text":"Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, \"free\" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.6,"max":15},"text":"High levels of ionized calcium in your blood may be due to a sedentary lifestyle or lack of mobility, use of medications and supplements or certain medical conditions.","conditions":["Hypocalciuria","Hyperparathyroidism","Hyperthyroidism","Milk-alkali syndrome","Multiple myeloma","Paget disease","Sarcoidosis","Thiazide diuretics","Thrombocytosis","Tumors","Vitamin A excess","Vitamin D excess"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
4.5
5.6
Your result is Normal.
Ionized calcium levels give more information about active, "free" calcium. It may be important to know your ionized calcium levels if you have abnormal levels of proteins, such as albumin, or immunoglobins in your blood.
Related conditions
A blood calcium test is used to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose or monitor many types of medical conditions, including conditions that affect your bones, kidneys, digestive system, thyroid, and parathyroid glands.
There are two types of calcium blood tests that measure different forms of blood calcium:
- Total calcium test measures all the calcium in your blood. You have two types of blood calcium that are normally present in about equal amounts:
  "Bound calcium" is attached to proteins in your blood.
  "Free calcium" is not attached to proteins. It's also called ionized calcium. This form of blood calcium is active in many body functions.
  Normally, your body tightly controls the balance of bound and ionized calcium, so a total calcium test gives a good estimate of how much ionized calcium you have.
  A total calcium test is the most common test for blood calcium. It's often part of a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), which are both routine screening tests.
- An ionized calcium test measures only the "free calcium" in your blood that isn't attached to proteins. An ionized calcium test is more difficult to do, so it's usually ordered if the results of a total calcium test aren't normal. You may also have this test if you have a condition that affects your body's ability to balance the amounts of ionized and bound calcium in your blood, or if you are seriously ill or having surgery.
Your health care provider may have ordered a basic or comprehensive metabolic panel, which includes a calcium blood test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have this test to diagnose or monitor conditions that can affect your blood calcium or if you have symptoms of abnormal calcium levels.
Symptoms of high calcium levels may include:
- Digestive symptoms, such as:
  Constipation
  Nausea and vomiting
  Abdominal (belly) pain
  Loss of appetite
- Increased thirst
- Urinating (peeing) more than usual
- Kidney stones
- Bone, joint, and muscle symptoms, such as weakness, aches, and pains
- Fatigue
- A change in mental health, such as depression or confusion
Symptoms of low calcium levels may include:
- Dry skin, coarse hair, and nails that easily break (after a long period of low levels)
- Muscle cramps, spasms, or stiffness
- Tingling in the lips, tongue, fingers, and feet
- Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
- Seizures, if calcium levels are extremely low
Many people with high or low calcium levels don't have any symptoms. So your provider may order a calcium test if you have a known condition that may affect your calcium levels, such as:
- Kidney disease
- Thyroid or parathyroid disease
- Malnutrition
- Problems absorbing calcium
- Certain types of cancer
Results from a total calcium test that are higher than normal may be a sign of many types of conditions, such as:
- Overactive parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone
- Certain types of cancer, including cancer that spreads to the bone
- Bone disorders, including Paget's disease of the bone
- Taking too much vitamin D over a long period of time
Results from a total calcium test that are lower than normal may be a sign of:
- Low blood protein levels, which may be caused by liver disease or malnutrition
- Underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too little parathyroid hormone
- Too little calcium in your diet
- Too little vitamin D or magnesium
- Pancreatitis
- Kidney disease
If your results from a total calcium blood test are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Your diet and certain medicines can affect your calcium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Calcium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
3. Calcium blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
4. Calcium Test - Testing.com. Nov 29, 2022 [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (9)

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Hypercalcemia - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Calcium Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium regulation

Overview of calcium regulation

Image by Mikael Haggstrom

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones throughout a person's life; calcium also plays critical roles in nerve signaling, muscle contraction, the health of blood vessels, and the regularity of the heart beat. So important are these functions that when calcium levels are inadequate, the body will demineralize bone to maintain normal blood levels of the mineral.

Image by TheVisualMD

Dairy and non-dairy food sources of calcium

Dairy on the Left and non dairy on the Right

Image by Brookepinsent

Calcium Ion

The most common mineral in the body, calcium helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones. It also plays a role in blood clotting, nerve signaling, muscle contraction and relaxation, regulating heartbeat, and the release of certain hormones. The body cannot make calcium; it`s an essential nutrient that must be obtained through your diet.

Image by TheVisualMD

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

8:00

Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

11:47

Hypercalcemia - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology

Osmosis/YouTube

5:49

Calcium Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium regulation

Mikael Haggstrom

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.

TheVisualMD

Dairy and non-dairy food sources of calcium

Brookepinsent

Calcium Ion

TheVisualMD

Potassium

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

Potassium Blood Test

Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test

A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.

{"label":"Potassium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypokalemia","long":"Hypokalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.5},"text":"Low levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting and diarrhea, or the side effects of drugs including, mostly commonly, diuretics.","conditions":["Acute or chronic diarrhea","Cushing syndrome (rare)","Diuretics","Hyperaldosteronism","Hypokalemic periodic paralysis","Not enough potassium in the diet","Renal artery stenosis","Renal tubular acidosis (rare)","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5.2},"text":"Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hyperkalemia","long":"Hyperkalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.2,"max":10},"text":"Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia, which is most commonly caused by reduced kidney function, particularly in dialysis patients.","conditions":["Addison disease (rare)","Blood transfusion","Certain medicines","Crushed tissue injury","Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis","Hypoaldosteronism (very rare)","Kidney insufficiency or failure","Metabolic or respiratory acidosis","Red blood cell destruction","Too much potassium in your diet"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mmol\/L","code":"mmol\/L","name":"millimole per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":4.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mmol/L
3.5
5.2
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Fatigue
- Muscle weakness
- Nausea
- Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
- Irregular heartbeat
- Muscle cramps
- Weak or twitching muscles
- Fatigue
- Nausea
- Constipation
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
- Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
- Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
- Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
- Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
- The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
- A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
- Use of prescription diuretics
- Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
- Using too many laxatives
- Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
- Kidney disease
- Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
- A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

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Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

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What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

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What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

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3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

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Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

What Causes Cramps?

Video by Life Noggin/YouTube

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

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Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.

Image by TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.

Image by TheVisualMD

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

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1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

4:52

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

5:18

3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium

DoctorOz/YouTube

4:03

Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses

Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube

1:46

What Causes Cramps?

Life Noggin/YouTube

3:26

Charley Horse Causes, Relief

Wendy Westwood/YouTube

3:35

High potassium levels: Should I Worry?

Fox News/YouTube

13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Potassium Food

TheVisualMD

Potassium Ion

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Muscle Spasm

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Heart Rate

TheVisualMD

Potassium: Neural Conduction

TheVisualMD

Sodium

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

Sodium Blood Test

Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test

A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

{"label":"Sodium (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":139}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
- Thirst
- Urinating (peeing) very little
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Confusion
- Muscle twitching
- Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
- A disorder of the adrenal glands
- A kidney disease
- Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
- A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
- A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
  Kidney diseases
  Cirrhosis of the liver
  Heart failure
  Certain brain and lung diseases
  Certain types of cancer
  Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
- Addison disease
- Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
1. Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]

Additional Materials (16)

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

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You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

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Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Plate of High Sodium Food

Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.

Image by TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.

Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Image by Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sodium: Blood Vessels

A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.

Image by TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter

Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

3:07

Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

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3:33

Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips

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6:46

You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth

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Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

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What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

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Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence

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3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

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13:18

Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

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Plate of High Sodium Food

TheVisualMD

Living With the DASH Eating Plan

Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr

Salt

Sam Bald

Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)

TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

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Sodium: Blood Vessels

TheVisualMD

U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted

Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force

Chloride

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

Chloride Blood Test

Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test

A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.

{"label":"Chloride (blood) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":101}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
- Vomiting over a long period of time
- Diarrhea
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Dehydration
- Trouble breathing
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Kidney disease
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
- Heart failure
- Lung disease
- Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
4. Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Additional Materials (12)

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach

Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

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Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

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Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

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Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride

Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner

Cross section Human Stomach

Cross section Human Stomach

Image by TheVisualMD

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up

TheVisualMD

Chloride: Stomach

TheVisualMD

3:26

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

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2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

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1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

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4:52

What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

TED-Ed/YouTube

4:07

Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Calcium chloride

Firetwister _ Markus Brunner

Cross section Human Stomach

TheVisualMD

gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride

TheVisualMD

Bicarbonate

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

Carbon Dioxide Blood Test

Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test

A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.

{"label":"Carbon dioxide reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":22},"text":"Low results may indicate a wide range of conditions, such as electrolyte imbalance. ","conditions":["Hypocapnia","Addison's disease","Acidosis","Ketoacidosis","Shock","Kidney disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":22,"max":28},"text":"Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":28,"max":60},"text":"High results may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Hypercapnia","Lung diseases","Disorders of the adrenal glands","Hormonal disorders","Kidney disorders","Alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":25}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"Partial pressure of carbon dioxide reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"hideunits":false,"value":40}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
- Trouble breathing
- Confusion
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
- Lung diseases
- Cushing's syndrome
- Kidney failure
- Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
- Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Shock
- Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
- Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Albumin

Albumin Blood Test

Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test

Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.

Albumin Blood Test

Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test

Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
g/dL
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Albumin is the most abundant protein in the body. It is made by the liver and plays many important roles, including maintaining pressure in the blood vessels and transporting substances, such as hormones and medications.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order an albumin test as part your regular checkup. The test may be ordered as part of a group of liver function tests or a comprehensive metabolic panel. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of liver or kidney disease.
Symptoms of liver disease include:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Lack of appetite
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Swelling and/or pain in your abdomen (belly)
- Swelling in your ankles and legs
- Dark-colored urine (pee) and/or light-colored stool (poop)
- Frequent itching
Symptoms of kidney disease include:
- Swelling in the hands and feet or puffy eyelids
- Dry skin, itching, or numbness
- Fatigue
- Increased or decreased urination
- Urine that is bloody or foamy
- Loss of appetite and weight loss
- Muscle cramps
- Nausea and vomiting
- Shortness of breath
- Sleep problems
- Trouble thinking clearly
With some types of kidney disease, such as chronic kidney disease, you may not have symptoms until the later stages.
An albumin blood test alone cannot diagnose a condition. Your provider will usually consider your albumin test results with the results of other tests to make a diagnosis.
Lower than normal albumin levels may be a sign of:
- Liver disease, including severe cirrhosis, hepatitis, and fatty liver disease
- Kidney disease
- Malnutrition
- Infection
- Digestive diseases that involve problems using protein from food, such as Crohn's disease and malabsorption disorders
- Burns over a large area of your body
- Thyroid disease
Higher than normal albumin levels may be a sign of dehydration, which may be caused by severe diarrhea or other conditions.
If your albumin levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines, including steroids, insulin, and hormones, can increase albumin levels. Not eating can cause a large decrease in albumin after 24 to 48 hours. Other medicines, including birth control pills, can lower your albumin levels. Albumin levels are lower during pregnancy.
Your provider can explain what your test results mean.
1. Albumin Blood Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
2. Albumin - blood (serum): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
3. Albumin Blood Test - Testing.com. Nov 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]

Additional Materials (8)

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. Urine Test for Albumin If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin. Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria. A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways: Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine. Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of 30 mg/g or less is normal more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you. If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.

Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST

Video by NKN/YouTube

Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin

The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin

The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Albumin, Kidney Disease

Proteins are normally filtered out of the blood and recycled by the kidneys, including the blood protein albumin, which is produced by the liver and helps maintain the fluid balance of blood as well as transport hormones, vitamins, and other substances throughout the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows proteins like albumin to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Albumin: Kidney Disease

Kidney disease can result in abnormal albumin levels because diseased or damaged kidneys are not able to effectively filter out and recycle albumin in the blood; instead, albumin leaks into the urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Albumin: Blood Serum

The serum is the clear, liquid portion of the blood. There are two classes of proteins, albumin and globulin, found in the blood. Albumin is the most abundant protein; its main purpose is to keep fluid from leaking out of blood vessels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

3:51

Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

7:55

Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST

NKN/YouTube

Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin

TheVisualMD

Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin

TheVisualMD

Albumin, Kidney Disease

TheVisualMD

Albumin: Kidney Disease

TheVisualMD

Albumin: Blood Serum

TheVisualMD

Creatinine

Creatinine Test

Also called: Creat, Creatinine

This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.

Creatinine Test

Also called: Creat, Creatinine

This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
0.7
1.3
Your result is Normal.
Creatinine is a waste product in your blood that comes from your muscles. Healthy kidneys filter creatinine out of your blood through your urine.
Related conditions
{"label":"Creatinine (urine) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":20},"text":"Lower than normal creatinine levels are rare and usually do not possess any clinical significance.","conditions":["Kidney damage and disease","Overhydration","Muscle wasting","Diabetes"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":20,"max":320},"text":"The normal range is around 20 \u2013 275 mg\/dL in women and 20 \u2013 320 mg\/dL in men. Ranges may vary between laboratories. Urine creatinine levels correspond to lean body mass and can be higher if your muscle mass is above average.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":320,"max":800},"text":"Higher than normal levels of creatinine in your urine may indicate a kidney disease or condition that may affect kidney function.","conditions":["Dehydration","Strenuous exercise","Diet high in meat and protein","Creatinine supplements","Pregnancy","Early diabetes","High blood pressure","Obesity","Polycystic kidney disease","Sickle cell anemia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":170}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
20
320
Your result is Normal.
The normal range is around 20 – 275 mg/dL in women and 20 – 320 mg/dL in men. Ranges may vary between laboratories. Urine creatinine levels correspond to lean body mass and can be higher if your muscle mass is above average.
Related conditions
A creatinine test is used to help:
- Check the health of your kidneys
- Diagnose kidney disease
- Monitor known kidney problems and see how well treatment is working
- Check for side effects from medicines that may affect your kidneys
Creatinine testing alone isn't the best way to check how well your kidneys are working. That's because people make different amounts creatinine depending on how much muscle they have, the foods they eat, their age, and how active they are. So, the results from creatinine testing are often used in calculations or compared with other substances to help get more information:
- Creatinine levels in blood are often used to calculate how fast your kidneys filter waste out of your blood. This is called an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The calculation includes information about your age, weight, height, and sex. An eGFR is a more accurate way to measure kidney health than creatinine levels in blood or urine alone. An eGFR can also help show how serious kidney disease may be.
- Creatinine levels in blood and urine maybe be compared with each other. This is called a creatinine clearance calculation. Like an eGFR, it estimates how fast your kidneys filter waste. But an eGFR is more accurate. A creatinine clearance may still be useful to help identify the cause of high or low levels of blood creatinine in people who have very high muscle mass or a loss of muscle mass from age, illness, or the loss of an arm and/or leg.
- Creatinine levels in urine may be used to calculate a urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR), which is sometimes called a microalbumin creatinine ratio. Albumin is the main protein found in blood. Normally your kidneys filter out just a trace of albumin, or none at all. If larger amounts of albumin pass into your urine, it may be a sign of kidney damage. A UACR compares the amounts of creatinine and albumin in your urine to get a more accurate measurement of how much albumin is in your urine.
- Creatinine blood levels measured as part of a CMP or a BMP may be compared with the level of BUN (blood urea nitrogen) that's measured in the same test. This can help find out the cause of a kidney problem.
Your provider may order a creatinine test:
- To check your kidney health as part of a routine checkup.
- If you have symptoms of kidney disease. Symptoms may include:
  Swelling in the hands and feet or puffy eyelids
  Dry skin, itching, or numbness
  Fatigue
  Increased or decreased need to urinate (pee)
  Urine that is bloody or foamy
  Loss of appetite and weight loss
  Muscle cramps
  Nausea and vomiting
  Shortness of breath
  Sleep problems
  Trouble thinking clearly
- If you have a high risk for developing kidney disease, even if you don't have symptoms now. Chronic (long-term) kidney disease (CKD) often doesn't have symptoms in the early stages. Your risk for kidney disease is increased if you:
  Have diabetes
  Have high blood pressure
  Have a family health history of kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure
  Have heart disease
  Are over 50 years old
  Smoke
  Have obesity
- If you have kidney problems or possible kidney problems because you have:
  Had an abnormal result on a kidney test in the past
  Been diagnosed with kidney disease
  Taken certain medicines that could affect your kidneys
  Had a kidney transplant
For a creatinine blood test:
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a creatinine urine test:
You may need to provide all the urine you pass over 24 hours. That's because creatinine levels vary through the day. But your provider may use a urine sample from a shorter period of time.
For a 24-hour urine sample, you will be given a special container to collect your urine over a full day and instructions on how to collect and store your sample. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
- To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
- For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
- During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
- 24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
- Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
Creatinine levels that are considered normal for you will depend on how much muscle you have, what you eat, your age, and how active you are. If you're healthy, your levels are usually fairly stable over time.
But a normal creatinine test result doesn't always mean that your kidneys are healthy. Sometimes, blood creatinine levels remain in a normal range during the early stages of kidney disease. They rise as the condition of your kidneys becomes more serious. If your provider suspects you have a kidney condition, you will likely have other kidney tests even if your creatinine results seem normal.
If your results are abnormal, a single high creatinine test can't diagnose a specific condition. You will likely need to be retested and/or have other tests, too.
In general, if your blood creatinine level is:
- High for you, it may be a sign of:
  Kidney disease or injury, including infection, poor blood flow to the kidneys, a blockage in the urinary system, or kidney failure
  A condition that affects your kidneys, such as heart failure or diabetes
  High blood creatinine levels don't always mean you have a kidney problem. They may be caused by dehydration, muscle disorders and injuries, muscular dystrophy, intense exercise, or a diet high in meat. Certain health problems in pregnancy can also cause increases in creatinine.
- Low for you, it may be a sign of malnutrition or a condition that causes your muscles to get smaller, such as a long illness, a nerve disorder, or muscle loss from aging. Serious liver disease can also lead to low levels. Low levels of blood creatinine aren't common.
If your results from creatinine blood or urine tests were used to calculate an eGFR, creatinine clearance, and/or a urine albumin to creatinine ratio, ask your provider to explain what these measurements say about your kidney health.
If you have questions about any your results, talk with your provider.
1. Creatinine Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]
2. Creatinine blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (17)

Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

Video by NKN/YouTube

Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

BUN and Creatinine

Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

Creatinine

Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. Urine Test for Albumin If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin. Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria. A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways: Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine. Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of 30 mg/g or less is normal more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you. If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.

Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Diagnosing CKD

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diagnosing CKD

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.

Image by TheVisualMD

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney

Image by Madhero88

Creatine 3D Molecule

An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.

Creatine Kinase (CK)

Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in striated muscle of the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The enzyme plays a role in energy production, and becomes more concentrated in muscle tissue in response to energy demands. When muscle is damaged or diseased, CK leaks into the bloodstream, where elevated levels can be detected. There are three different forms of CK in the body, existing in varying ratios. CK-MB is found mostly in cardiac muscle; CK-MM mostly in skeletal muscle; and CK-BB mostly in the brain. Identifying which form is elevated in blood tests is helpful in determining which kind of tissue has been damaged.

Image by TheVisualMD

Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!

Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube

Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.

Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube

Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel

Video by Health in a Nutshell/YouTube

CREATININE: LAB VALUES

Video by NursingSOS/YouTube

Creatinine levels: often misunderstood

Video by SelfTestable/YouTube

Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options

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3:10

Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

8:29

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

NKN/YouTube

3:01

Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

5:26

BUN and Creatinine

PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

Creatinine

TheVisualMD

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH

Diagnosing CKD

TheVisualMD

Diagnosing CKD

TheVisualMD

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Madhero88

Creatine 3D Molecule

Creatine Kinase (CK)

TheVisualMD

6:50

Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!

Alila Medical Media/YouTube

15:01

Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.

Medcrine Medical/YouTube

5:17

Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel

Health in a Nutshell/YouTube

4:03

CREATININE: LAB VALUES

NursingSOS/YouTube

6:59

Creatinine levels: often misunderstood

SelfTestable/YouTube

10:32

Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options

DocMikeEvans/YouTube

BUN

Blood Urea Nitrogen Test

Also called: BUN, Urea Nitrogen

The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.

Blood Urea Nitrogen Test

Also called: BUN, Urea Nitrogen

The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
8
23
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a BUN test as part of a routine check-up or if you have or are at risk for a kidney problem. Early kidney disease usually does not have any signs or symptoms. You may be more likely to develop kidney disease if you have:
- Family of kidney problems
- Diabetes
- High blood pressure
- Heart disease
Your provider may check your BUN levels if you are having symptoms of later stage kidney disease, such as:
- Needing to urinate (pee) more often or less often than usual
- Itching
- Fatigue
- Swelling in your legs, feet, or ankles
- Muscle cramps
- Trouble sleeping
A BUN test is only one type of measurement of kidney function. If your provider thinks you may have kidney disease, you may need other tests. These may include tests to measure:
- Creatinine, which is another waste product that your kidneys remove from your body
- GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate), which estimates how well your kidneys are filtering blood
1. BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
2. 001040: Urea Nitrogen | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
3. BUN | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
4. Fontanarosa, P., & Christiansen, S. (2009, April 01). Laboratory Values. AMA Manual of Style. Ed. [accessed on Oct 09, 2018]

Additional Materials (15)

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

Video by NKN/YouTube

Acute Renal Failure

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Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) (Nursing Lab Values)

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Kidney Disease: Understanding Your Lab Values

Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube

BUN Test/Urea: Role in Kidney function Testing- Conditions with High Blood Urea Nitrogen- Dr Kasi MD

Video by Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube

Kidney function test normal range

Video by Shomu's Biology/YouTube

Urea Nitrogen Molecule

The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the amount of the waste urea found in the blood. Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is produced by the breakdown of proteins; it combines with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to form urea, which is then released into the bloodstream and carried to the kidneys, where it is filtered out and eliminated in the urine. If the kidneys are damaged, their ability to remove urea from the blood is impaired.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Urinary System

This anterior view of a male torso reveals the upper urinary tract (kidneys, ureter and bladder) in situ. Anatomy overlaying this system including the liver, pancreas, small intestines, and ribs, have been \"ghosted in\" in order to allow an unobstructed view of the structures underneath. Completely visible anatomy surrounding the kidneys include the perirenal fat, adrenal gland, pelvis, aorta, vena cava and lower spinal column. The kidneys are the body's primary filtering system, responsible for processing and eliminating wastes from the bloodstream such as excess salts and proteins. Once extracted, these are then broken down into a substance called urea. Urea flows to the bladder and is eventually expelled as urine. Working non-stop day and night, the kidneys filter nearly 200 quarts of blood per day, producing about two quarts of urine (depending on body size). The left kidney is usually positioned slightly higher in the body than the right. This occurs because the developing liver on the right side of the spine grows more rapidly than the kidneys and displaces the right kidney downwards.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Protein

Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is produced by the breakdown of proteins; it combines with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to form urea, which is released into the blood; the kidneys, in turn, filter it out and eliminate it in the urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Kidneys

Each day, our kidneys filter 200 quarts of blood to extract 2 quarts of waste products and excess water. The wastes and water become urine, which flows via tubes called ureters to the bladder, where it is stored until released through urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diagnosing CKD

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Glomerulus

The kidneys are extraordinarily good at filtering and removing wastes from the bloodstream (at a rate of 200 quarts each day). The basic filtering unit in the kidney is the glomerulus, a tuft of capillaries that remove wastes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nitrogenous Wastes

Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. "Moose" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS)

Image by CNX Openstax

8:29

✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔

NKN/YouTube

10:12

Acute Renal Failure

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

5:26

BUN and Creatinine

PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube

15:01

Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.

Medcrine Medical/YouTube

1:42

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) (Nursing Lab Values)

NURSINGcom/YouTube

11:44

Kidney Disease: Understanding Your Lab Values

UC San Diego Health/YouTube

2:34

BUN Test/Urea: Role in Kidney function Testing- Conditions with High Blood Urea Nitrogen- Dr Kasi MD

Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube

4:45

Kidney function test normal range

Shomu's Biology/YouTube

Urea Nitrogen Molecule

TheVisualMD

Male Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Protein

TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Kidneys

TheVisualMD

Diagnosing CKD

TheVisualMD

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN): Glomerulus

TheVisualMD

Nitrogenous Wastes

CNX Openstax

GFR

Glomerular Filtration Rate

Also called: GFR, Estimated GFR, eGFR, Calculated GFR, cGFR

A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test that estimates how much blood passes through filters in the kidneys each minute. It helps diagnose kidney disease in its early stages when it's most treatable. It is also used to monitor kidney function in people with kidney disease — the lower the GFR number, the worse the kidney function.

Glomerular Filtration Rate

Also called: GFR, Estimated GFR, eGFR, Calculated GFR, cGFR

A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test that estimates how much blood passes through filters in the kidneys each minute. It helps diagnose kidney disease in its early stages when it's most treatable. It is also used to monitor kidney function in people with kidney disease — the lower the GFR number, the worse the kidney function.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mL/min/1.73sq m
15
29
44
59
90
130
Your result is Normal.
In adults, the normal eGFR number is more than 90. Normally, eGFR gets lower with age, even in people without kidney disease. An eGFR over 90 with signs of kidney damage, such as protein in their urine, is a sign of kidney disease.
Related conditions
A glomerular filtration rate (GFR) test is a blood test that checks how well your kidneys are working. Your kidneys are two organs on either side of your spine near your waste. They have tiny filters called glomeruli. These filters remove waste and extra water from your blood and gets rid of them through urine (pee).
If your kidneys have been damaged by kidney disease, they can't filter your blood as fast as they should. A GFR test checks for kidney disease by measuring how much blood your kidneys filter each minute.
GFR can be measured directly, but it is a complicated test to do. So health care providers usually estimate GFR based on the amount of certain waste substances in your blood. An estimated GFR is called an eGFR.
To figure out your eGFR, your provider usually uses the results of a blood test that measures your creatinine level. Creatinine is a waste product that comes from normal wear and tear on your muscles. If your kidneys aren't working well, creatinine can build up in your blood.
People make different amounts of creatinine, depending on their size, diet, and activity levels. So, to calculate your eGFR, your provider will use your creatinine levels and other information about you, such as your:
- Age
- Weight
- Height
- Sex
This information is put into a mathematical formula, called a GFR calculator, to find your eGFR.
eGFR may also be calculated using the level of cystatin C in your blood. This is a protein that many cells in your body make. Cystatin C levels are not affected by muscle size, age, or diet, so some researchers think cystatin C provides a more accurate estimate of GFR than creatinine. In certain cases, creatinine and cystatin levels are both used to calculate eGFR in adults.
A GFR test is used to:
- Screen for kidney disease in people without symptoms
- Help diagnose kidney disease in a people who have symptoms
- Help find out how serious kidney disease is
- Monitor people who:
  Have chronic kidney disease (CKD) to see if treatment is helping
  Take medicines that could harm their kidneys
- Check kidney health before people start certain treatments that could affect their kidneys
Early-stage kidney disease doesn't usually cause symptoms, so you may have an eGFR test to check your kidney health as part of a routine exam.
You may also need this test if you have a high risk of getting kidney disease. Your risk may be higher if you:
- Have diabetes
- Have high blood pressure
- Have a family health history of kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure
- Have heart disease
- Are over 50 years old
- Smoke
- Have obesity
If you have a condition that increases you risk of kidney disease, ask your provider how often you should get tested.
Later stage kidney disease does cause symptoms. So, you may need an eGFR test if you have:
- Swelling in your legs, feet, ankles, or hands or face
- Urinating (peeing) more often or less often than usual
- Dry skin and/or itching
- Fatigue
- Muscle cramps
- Nausea and vomiting
- Loss of appetite
Your eGFR results may be reported as a number that shows how much blood your kidneys filter per minute. Your test results may also give your creatinine level and/or your cystatin C level.
Ask your provider to explain what your eGFR says about your kidney health. An eGFR isn't a perfect test and may not always reflect kidney damage. It's also possible to have an abnormal result even if you don't have kidney damage.
In general:
- A normal eGFR means that you probably don't have kidney disease.
- An eGFR that's below normal or low may mean that you may have kidney disease.
- A very low eGFR means that you may have kidney failure.
If you're diagnosed with kidney disease, your provider will explain what you can do to protect your kidneys from more damage and help prevent kidney failure.
Your provider may order other tests that check your kidney health. These tests may be ordered with an eGFR or to find the cause of an abnormal eGFR result. They include:
- A protein in urine test. Protein in urine is a sign of kidney damage.
- A microalbumin creatinine ratio test. This test checks for very small amounts of a protein called albumin in a sample of your urine. Albumin in urine may be one of the first signs of kidney disease.
- A BUN (blood urea nitrogen). BUN is a waste product your kidneys remove from blood. The test checks BUN levels in a sample of your blood.
1. Glomerular filtration rate: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
2. Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
3. 100768: Glomerular Filtration Rate, Estimated (eGFR) | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
4. [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
5. Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) | NIDDK [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
6. Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) | National Kidney Foundation [accessed on Oct 05, 2018]
7. Chapter 1: Definition and classification of CKD [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]
8. High estimated glomerular filtration rate is associated with coronary artery calcification in middle-aged Korean men without chronic kidney disease | Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation | Oxford Academic [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]
9. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/research-funding/at-niddk/labs-branches/kidney-diseases-branch/kidney-disease-section/glomerular-disease-primer/kidney-disease [accessed on Oct 11, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (15)

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney

Image by Madhero88

Your Kidney Test Results

Document by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

What are your Kidney Numbers? uACR and eGFR Explained | CKD Heat Map | NKF

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

Understanding eGFR levels

Video by SelfTestable/YouTube

Nephrology - Glomerular Filtration

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

What is eGFR, and how is it used to measure kidney function?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

How important is it for me to get my eGFR and uACR test if I don't have any symptoms?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

What are some things that may affect my eGFR results?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

How often should someone get their eGFR measured?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

How is race or ethnicity related to eGFR?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

eGFR Results: A patient's experience

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

How is eGFR used to monitor kidney disease and IgAN?

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

Kidney Disease Stages | CKD Heat Map | NKF

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

Kidney Disease Prevention and Management | CKD Heat Map | NKF

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

How are CKD, CVD, and Diabetes Related? | The Kidney Disease, Heart Disease, and Diabetes Connection

Video by National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate

Madhero88

Your Kidney Test Results

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

2:27

What are your Kidney Numbers? uACR and eGFR Explained | CKD Heat Map | NKF

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

4:40

Understanding eGFR levels

SelfTestable/YouTube

14:02

Nephrology - Glomerular Filtration

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

1:57

What is eGFR, and how is it used to measure kidney function?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

2:01

How important is it for me to get my eGFR and uACR test if I don't have any symptoms?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

1:19

What are some things that may affect my eGFR results?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

1:42

How often should someone get their eGFR measured?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

4:17

How is race or ethnicity related to eGFR?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

1:35

eGFR Results: A patient's experience

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

1:18

How is eGFR used to monitor kidney disease and IgAN?

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

2:40

Kidney Disease Stages | CKD Heat Map | NKF

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

2:22

Kidney Disease Prevention and Management | CKD Heat Map | NKF

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

2:12

How are CKD, CVD, and Diabetes Related? | The Kidney Disease, Heart Disease, and Diabetes Connection

National Kidney Foundation/YouTube

Anion Gap

Anion Gap Blood Test

Also called: Anion Gap, AGAP

The anion gap measures the difference—or gap—between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes in your blood. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems.

Anion Gap Blood Test

Also called: Anion Gap, AGAP

The anion gap measures the difference—or gap—between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes in your blood. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems.

{"label":"Anion gap reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4},"text":"A low anion gap means you have a lower amount of acid in your blood than normal, but this result is uncommon and usually due to a lab error. A low anion gap test result may be caused by alkalosis.","conditions":["Hypercalcemia","Hyperkalemia","Hypermagnesemia","Hypoalbuminemia","Lithium intoxication","Multiple myeloma","Paraproteinemia"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":12},"text":"The anion gap is a calculation of the difference between the amounts of some negatively charged electrolytes (such as chloride and bicarbonate) and the amount of positively charged electrolytes (such as sodium) in the blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":12,"max":30},"text":"A high anion gap test result means you have more acid in your blood than normal. A high anion gap test result may be caused by acidosis.","conditions":["Dehydration","Diarrhea","Too much exercise","Kidney diseases","Diabetic ketoacidosis","Certain medicines and poisons","Metabolic acidosis","Lactic acidosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mEq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":8}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mEq/L
4
12
Your result is Normal.
The anion gap is a calculation of the difference between the amounts of some negatively charged electrolytes (such as chloride and bicarbonate) and the amount of positively charged electrolytes (such as sodium) in the blood.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order an anion gap blood test if you have symptoms that your blood acidity may not be normal. These symptoms may include:
- Shortness of breath
- Vomiting
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
- Confusion
- Fatigue
Several types of medical conditions can cause abnormal anion gap test results. Your provider will use the results of the anion gap test, your medical history, and other tests to make a diagnosis.
A high anion gap test result may mean that you may have acidosis (blood that is more acidic than normal). Acidosis may be caused by:
- Dehydration
- Diarrhea
- Too much exercise
- Kidney diseases
- Diabetes (diabetic ketoacidosis)
- Certain medicines and poisons
A low anion gap test result may mean you have alkalosis (blood that is less acidic than normal). But this result is so rare that your provider will usually have you tested again to make sure the results are accurate.
The most common cause of a low anion gap is a low level of albumin, a protein in the blood. Low albumin may be a sign of not eating enough protein, kidney problems, liver disease, heart disease, or some types of cancer.
1. Anion Gap Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 10, 2024]
2. Low Anion Gap: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
3. Anion Gap (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
4. Anion Gap: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]
5. Electrolytes | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 29, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

Acidosis

General symptoms of acidosis. These usually accompany symptoms of another primary defect (respiratory or metabolic).

Image by Mikael Haggstrom.

Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis

Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis

Image by OpenStax College

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

Video by PictureFit/YouTube

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Video by Reactions/YouTube

Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube

Man Drinking Water with Visible Skeletal, Digestive and Cardiovascular Systems

Proper hydration is critical to health. The amount of water in blood must be kept within a narrow range if blood is to flow freely. Electrolytes help maintain the body's fluid balance, but if electrolyte levels are too high, the body retains fluid, which increases blood pressure, the force with which blood pushes against vessel walls. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by monitoring fluid balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink. Excessive sweating, diarrhea, vomiting, and diuretics can contribute to a fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Anatomy Hydrating after a Workout

Proper hydration is critical to health. The amount of water in blood must be kept within a narrow range if blood is to flow freely. Electrolytes help maintain the body's fluid balance, but if electrolyte levels are too high, the body retains fluid, which increases blood pressure, the force with which blood pushes against vessel walls. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by monitoring fluid balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink. Excessive sweating, diarrhea, vomiting, and diuretics can contribute to a fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Woman feeling her heart looking concerned, EKG images of regular and irregular heart beat

Thanks to the marketing of sports drinks, most people know that electrolytes are important, even if they are not sure why. An electrolyte is a chemical compound, such as sodium chloride (table salt), that dissociates into its separate elements when dissolved. Electrolytes can be negatively or positively charged (sodium is positive, chloride is negative). This electric potential is what allows electrolytes to do their jobs, which includes the transportation of substances into and out of cells, the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle fibers. An electrolyte imbalance can cause muscle spasms, numbness, tingling, fatigue, and confusion; heart rhythm is also sensitive to electrolyte imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Man holding his face, with motion blur indicating dizziness

Thanks to the marketing of sports drinks, most people know that electrolytes are important, even if they are not sure why. An electrolyte is a chemical compound, such as sodium chloride (table salt), that dissociates into its separate elements when dissolved. Electrolytes can be negatively or positively charged (sodium is positive, chloride is negative). This electric potential is what allows electrolytes to do their jobs, which includes the transportation of substances into and out of cells, the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle fibers. An electrolyte imbalance can cause muscle spasms, numbness, tingling, fatigue, and confusion.

Image by TheVisualMD

Symptoms of CKD, Potassium Deficiency

The kidneys maintain the blood's pH level (its relative acidity or alkalinity), vital to the body's health. To help maintain that level, the kidneys provide the blood with a buffer solution that compensates for any rise or fall in the level of acidity or alkalinity caused by diet or stress. They do this by adjusting the amount of fluids and vital salts, called electrolytes, in the blood. These electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, and other substances. A potassium deficiency in the body can lead to an irregular heartbeat, muscle weakness, a feeling of pins and needles in the extremities, decreased appetite, and frequent urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sodium, Blood Test

Measurements of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) are routinely included in a blood test known as the basic metabolic panel. If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is the excessive intake of a particular electrolyte or excessive loss through an underlying metabolic disorder.

Image by TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.

Image by TheVisualMD

Nephron

Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidneys

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Healthy Kidney to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Animation begins with a still image of a male torso. The image is cropped at the neck to just below the umbilicus. As the camera slowly zooms into the right side of the abdomen just where the right kidney resides, a visualized healthy kidney fades in. The animation continues with the kidney morphing from healthy to Congestive Kidney Disease (CKD). CKD results when the kidneys are increasingly unable to balance adequate levels of electrolytes (like sodium and calcium) and fail to produce enough urine to eliminate the toxins and other waste from the bloodstream.

Video by TheVisualMD

All Charged Up: Electrolytes & Vitality

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Abdominal Cavity Revealing Kidneys

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys help regulate blood pressure by keeping fluids and electrolytes in balance; even a 1% increase in blood sodium will trigger thirst to return fluid balance to normal. The kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of other blood components. Specialized kidney cells that are sensitive to low oxygen levels produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

Image by TheVisualMD

Electrolytes

Importance of Electrolytes : Sodium is an electrolyte that plays a role in many physiological processes, including nerve transmission and muscle contraction. Along with other electrolytes, sodium helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes

Image by TheVisualMD

Salt

Sodium is one of several electrolytes our bodies need to contract muscles, conduct nerve impulses, and maintain proper fluid balance. But chronic intake of too much sodium (in the form of table salt) can lead to serious health problems. If the kidneys cannot efficiently eliminate excess sodium, the body retains water in order to maintain the right concentration of sodium in the bloodstream. This forces the heart to work harder, which raised the risk of high blood pressure (hypertension), heart attacks and strokes. How salt affects blood pressure and health depends on many factors, however, including genes, age, race, and medical conditions.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are salts that dissolve in water and separate into smaller atoms or molecules (ions) that carry an electric charge. Why does the body need electrical charges? Like a telephone uses wire to carry the human voice, our cells use electrolytes to carry the messages that control many nerve and muscle functions. Pure water does not conduct electricity very well; if there weren't electrolytes circulating with the body's water, those messages would never be sent. Learn about the electrolytes in your body and what fluids are best to keep your body hydrated.

Video by TheVisualMD

Chloride Ion

Chloride is a salt and electrolyte consisting of two elements, one of which is chlorine. It makes up about 0.15 percent of the body weight and is found mainly in the fluid outside cells. As one of the mineral electrolytes, chloride works closely with sodium and water in the distribution of body fluids. In addition to table salt or sea salt (sodium chloride), vegetables are a common source of chloride. Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, and olives. Potassium chloride is found in most foods and is usually the main ingredient of salt substitutes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Water and sodium molecule

On every scale, water and sodium (Na+) are dependent on one another for balance. Water, sometimes referred to as the universal solvent, has the capacity to break weak bonds in other molecules. When the broken bond results in a single ion (as in the case of NaCl), water can form oriented solvent shells, meaning that each shell`s relative position in space is unchanging (one pole remains on top, the other on bottom). The shells produce electric fields that oppose the fields produced by the independent ions. As a result of orienting water around the shells, sodium weakens the hydrogen bonds of nearby water molecules. The orientation of water molecules around an ion also contributes to osmosis, the process in which water crosses through semipermeable membranes. The solvent shell can contain between 3 and 7 water molecules, and the number can vary over time. 5 is the most common configuration. The location of water relative to Na+ falls into patterns of three molecules. This 3D model is based on the two configurations that occur most frequently. Water is shown as bright blue and sodium as darker blue.

Image by TheVisualMD

Acidosis

Mikael Haggstrom.

Symptoms of Acidosis Alkalosis

OpenStax College

1:12

Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes

Whats Up Dude/YouTube

1:47

Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?

PictureFit/YouTube

2:42

What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?

Reactions/YouTube

8:00

Fluid and Electrolytes: Calcium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

3:04

Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium

DrBruce Forciea/YouTube

4:19

Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

9:43

Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

3:26

Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride

EmpoweRN/YouTube

6:36

Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate

EmpoweRN/YouTube

8:19

Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium

EmpoweRN/YouTube

Man Drinking Water with Visible Skeletal, Digestive and Cardiovascular Systems

TheVisualMD

Woman with Visible Anatomy Hydrating after a Workout

TheVisualMD

Woman feeling her heart looking concerned, EKG images of regular and irregular heart beat

TheVisualMD

Man holding his face, with motion blur indicating dizziness

TheVisualMD

Symptoms of CKD, Potassium Deficiency

TheVisualMD

Sodium, Blood Test

TheVisualMD

Fluid Regulation

TheVisualMD

Nephron

TheVisualMD

Kidneys

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

0:16

Healthy Kidney to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

TheVisualMD

All Charged Up: Electrolytes & Vitality

TheVisualMD

Male Abdominal Cavity Revealing Kidneys

TheVisualMD

Electrolytes

TheVisualMD

Salt

TheVisualMD

1:31

Electrolytes

TheVisualMD

Chloride Ion

TheVisualMD

Water and sodium molecule

TheVisualMD

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) Blood Test

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) Blood Test

Also called: ASO, ASLO, Antistreptolysin O, Antistreptolysin O Antibodies, ASO Antibodies, ASO Titer, Anti-Streptococcal O Test, Strep Antistreptolysin O Titer, Streptolysin O Antibodies

This test measures the level of antistreptolysin (ASO) antibodies in the blood. ASO is an antibody targeted against streptolysin O, a toxic enzyme produced by group A Streptococcus bacterium. The test is used to check for a recent or past streptococcal infection.

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) Blood Test

Also called: ASO, ASLO, Antistreptolysin O, Antistreptolysin O Antibodies, ASO Antibodies, ASO Titer, Anti-Streptococcal O Test, Strep Antistreptolysin O Titer, Streptolysin O Antibodies

This test measures the level of antistreptolysin (ASO) antibodies in the blood. ASO is an antibody targeted against streptolysin O, a toxic enzyme produced by group A Streptococcus bacterium. The test is used to check for a recent or past streptococcal infection.

{"label":"Antistreptolysin O antibody reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":200},"text":"A normal or negative test result likely means that you do not have a strep infection. However, a negative test does not necessarily exclude an infection, and your doctor may order a second type of antibody test for a follow-up.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":200,"max":3500},"text":"An abnormal or positive test result means you recently had a strep infection, even if you had no symptoms. Your doctor may repeat the test within 10 to 14 days to confirm your results.","conditions":["Bacterial endocarditis","Cellulitis","Impetigo","Necrotizing fasciitis","Rheumatic fever","Scarlet fever","Strep throat","Streptococcal glomerulonephritis","Toxic shock syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(i.U.)\/mL","code":"[IU]\/mL","name":"international unit per milliliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":100}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(i.U.)/mL
200
Your result is Normal.
A normal or negative test result likely means that you do not have a strep infection. However, a negative test does not necessarily exclude an infection, and your doctor may order a second type of antibody test for a follow-up.
Related conditions
{"label":"Anti-DNase B reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":120},"text":"Low levels of anti-DNase B may mean that your body hasn't recently dealt with an infection caused by group A streptococcus bacteria.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":120,"max":1000},"text":"Elevated levels of anti-DNase B may indicate that your body has recently been fighting off group A streptococcus bacteria.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"U\/mL","code":"[arb'U]\/mL","name":"arbitrary unit per milliliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":60}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
U/mL
120
Your result is Normal.
Low levels of anti-DNase B may mean that your body hasn't recently dealt with an infection caused by group A streptococcus bacteria.
Related conditions
1. Antistreptolysin O titer: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
2. Strep A Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
3. Antistreptolysin O (ASO) - Testing.com. Jul 24, 2020 [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
4. Strep Antistreptolysin O Titer (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
5. Darla Burke. Antistreptolysin O Titer (ASO) Test. Healthline. Oct 12, 2024 [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
6. Medical Lab Notes. ASO (Anti-streptococcal O)Test: Introduction, Principle, Procedure. Medical Notes. Nov 29, 2022 [accessed on Oct 11, 2024]
7. Anti-DNase B blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 12, 2024]

Additional Materials (6)

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer for Streptococcus pyogenes (Rheumatic Fever, APSGN) | Nephro | Labs

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

ASO Titer Test / Anti Streptolysin O Blood Test - Normal range and Interpretataion

Video by Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube

Streptococcus pyogenes

Under a magnification of 900X, this illustration depicts a photomicrograph of a pus specimen, viewed using Pappenheim's stain, revealing numbers of chain linked Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria.

Image by CDC

Streptococcus Pyogenes (Group A Strep)

Colorized scanning electron micrograph of Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes) bacteria (blue) and a human neutrophil (purple).

Image by NIAID

Streptococcus Pyogenes (Group A Strep)

Creative rendition of Group A Streptococcus bacteria. Based on 3D print models that were created using a scanning electron micrograph image as reference (see 3dprint.nih.gov/discover/3DPX-004652). Note: not to scale.

Image by NIAID

Streptococcus pyogenes

Magnified 100x, this 1977 photograph depicted a Petri dish filled with trypticase soy agar medium, containing 5% defibrinated sheep's blood. After having been inoculated by streaking the surface with Group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) bacteria, the dish was incubated in a carbon dioxide enriched atmosphere at 35oC for 24 hours. The characteristic color changes, including a light colored halo surrounding each colony, indicated that these bacteria were beta-hemolytic in nature.

Image by CDC/ Richard R. Facklam, Ph.D.

9:41

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer for Streptococcus pyogenes (Rheumatic Fever, APSGN) | Nephro | Labs

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

3:32

ASO Titer Test / Anti Streptolysin O Blood Test - Normal range and Interpretataion

Interpret Your Lab Tests/YouTube

Streptococcus pyogenes

CDC

Streptococcus Pyogenes (Group A Strep)

NIAID

Streptococcus Pyogenes (Group A Strep)

NIAID

Streptococcus pyogenes

CDC/ Richard R. Facklam, Ph.D.

Treatment

Amoxicillin

Image by Brett Hondow

Amoxicillin

Amoxicillin - Antibiotics

Image by Brett Hondow

How Is Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis Treated?

Treatment focuses on managing swelling, blood pressure

Treatment of PSGN focuses on managing symptoms as needed:

Decreasing swelling by limiting salt and water intake or by prescribing a diuretic (medication that increases the flow of urine)
Managing high blood pressure through blood pressure medication

Treatment may include antibiotics

People with PSGN who still have group A strep bacteria in their throat are often provided antibiotics.

When to return to work, school after illness

People with strep throat or scarlet fever should stay home from work, school, or daycare until they:

No longer have a fever

AND

Have taken antibiotics for at least 12 to 24 hours; ask the doctor how long you should stay home after starting antibiotics

Antibiotic dos and don’ts

Do take the prescription exactly as the doctor says to.
Don’t stop taking the medicine, even if you or your child feels better, unless the doctor says to stop.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Additional Materials (1)

Antibiotics

Image by Memed_Nurrohmad

Antibiotics

Memed_Nurrohmad

Complications

Healthy Kidney / Damaged Kidney

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Healthy Kidney / Damaged Kidney

Healthy vs Damaged Kidney

If your kidney disease does take a linear progression, this is what it would look like. *Often the visual differences between the stages of chronic kidney disease are hard to differentiate. You are more likely to tell the staging distinctly by measuring your glomerular filtration rate.

Interactive by TheVisualMD

What Are the Potential Complications of Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis?

Serious complications include long-term kidney damage

Most people who develop PSGN recover within a few weeks without any complications. While rare, long-term kidney damage, including kidney failure, can occur. These rare complications are more common in adults than children.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Prevention

Hands, Washing, Wash

Image by soumen82hazra/Pixabay

Hands, Washing, Wash

Image by soumen82hazra/Pixabay

Can Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis Be Prevented?

The main way to prevent PSGN is to prevent group A strep infections like strep throat, scarlet fever, and impetigo. Getting a group A strep infection does not protect someone from getting it again in the future. There are no vaccines to prevent group A strep. However, there are things people can do to protect themselves and others.

Good hygiene

The best way to keep from getting or spreading group A strep bacteria is to wash your hands often. This is especially important after coughing or sneezing and before preparing foods or eating.

To prevent group A strep infections, you should:

Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
Put your used tissue in the waste basket.
Cough or sneeze into your upper sleeve or elbow, not your hands, if you don’t have a tissue.
Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds.
Use an alcohol-based hand rub if soap and water are not available.

You should also wash glasses, utensils, and plates after someone who is sick uses them. These items are safe for others to use once washed.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics help prevent someone with a group A strep infection from spreading the bacteria to others.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Related HealthJournals

Strep Throat

Strep throat is a bacterial infection that causes inflammation and pain in the throat (pharyngitis). Group A <em>Streptococcus</em> (group A strep bacteria) cause strep throat and are contagious. Common symptoms include swelling, redness, and white patches. Learn more about the risk factors and symptoms of strep throat, and how to treat it.

Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) is a rare, but serious bacterial infection caused by group A <em>Streptococcus</em> (group A strep). STSS can develop very quickly into low blood pressure, multiple organ failure, and even death. Learn about symptoms, causes, and prevention.

Impetigo

Impetigo is a superficial bacterial skin infection that is highly contagious. Impetigo can be caused by <em>Streptococcus pyogenes</em> (which also causes strep throat) and <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>. It usually starts when bacteria get into a cut, scratch, or insect bite. Learn about prevention and treatment.

Skin Infections

Skin infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. Some skin infections cover a small area on the top of your skin, while other infections can go deep into your skin or spread to a larger area. Learn more about the different types of skin infections.

Staphylococcal Infections

Staphylococcal (Staph) infections are caused by bacteria that are commonly found on the skin or in the nose. There are more than 30 types. A type called <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> causes most infections. Staph can cause serious infections if it gets into the blood and can lead to sepsis or death. Learn how to prevent and treat Staph infections.

Kidney Failure

Healthy kidneys clean your blood by removing wastes, poisons, and excess fluid from your body. But if your kidneys start to malfunction, you might not realize it for a long while. Kidney disease usually doesn’t make you feel sick until the problem is serious and irreversible—a condition known as kidney failure. Learn about kidney failure and its symptoms.

Kidney Failure Treatments

As your kidney disease gets worse, your health care provider may talk with you about preparing for kidney failure. Talking early with your provider about your treatment options—and making a choice before you need any one of these treatments—helps you take charge of your care. Treatment will help you feel better and live longer. Explore your options.

Conservative Management for Kidney Failure

Conservative management for kidney failure means that your health care team continues your care without dialysis or a kidney transplant. Learn about conservative management for kidney failure—what happens if you say “no” to dialysis—managing symptoms, quality of life, preparing for death.

Growth Failure in Children with Chronic Kidney Disease

Growth failure is a complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in which children do not grow as expected. Learn what are the symptoms of growth failure in children with CKD, how CKD affects the child, and the available treatment options.

Heart Failure

Heart failure, or congestive heart failure (CHF), means the heart can't pump enough blood. Heart failure does not mean that your heart has stopped or is about to stop working. It means that your heart is not able to pump blood the way it should. It can affect one or both sides of the heart. Learn about the signs, symptoms, and causes.

Glomerulus (Kidney)

The kidney glomerulus (plural glomeruli), is a network of small blood vessels (capillaries) known as a tuft, located at the beginning of a nephron in the kidney.

Kidney Tests

Your kidneys filter and clean your blood. Kidneys that function properly are critical for maintaining good health, however, more than one in seven American adults are estimated to have chronic kidney disease (CKD). Read about the laboratory tests that doctors use to diagnose and monitor kidney diseases.

Kidney Disease

Kidney disease means your kidneys are damaged and can’t filter blood the way they should. Kidney disease is common. You are at greater risk for kidney disease if you have diabetes or high blood pressure. Kidney disease throws the whole body out of balance. Learn about kidney disease, screening tests and how to keep your kidneys healthy.

Glomerular Diseases

Many diseases affect kidney function by attacking the glomeruli, the tiny units within the kidney where blood is cleaned. There two major categories of glomerular diseases are glomerulonephritis and glomerulosclerosis. Learn the causes, symptoms, and complications of these diseases.

Kidney Anatomy

The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. They filter the blood and remove waste by excreting it in urine. They also help maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals in your blood. Without this balance, nerves, muscles, and other tissues may not work normally. Learn more about how the kidneys work and why they're so important.

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Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis

Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, or PSGN, is a rare kidney disease that can develop after group A strep infections. The main way to prevent PSGN is to prevent group A strep infections. Learn more about PSGN, including its causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention.

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