Endocrine Disorders; Endocrine System Diseases; Hormone Disorders
The Endocrine system has eight major glands that make hormones. Diabetes is the most common endocrine disease in the USA.
Human endocrine system (male and female)
Image by OpenStax & Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org/Wikimedia
Endocrine Diseases
Male Endocrine System
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Endocrine System
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the male endocrine system. The Leydig cells of the testis produces the main male sex hormone, testosterone. Testosterone facilitates sexual maturity of the male, production of sperm and secondary sex characteristics such as hair growth and voice modulation.
Image by TheVisualMD
Endocrine Diseases
Your endocrine system includes eight major glands throughout your body. These glands make hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers. They travel through your bloodstream to tissues or organs. Hormones work slowly and affect body processes from head to toe. These include
Growth and development
Metabolism - digestion, elimination, breathing, blood circulation and maintaining body temperature
Sexual function
Reproduction
Mood
If your hormone levels are too high or too low, you may have a hormone disorder. Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones the way it is supposed to. Stress, infection and changes in your blood's fluid and electrolyte balance can also influence hormone levels.
In the United States, the most common endocrine disease is diabetes. There are many others. They are usually treated by controlling how much hormone your body makes. Hormone supplements can help if the problem is too little of a hormone.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
Additional Materials (6)
Endocrine System, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus and Adrenal glands
Endocrine System Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus and Adrenal glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Endocrine System of a Male
The endocrine system comprises several small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is responsible for regulating metabolism, growth and development and puberty, tissue function, and plays a part also in mood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Endocrine System
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the female endocrine system. The endocrine system is the regulator of the human body as it responsible for maintaining homeostasis by producing and directing chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones act on just about every cell to carry out a variety of functions related to the following: metabolism, water and mineral balance, sexual development, growth, and stress reactions. Most hormones travel throughout the body via the bloodstream to affect their target organs and tissues. Other hormones act locally and arrive at their site of action via microcirculation.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male and Female Endocrine System - Hormone Production Glands
Male and Female Endocrine System - Hormone Production Glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Hormone Loop
Estrogen and progesterone production in premenopausal women. Drawing shows that in premenopausal women, estrogen and progesterone production by the ovaries is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH). The hypothalamus releases LHRH, which then causes the pituitary gland to make and secrete LH and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH cause the ovaries to make estrogen and progesterone, which act on the endometrium (inner lining of the uterus). (When estrogen and progesterone production reaches a certain level during the menstrual cycle, these hormones act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to turn off production of LHRH, LH, and FSH.)
Antiandrogens like bicalutamide compete with androgens for binding to the androgen receptor, reducing the ability of androgens to promote prostate cancer cell growth.
Image by OpenStax & Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org/Wikimedia
Human endocrine system (male and female)
Image by OpenStax & Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org/Wikimedia
Endocrine Glands
Both the endocrine and nervous systems use chemical signals to communicate and regulate the body's physiology. The endocrine system releases hormones that act on target cells to regulate development, growth, energy metabolism, reproduction, and many behaviors. The nervous system releases neurotransmitters or neurohormones that regulate neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells. Because the neurons can regulate the release of hormones, the nervous and endocrine systems work in a coordinated manner to regulate the body's physiology.
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
The hypothalamus in vertebrates integrates the endocrine and nervous systems. The hypothalamus is an endocrine organ located in the diencephalon of the brain. It receives input from the body and other brain areas and initiates endocrine responses to environmental changes. The hypothalamus acts as an endocrine organ, synthesizing hormones and transporting them along axons to the posterior pituitary gland. It synthesizes and secretes regulatory hormones that control the endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers that control endocrine cells in the adrenal medulla via neuronal control.
The pituitary gland, sometimes called the hypophysis or “master gland” is located at the base of the brain in the sella turcica, a groove of the sphenoid bone of the skull, illustrated in Figure. It is attached to the hypothalamus via a stalk called the pituitary stalk(or infundibulum). The anterior portion of the pituitary gland is regulated by releasing or release-inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and the posterior pituitary receives signals via neurosecretory cells to release hormones produced by the hypothalamus. The pituitary has two distinct regions—the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary—which between them secrete nine different peptide or protein hormones. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland contains axons of the hypothalamic neurons.
Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary gland, or adenohypophysis, is surrounded by a capillary network that extends from the hypothalamus, down along the infundibulum, and to the anterior pituitary. This capillary network is a part of the hypophyseal portal system that carries substances from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary and hormones from the anterior pituitary into the circulatory system. A portal system carries blood from one capillary network to another; therefore, the hypophyseal portal system allows hormones produced by the hypothalamus to be carried directly to the anterior pituitary without first entering the circulatory system.
The anterior pituitary produces seven hormones: growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), melanin-stimulating hormone (MSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). Anterior pituitary hormones are sometimes referred to as tropic hormones, because they control the functioning of other organs. While these hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary, their production is controlled by regulatory hormones produced by the hypothalamus. These regulatory hormones can be releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones, causing more or less of the anterior pituitary hormones to be secreted. These travel from the hypothalamus through the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary where they exert their effect. Negative feedback then regulates how much of these regulatory hormones are released and how much anterior pituitary hormone is secreted.
Posterior Pituitary
The posterior pituitary is significantly different in structure from the anterior pituitary. It is a part of the brain, extending down from the hypothalamus, and contains mostly nerve fibers and neuroglial cells, which support axons that extend from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary and the infundibulum together are referred to as the neurohypophysis.
The hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, and oxytocin are produced by neurons in the hypothalamus and transported within these axons along the infundibulum to the posterior pituitary. They are released into the circulatory system via neural signaling from the hypothalamus. These hormones are considered to be posterior pituitary hormones, even though they are produced by the hypothalamus, because that is where they are released into the circulatory system. The posterior pituitary itself does not produce hormones, but instead stores hormones produced by the hypothalamus and releases them into the blood stream.
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just below the larynx and in front of the trachea, as shown in Figure. It is a butterfly-shaped gland with two lobes that are connected by the isthmus. It has a dark red color due to its extensive vascular system. When the thyroid swells due to dysfunction, it can be felt under the skin of the neck.
The thyroid gland is made up of many spherical thyroid follicles, which are lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium. These follicles contain a viscous fluid, called colloid, which stores the glycoprotein thyroglobulin, the precursor to the thyroid hormones. The follicles produce hormones that can be stored in the colloid or released into the surrounding capillary network for transport to the rest of the body via the circulatory system.
Thyroid follicle cells synthesize the hormone thyroxine, which is also known as T4 because it contains four atoms of iodine, and triiodothyronine, also known as T3 because it contains three atoms of iodine. Follicle cells are stimulated to release stored T3 and T4 by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which is produced by the anterior pituitary. These thyroid hormones increase the rates of mitochondrial ATP production.
A third hormone, calcitonin, is produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid either releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones. Calcitonin release is not controlled by TSH, but instead is released when calcium ion concentrations in the blood rise. Calcitonin functions to help regulate calcium concentrations in body fluids. It acts in the bones to inhibit osteoclast activity and in the kidneys to stimulate excretion of calcium. The combination of these two events lowers body fluid levels of calcium.
Parathyroid Glands
Most people have four parathyroid glands; however, the number can vary from two to six. These glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, as shown in Figure. Normally, there is a superior gland and an inferior gland associated with each of the thyroid’s two lobes. Each parathyroid gland is covered by connective tissue and contains many secretory cells that are associated with a capillary network.
The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH increases blood calcium concentrations when calcium ion levels fall below normal. PTH (1) enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ by the kidneys, (2) stimulates osteoclast activity and inhibits osteoblast activity, and (3) it stimulates synthesis and secretion of calcitriol by the kidneys, which enhances Ca2+ absorption by the digestive system. PTH is produced by chief cells of the parathyroid. PTH and calcitonin work in opposition to one another to maintain homeostatic Ca2+levels in body fluids. Another type of cells, oxyphil cells, exist in the parathyroid but their function is not known. These hormones encourage bone growth, muscle mass, and blood cell formation in children and women.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are associated with the kidneys; one gland is located on top of each kidney as illustrated in Figure. The adrenal glands consist of an outer adrenal cortex and an inner adrenal medulla. These regions secrete different hormones.
Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex is made up of layers of epithelial cells and associated capillary networks. These layers form three distinct regions: an outer zona glomerulosa that produces mineralocorticoids, a middle zona fasciculata that produces glucocorticoids, and an inner zona reticularis that produces androgens.
The main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which regulates the concentration of Na+ ions in urine, sweat, pancreas, and saliva. Aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex is stimulated by a decrease in blood concentrations of sodium ions, blood volume, or blood pressure, or by an increase in blood potassium levels.
The three main glucocorticoids are cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone. The glucocorticoids stimulate the synthesis of glucose and gluconeogenesis (converting a non-carbohydrate to glucose) by liver cells and they promote the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. These hormones increase blood glucose levels to maintain levels within a normal range between meals. These hormones are secreted in response to ACTH and levels are regulated by negative feedback.
Androgens are sex hormones that promote masculinity. They are produced in small amounts by the adrenal cortex in both males and females. They do not affect sexual characteristics and may supplement sex hormones released from the gonads.
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla contains large, irregularly shaped cells that are closely associated with blood vessels. These cells are innervated by preganglionic autonomic nerve fibers from the central nervous system.
The adrenal medulla contains two types of secretory cells: one that produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and another that produces norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Epinephrine is the primary adrenal medulla hormone accounting for 75 to 80 percent of its secretions. Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase heart rate, breathing rate, cardiac muscle contractions, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. They also accelerate the breakdown of glucose in skeletal muscles and stored fats in adipose tissue.
The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine is stimulated by neural impulses from the sympathetic nervous system. Secretion of these hormones is stimulated by acetylcholine release from preganglionic sympathetic fibers innervating the adrenal medulla. These neural impulses originate from the hypothalamus in response to stress to prepare the body for the fight-or-flight response.
Pancreas
The pancreas, illustrated in Figure, is an elongated organ that is located between the stomach and the proximal portion of the small intestine. It contains both exocrine cells that excrete digestive enzymes and endocrine cells that release hormones. It is sometimes referred to as a heterocrine gland because it has both endocrine and exocrine functions.
The pancreas is found underneath the stomach and points toward the spleen. (credit: modification of work by NCI)
The endocrine cells of the pancreas form clusters called pancreatic islets or the islets of Langerhans, as visible in the micrograph shown in Figure. The pancreatic islets contain two primary cell types: alpha cells, which produce the hormone glucagon, and beta cells, which produce the hormone insulin. These hormones regulate blood glucose levels. As blood glucose levels decline, alpha cells release glucagon to raise the blood glucose levels by increasing rates of glycogen breakdown and glucose release by the liver. When blood glucose levels rise, such as after a meal, beta cells release insulin to lower blood glucose levels by increasing the rate of glucose uptake in most body cells, and by increasing glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles and the liver. Together, glucagon and insulin regulate blood glucose levels.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland produces melatonin. The rate of melatonin production is affected by the photoperiod. Collaterals from the visual pathways innervate the pineal gland. During the day photoperiod, little melatonin is produced; however, melatonin production increases during the dark photoperiod (night). In some mammals, melatonin has an inhibitory affect on reproductive functions by decreasing production and maturation of sperm, oocytes, and reproductive organs. Melatonin is an effective antioxidant, protecting the CNS from free radicals such as nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide. Lastly, melatonin is involved in biological rhythms, particularly circadian rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle and eating habits.
Gonads
The gonads—the male testes and female ovaries—produce steroid hormones. The testes produce androgens, testosterone being the most prominent, which allow for the development of secondary sex characteristics and the production of sperm cells. The ovaries produce estradiol and progesterone, which cause secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth.
Endocrine Glands and their Associated Hormones
Endocrine Gland
Associated Hormones
Effect
Hypothalamus
releasing and inhibiting hormones
regulate hormone release from pituitary gland; produce oxytocin; produce uterine contractions and milk secretion in females
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
water reabsorption from kidneys; vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure
Pituitary (Anterior)
growth hormone (GH)
promotes growth of body tissues, protein synthesis; metabolic functions
prolactin (PRL)
promotes milk production
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates thyroid hormone release
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex, glucocorticoids
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates gamete production (both ova and sperm); secretion of estradiol
luteinizing hormone (LH)
stimulates androgen production by gonads; ovulation, secretion of progesterone
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
stimulates melanocytes of the skin increasing melanin pigment production.
Pituitary (Posterior)
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
oxytocin
stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth; milk ejection; stimulates ductus deferens and prostate gland contraction during emission
Thyroid
thyroxine, triiodothyronine
stimulate and maintain metabolism; growth and development
regulates some biological rhythms and protects CNS from free radicals
Testes
androgens
regulate, promote, increase or maintain sperm production; male secondary sexual characteristics
Ovaries
estrogen
promotes uterine lining growth; female secondary sexual characteristics
progestins
promote and maintain uterine lining growth
Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
There are several organs whose primary functions are non-endocrine but that also possess endocrine functions. These include the heart, kidneys, intestines, thymus, gonads, and adipose tissue.
The heart possesses endocrine cells in the walls of the atria that are specialized cardiac muscle cells. These cells release the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to increased blood volume. High blood volume causes the cells to be stretched, resulting in hormone release. ANP acts on the kidneys to reduce the reabsorption of Na+, causing Na+ and water to be excreted in the urine. ANP also reduces the amounts of renin released by the kidneys and aldosterone released by the adrenal cortex, further preventing the retention of water. In this way, ANP causes a reduction in blood volume and blood pressure, and reduces the concentration of Na+ in the blood.
The gastrointestinal tract produces several hormones that aid in digestion. The endocrine cells are located in the mucosa of the GI tract throughout the stomach and small intestine. Some of the hormones produced include gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which are secreted in the presence of food, and some of which act on other organs such as the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver. They trigger the release of gastric juices, which help to break down and digest food in the GI tract.
While the adrenal glands associated with the kidneys are major endocrine glands, the kidneys themselves also possess endocrine function. Renin is released in response to decreased blood volume or pressure and is part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that leads to the release of aldosterone. Aldosterone then causes the retention of Na+ and water, raising blood volume. The kidneys also release calcitriol, which aids in the absorption of Ca2+ and phosphate ions. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a protein hormone that triggers the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow. EPO is released in response to low oxygen levels. Because red blood cells are oxygen carriers, increased production results in greater oxygen delivery throughout the body. EPO has been used by athletes to improve performance, as greater oxygen delivery to muscle cells allows for greater endurance. Because red blood cells increase the viscosity of blood, artificially high levels of EPO can cause severe health risks.
The thymus is found behind the sternum; it is most prominent in infants, becoming smaller in size through adulthood. The thymus produces hormones referred to as thymosins, which contribute to the development of the immune response.
Adipose tissue is a connective tissue found throughout the body. It produces the hormone leptin in response to food intake. Leptin increases the activity of anorexigenic neurons and decreases that of orexigenic neurons, producing a feeling of satiety after eating, thus affecting appetite and reducing the urge for further eating. Leptin is also associated with reproduction. It must be present for GnRH and gonadotropin synthesis to occur. Extremely thin females may enter puberty late; however, if adipose levels increase, more leptin will be produced, improving fertility.
Summary
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum. The anterior pituitary receives products from the hypothalamus by the hypophyseal portal system and produces six hormones. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain and releases hormones (antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin) produced by the hypothalamus.
The thyroid gland is located in the neck and is composed of two lobes connected by the isthmus. The thyroid is made up of follicle cells that produce the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Parafollicular cells of the thyroid produce calcitonin. The parathyroid glands lie on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and produce parathyroid hormone.
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and consist of the renal cortex and renal medulla. The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland and produces the corticosteroids, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland and produces the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine.
The pancreas lies in the abdomen between the stomach and the small intestine. Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas form the islets of Langerhans, which are composed of alpha cells that release glucagon and beta cells that release insulin.
Some organs possess endocrine activity as a secondary function but have another primary function. The heart produces the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide, which functions to reduce blood volume, pressure, and Na+ concentration. The gastrointestinal tract produces various hormones that aid in digestion. The kidneys produce renin, calcitriol, and erythropoietin. Adipose tissue produces leptin, which promotes satiety signals in the brain.
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the female endocrine system.
The endocrine system is the regulator of the human body as it responsible for maintaining homeostasis by producing and directing chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones act on just about every cell to carry out a variety of functions related to the following: metabolism, water and mineral balance, sexual development, growth, and stress reactions. Most hormones travel throughout the body via the bloodstream to affect their target organs and tissues. Other hormones act locally and arrive at their site of action via microcirculation.
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Male Endocrine Anatomy
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Main glands of the endocrine system
Main glands of the endocrine system
Image by OpenStax & Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org
Endocrine gland hormone review | Endocrine system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the female endocrine system.
TheVisualMD
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This media may include sensitive content
Male Endocrine Anatomy
TheVisualMD
Main glands of the endocrine system
OpenStax & Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org
11:39
Endocrine gland hormone review | Endocrine system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hormone Disorders
Symptoms of Hypothyroidism
Image by StoryMD
Symptoms of Hypothyroidism
Image by StoryMD
Hormone Disorders
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by glands and regulate many functions as part of the endocrine system in the body.
The endocrine system has a complex system of checks and balances to make sure that hormone levels in the body are at normal levels. Hormone disorders occur when a gland produces too much or too little of a hormone. Hormone disorders can be caused by many things, including being exposed to certain chemicals in the environment.
Thyroid Disorders
The thyroid is one of the major glands of the endocrine system. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located just below the Adam's apple. The hormones the thyroid produces primarily control metabolism. Their levels can affect a person's physical energy, temperature, weight, and mood. Most thyroid disorders are usually related to the gland producing too little thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism) or too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism), and can be treated.
Congenital hypothyroidism (CH) occurs when a baby is born without the ability to produce adequate thyroid hormone. This can be caused by a defect in the gland, issues with thyroid metabolism, or an iodine deficiency. Thyroid hormones are essential for healthy growth and brain development, so newborn screening programs test for CH at birth. Children with CH can lead healthy lives with treatment.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (4)
3D medical animation still showing hypothyroidism.
An underactive thyroid gland resulting in hypothyroidism.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
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Photos of obese man with Infantilism and thyroid disorder
A man, aged 37, suffering from 'Infantilism' (Type Brissaud) and a physical degenerative disorder- possibly thyroid. First image taken before thyroid treatment, second, after and the third of the man lying in an obsterics/gynecologist's chair with legs apart revealing lack of secondary sexual characteristics in genital area.
General Collections
Keywords: Thyroid; Genitals; Classification; Abnormal; Degenerative disease; Sexual identity; Anatomy; Thyroid Gland; Obesity; Eugenics; Infantilism
Image by /Wikimedia
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE BOUND TO SINGLE RECEPTOR
REMARK465 - missing electron densities in X-ray structure 1a22 representing protein disorder (HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE BOUND TO SINGLE RECEPTOR). Compilation of screenshots from PDB and molecule representation via VMD. Blue and red arrows point missing residues on receptor and growth hormone, respectively.
Image by Lukasz Kozlowski/Wikimedia
Endocrine Disorders: Evaluation and Treatment
Video by UMMCVideos/YouTube
3D medical animation still showing hypothyroidism.
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Sensitive content
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Photos of obese man with Infantilism and thyroid disorder
/Wikimedia
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE BOUND TO SINGLE RECEPTOR
Lukasz Kozlowski/Wikimedia
3:49
Endocrine Disorders: Evaluation and Treatment
UMMCVideos/YouTube
Hormone Disorders and the Environment
Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women
Image by Grindler NM, Allsworth JE, Macones GA, Kannan K, Roehl KA, Cooper AR (2015) Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women. PLoS ONE 10(1): e0116057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116057
Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women
Evaluating groups of endocrine disrupting chemicals and their potential impact on female reproduction.
Image by Grindler NM, Allsworth JE, Macones GA, Kannan K, Roehl KA, Cooper AR (2015) Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women. PLoS ONE 10(1): e0116057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116057
Hormone Disorders and the Environment
Chemicals in the environment may have the ability to affect the body’s endocrine (hormone) system. These chemicals are known as endocrine disruptors. In the body, endocrine disruptors may mimic naturally occurring hormones. In response, the body may overproduce or under-produce other hormones, which can cause health problems. Some of the endocrine disrupting chemicals found in the environment include certain pesticides, such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and industrial chemicals, such as perchlorate, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).
Thyroid Disorders
The thyroid gland uses iodine from food to make two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and it controls how much T3 and T4 the thyroid makes. Endocrine disruptors in the environment may affect a person’s levels of T3, T4, and TSH.
The effects of chemical exposure on the amount of thyroid disruption depend on certain factors that include the timing of exposure, the populations at risk, and other factors. For example, pregnant women and their fetuses would be most affected by thyroid disruption, because thyroid hormones are vital for the developing brain. More research is needed on environmental chemicals and their effect on thyroid disorders.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Endocrine Disruptors
Exposure to toxic chemicals and microplastics
Image by Production manager: Elke Paul, Heinrich Böll Foundation
Exposure to toxic chemicals and microplastics
NO WAY TO AVOID IT We are exposed to toxic chemicals and microplastics at all stages in the plastics life cycle. The pollutants can get into our bodies in many ways.
Image by Production manager: Elke Paul, Heinrich Böll Foundation
Endocrine Disruptors
Many chemicals, both natural and man-made, may mimic or interfere with the body’s hormones, known as the endocrine system. Called endocrine disruptors, these chemicals are linked with developmental, reproductive, brain, immune, and other problems.
Endocrine disruptors are found in many everyday products, including some plastic bottles and containers, liners of metal food cans, detergents, flame retardants, food, toys, cosmetics, and pesticides.
Some endocrine-disrupting chemicals are slow to break-down in the environment. That characteristic makes them potentially hazardous over time.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals cause adverse effects in animals. But limited scientific information exists on potential health problems in humans. Because people are typically exposed to multiple endocrine disruptors at the same time, assessing public health effects is difficult.
What are some common endocrine disruptors?
Bisphenol A (BPA) — used to make polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, which are found in many plastic products including food storage containers
Dioxins — produced as a byproduct in herbicide production and paper bleaching, they are also released into the environment during waste burning and wildfires
Perchlorate — a by-product of aerospace, weapon, and pharmaceutical industries found in drinking water and fireworks
Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) — used widely in industrial applications, such as firefighting foams and non-stick pan, paper, and textile coatings
Phthalates — used to make plastics more flexible, they are also found in some food packaging, cosmetics, children’s toys, and medical devices
Phytoestrogens — naturally occurring substances in plants that have hormone-like activity, such as genistein and daidzein that are in soy products, like tofu or soy milk
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) — used to make flame retardants for household products such as furniture foam and carpets
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) — used to make electrical equipment like transformers, and in hydraulic fluids, heat transfer fluids, lubricants, and plasticizers
Triclosan — may be found in some anti-microbial and personal care products, like liquid body wash
How do people encounter endocrine-disrupting chemicals?
People may be exposed to endocrine disruptors through food and beverages consumed, pesticides applied, and cosmetics used. In essence, your contact with these chemicals may occur through diet, air, skin, and water.
Even low doses of endocrine-disrupting chemicals may be unsafe. The body’s normal endocrine functioning involves very small changes in hormone levels, yet we know even these small changes can cause significant developmental and biological effects. This observation leads scientists to think that endocrine-disrupting chemical exposures, even at low amounts, can alter the body’s sensitive systems and lead to health problems.
When absorbed in the body, an endocrine disruptor can decrease or increase normal hormone levels (left), mimic the body's natural hormones (middle), or alter the natural production of hormones (right).
Source: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
Additional Materials (12)
Endocrine disruptors and the associated endocrine disorders
A schematic describing different types of endocrine disruptors and the associated endocrine disorders.
Image by Priyam A, Singh PP and Gehlout S (2018) Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Engineered Nanomaterials in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Endocrinol. 9:704. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00704
Historical landmarks in the field of EDCs Research.
Image by Papalou O, Kandaraki EA, Papadakis G and Diamanti-Kandarakis E (2019) Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: An Occult Mediator of Metabolic Disease. Front. Endocrinol. 10:112. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00112
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)
Video by Hormone Health Network/YouTube
What are endocrine disruptors?
Video by Environmental Working Group (EWG)/YouTube
Endocrine Disruptors
Video by Indoor Air Quality Association/YouTube
Endocrine disruptors are everywhere and affect everyone: From Hormone-Altering Chemicals
Video by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health/YouTube
Endocrine Disruptors & Exposure Concerns
Video by Paul Cochrane/YouTube
Effects of endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure on mesenchymal stem cells
Effects of endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure on mesenchymal stem cells with implications for tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and treatment of inflammatory conditions.
Image by Bateman ME, Strong AL, McLachlan JA, Burow ME and Bunnell BA (2017) The Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Adipogenesis and Osteogenesis in Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Review. Front. Endocrinol. 7:171. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00171
The key characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
Arrows identify the ten specific key characteristics (KCs) of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The ± symbol indicates that an EDC can increase or decrease processes and effects. KC1 states that an EDC can interact with or activate hormone receptors. KC2 states that an EDC can antagonize hormone receptors. KC3 states that an EDC can alter hormone receptor expression. KC4 states that an EDC can alter signal transduction (including changes in protein or RNA expression, post-translational modifications and/or ion flux) in hormone-responsive cells. KC5 states that an EDC can induce epigenetic modifications in hormone-producing or hormone-responsive cells. KC6 states that an EDC can alter hormone synthesis. KC7 states that an EDC can alter hormone transport across cell membranes. KC8 states that an EDC can alter hormone distribution or circulating hormone levels. KC9 states that an EDC can alter hormone metabolism or clearance. KC10 states that an EDC can alter the fate of hormone-producing or hormone-responsive cells. Depicted EDC actions include amplification and attenuation of effects. Ac, acetyl group; Me, methyl group.
Image by La Merrill, M.A., Vandenberg, L.N., Smith, M.T. et al. Consensus on the key characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals as a basis for hazard identification. Nat Rev Endocrinol 16, 45–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0273-8
Plastic Waste
Bisphenols A (BPA) and S (BPS) have been shown to be endocrine disruptors.
Image by stux/Pixabay
Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women
Evaluating groups of endocrine disrupting chemicals and their potential impact on female reproduction.
Image by Grindler NM, Allsworth JE, Macones GA, Kannan K, Roehl KA, Cooper AR (2015) Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women. PLoS ONE 10(1): e0116057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116057
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interact with and possibly disrupt the hormones produced or secreted by the human or animal endocrine system, which regulates growth, metabolism and reproductio
A scientist inspects a water sample. In 2010, EPA identified a list of 134 chemicals that will be screened for their potential to disrupt the endocrine system. Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interact with and possibly disrupt the hormones produced or secreted by the human or animal endocrine system, which regulates growth, metabolism and reproduction. The list includes chemicals that have been identified as priorities under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and may be found in sources of drinking water where a substantial number of people may be exposed. The list also includes pesticide active ingredients that are being evaluated under EPA’s registration review program to ensure they meet current scientific and regulatory standards. The data generated from the screens will provide robust and systematic scientific information to help EPA identify whether additional testing is necessary, or whether other steps are necessary to address potential endocrine disrupting chemicals. www.epa.gov/endo/ Eric Vance, photographer.
Image by USEPA Environmental-Protection-Agency/Wikimedia
Endocrine disruptors and the associated endocrine disorders
Priyam A, Singh PP and Gehlout S (2018) Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Engineered Nanomaterials in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Endocrinol. 9:704. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00704
Historical landmarks in the field of EDCs Research.
Papalou O, Kandaraki EA, Papadakis G and Diamanti-Kandarakis E (2019) Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: An Occult Mediator of Metabolic Disease. Front. Endocrinol. 10:112. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00112
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Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)
Hormone Health Network/YouTube
3:04
What are endocrine disruptors?
Environmental Working Group (EWG)/YouTube
2:34
Endocrine Disruptors
Indoor Air Quality Association/YouTube
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Endocrine disruptors are everywhere and affect everyone: From Hormone-Altering Chemicals
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health/YouTube
3:43
Endocrine Disruptors & Exposure Concerns
Paul Cochrane/YouTube
Effects of endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure on mesenchymal stem cells
Bateman ME, Strong AL, McLachlan JA, Burow ME and Bunnell BA (2017) The Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Adipogenesis and Osteogenesis in Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Review. Front. Endocrinol. 7:171. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00171
The key characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
La Merrill, M.A., Vandenberg, L.N., Smith, M.T. et al. Consensus on the key characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals as a basis for hazard identification. Nat Rev Endocrinol 16, 45–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0273-8
Plastic Waste
stux/Pixabay
Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women
Grindler NM, Allsworth JE, Macones GA, Kannan K, Roehl KA, Cooper AR (2015) Persistent Organic Pollutants and Early Menopause in U.S. Women. PLoS ONE 10(1): e0116057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116057
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interact with and possibly disrupt the hormones produced or secreted by the human or animal endocrine system, which regulates growth, metabolism and reproductio
USEPA Environmental-Protection-Agency/Wikimedia
Addison Disease
Darkening of the skin seen on the legs of a patient with an excess of melanin.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Darkening of the skin seen on the legs of a patient with an excess of melanin.
Legs of a Caucasian woman with Addison's disease
Image by James Heilman, MD
Addison Disease
Your adrenal glands are just above your kidneys. The outside layer of these glands makes hormones that help your body respond to stress and regulate your blood pressure and water and salt balance. Addison disease happens if the adrenal glands don't make enough of these hormones.
A problem with your immune system usually causes Addison disease. The immune system mistakenly attacks your own tissues, damaging your adrenal glands. Other causes include infections and cancer.
Symptoms include
Weight loss
Muscle weakness
Fatigue that gets worse over time
Low blood pressure
Patchy or dark skin
Lab tests can confirm that you have Addison disease. If you don't treat it, it can be fatal. You will need to take hormone pills for the rest of your life. If you have Addison disease, you should carry an emergency ID. It should say that you have the disease, list your medicines and say how much you need in an emergency.
Source: NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
Additional Materials (8)
What is Addison's Disease? (Adrenal Hormone Insufficiency)
Sequence of cortisol production in the hypothalamus and adrenal glands
Drawing of the hypothalamus and adrenal glands within the outline of a male body. Sequence of cortisol production is illustrated. The amount of cortisol produced by the adrenal glands is precisely balanced.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Knees of a woman with Addison's disease
Watercolour drawing of the knees of a woman, aged 22 years, who was suffering from Addison's disease, showing extensive pigmentation.
Medical Photographic Library
Keywords: Mark, Leonard Portal
Image by /Wikimedia
Regulation of Body Processes
Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive system involves hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries.
Image by CNX Openstax
2:28
What is Addison's Disease? (Adrenal Hormone Insufficiency)
Sequence of cortisol production in the hypothalamus and adrenal glands
NIDDK Image Library
Knees of a woman with Addison's disease
/Wikimedia
Regulation of Body Processes
CNX Openstax
Adrenal Gland Disorders
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Kidney and Adrenal Gland
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Kidney and Adrenal Gland
The kidney (including the surrounding fibrous tissue and fat layer, the renal pelvis, and the ureter) and the adrenal gland, as well as a close-up view of the renal pelvis.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Adrenal Gland Disorders
The adrenal glands are small glands located on top of each kidney. They produce hormones that you can't live without, including sex hormones and cortisol. Cortisol helps you respond to stress and has many other important functions.
With adrenal gland disorders, your glands make too much or not enough hormones. In Cushing's syndrome, there's too much cortisol, while with Addison's disease, there is too little. Some people are born unable to make enough cortisol.
Causes of adrenal gland disorders include
Genetic mutations
Tumors including pheochromocytomas
Infections
A problem in another gland, such as the pituitary, which helps to regulate the adrenal gland
Certain medicines
Treatment depends on which problem you have. Surgery or medicines can treat many adrenal gland disorders.
Source: NIH: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Additional Materials (3)
Normal Pancreas, Kidneys and Adrenal Glands
Normal Pancreas, Kidneys and Adrenal Glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Understanding Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) - Jumo Health
The adrenal glands, located on the top of each kidney, are responsible for releasing different hormones. Adrenal gland disorders occur when the adrenal glands produce too much or too little of these hormones.
What are the adrenal glands?
The adrenal glands, located on the top of each kidney, are responsible for releasing different classes of hormones.
The outer part of the gland, called the adrenal cortex, produces the hormones cortisol (pronounced KAWR-tuh-sohl) and aldosterone (pronounced al-DOS-tuh-rohn). The inner part of the gland, called the adrenal medulla (pronounced muh-DUHL-uh), produces the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline.
These hormones—cortisol, aldosterone, adrenaline, and noradrenaline—control many important functions in the body, including:
Maintaining metabolic processes, such as managing blood sugar levels and regulating inflammation
Regulating the balance of salt and water
Controlling the "fight or flight" response to stress
Maintaining pregnancy
Initiating and controlling sexual maturation during childhood and puberty
The adrenal glands are also an important source of sex steroids, such as estrogen and testosterone.
What are adrenal gland disorders?
Adrenal gland disorders occur when the adrenal glands do not work properly. They can be classified into disorders that occur when too much hormone is produced or when too little hormone is produced.
These disorders can occur if there is a problem with the adrenal gland itself, such as a disease, genetic mutation, tumor, or infection. Or, sometimes the disorder results from a problem in another gland, such as the pituitary, which helps to regulate the adrenal gland. In addition, some medications can cause problems with how the adrenal glands function. When the adrenal glands produce too little or too many hormones, or when too many hormones come into the body from an outside source, serious health problems can develop.
Overall, adrenal gland disorders are generally rare. The number of people affected and at risk depends on the specific type of adrenal gland disorder.
Source: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
ACTH stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol. It is cortisol that produces effects to help us deal with stress.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland - Cortex and Medulla
The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one gland located near the upper portion of each kidney. Each gland is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland, like the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary, develop from different embryonic tissues and secrete different hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.
The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of the adrenal gland but by different mechanisms. The adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback involving the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is regulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing a different group or type of hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones are steroid.
Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex. The principal mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in the body. Glucocorticoids are secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex. The principal glucocorticoid is cortisol, which increases blood glucose levels.
The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the gonadocorticoids, or sex hormones. These are secreted by the innermost region. Male hormones, androgens, and female hormones, estrogens, are secreted in minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal cortex, but their effect is usually masked by the hormones from the testes and ovaries. In females, the masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident after menopause, when estrogen levels from the ovaries decrease.
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These two hormones are secreted in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful situations. A lack of hormones from the adrenal medulla produces no significant effects. Hypersecretion, usually from a tumor, causes prolonged or continual sympathetic responses.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (15)
Adrenal Gland
ACTH stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol. It is cortisol that produces effects to help us deal with stress.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland Cross Section
Adrenal Gland Cross Section : Medical visualization of a cross-section of the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland is actually made up of two separate glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, which serve two different endocrine functions, and have separate innervation and developmental origins. The outer portion, the adrenal cortex, is responsible for the synthesis of three different types of hormones: mineralcorticoids (primarily aldosterone) maintain healthy sodium levels and help to maintain blood volume and blood pressure; glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol) control the body's use of glucose, fat, protein, carbohydrates, and minerals; and gonadocorticoids (mainly androgens such as testosterone) influence puberty, secondary sex characteristics, and sex drive. The inner portion of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla, is responsible for the synthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine stimulates carbohydrate metabolism and norepinephrine raises heart rate and blood pressure.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland
Visualization of the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland is made up of two separate glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, which serve two different endocrine functions. The outer portion, the adrenal cortex is responsible for the synthesis of 3 different hormones: aldosterone is responsible for maintaining healthy sodium levels and helps to maintain blood volume and blood pressure; cortisol controls how the body uses fat, protein, carbohydrates and minerals; gonado-coricoids are sex hormones which influence sperm production in men and menstruation in women. The inner portion of the adrenal gland is called the adrenal medulla and it is responsible for the synthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine stimulates carbohydrate metabolism and norepinephrine raises heart rate and blood pressure.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland Showing Cortex and Medulla
Medical visualization of a cross-section of the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland is actually made up of two separate glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, which serve two different endocrine functions, and have separate innervation and developmental origins. The outer portion, the adrenal cortex, is responsible for the synthesis of three different types of hormones: mineralcorticoids (primarily aldosterone) maintain healthy sodium levels and help to maintain blood volume and blood pressure; glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol) control the body's use of glucose, fat, protein, carbohydrates, and minerals; and gonadocorticoids (mainly androgens such as testosterone) influence puberty, secondary sex characteristics, and sex drive. The inner portion of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla, is responsible for the synthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine stimulates carbohydrate metabolism and norepinephrine raises heart rate and blood pressure.
The kidney (including the surrounding fibrous tissue and fat layer, the renal pelvis, and the ureter) and the adrenal gland, as well as a close-up view of the renal pelvis.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Kidney and Adrenal Gland
Vertical section of kidney.
Image by Henry Vandyke Carter / A version of File:Gray1127.png with some text removed and numbers added instead, changes done by Daedalus.
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Adrenal Gland
Diagram showing where the adrenal glands are in the body
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Endocrinology | Adrenal Gland Overview
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Adrenal Glands Animation
Video by biosingh36/YouTube
In response to stress, the hypothalamus (H) releases the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) into the anterior pituitary (P), causing the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the blood flow. ACTH stimulates the generation of glucocorticoids (cortisol in humans and corticosterone in mice) in the cortex of the adrenal gland (A), which are then released into the blood. Stress also activates the autonomic sympathetic nerves in the medulla of the adrenal gland to elicit the production of catecholamines, norepinephrine and epinephrine, which are then released into the blood. Glucocorticoids and catecholamines influence the generation of interleukins, which are involved in the viability and proliferation of immunocompetent gut cells via receptors.
In response to stress, the hypothalamus (H) releases the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) into the anterior pituitary (P), causing the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the blood flow. ACTH stimulates the generation of glucocorticoids (cortisol in humans and corticosterone in mice) in the cortex of the adrenal gland (A), which are then released into the blood. Stress also activates the autonomic sympathetic nerves in the medulla of the adrenal gland to elicit the production of catecholamines, norepinephrine and epinephrine, which are then released into the blood. Glucocorticoids and catecholamines influence the generation of interleukins, which are involved in the viability and proliferation of immunocompetent gut cells via receptors.
Image by Campos-Rodríguez R, Godínez-Victoria M, Abarca-Rojano E, Pacheco-Yépez J, Reyna-Garfias H, Barbosa-Cabrera RE, Drago-Serrano ME
Endocrinology | Adrenal Gland: Aldosterone
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Adrenal Gland Function
Video by Handwritten Tutorials/YouTube
The Endocrine System: Adrenal Glands - Adrenal Cortex - Explained in 3 Minutes!
Video by 5MinuteSchool/YouTube
Adrenal Gland
TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland Cross Section
TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland
TheVisualMD
Adrenal Gland Showing Cortex and Medulla
TheVisualMD
HPA Axis
Anatomography
10:43
Endocrinology - Adrenal Gland Hormones
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
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Kidney and Adrenal Gland
National Cancer Institute / Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Kidney and Adrenal Gland
Henry Vandyke Carter / A version of File:Gray1127.png with some text removed and numbers added instead, changes done by Daedalus.
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Adrenal Gland
Cancer Research UK uploader
10:37
Endocrinology | Adrenal Gland Overview
Ninja Nerd/YouTube
0:34
Adrenal Glands Animation
biosingh36/YouTube
In response to stress, the hypothalamus (H) releases the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) into the anterior pituitary (P), causing the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the blood flow. ACTH stimulates the generation of glucocorticoids (cortisol in humans and corticosterone in mice) in the cortex of the adrenal gland (A), which are then released into the blood. Stress also activates the autonomic sympathetic nerves in the medulla of the adrenal gland to elicit the production of catecholamines, norepinephrine and epinephrine, which are then released into the blood. Glucocorticoids and catecholamines influence the generation of interleukins, which are involved in the viability and proliferation of immunocompetent gut cells via receptors.
Campos-Rodríguez R, Godínez-Victoria M, Abarca-Rojano E, Pacheco-Yépez J, Reyna-Garfias H, Barbosa-Cabrera RE, Drago-Serrano ME
25:01
Endocrinology | Adrenal Gland: Aldosterone
Ninja Nerd/YouTube
4:30
Adrenal Gland Function
Handwritten Tutorials/YouTube
3:04
The Endocrine System: Adrenal Glands - Adrenal Cortex - Explained in 3 Minutes!
5MinuteSchool/YouTube
Adrenal Glands
Normal Pancreas, Kidneys and Adrenal Glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Pancreas, Kidneys and Adrenal Glands
Normal Pancreas, Kidneys and Adrenal Glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule (Figure). The adrenal glands have a rich blood supply and experience one of the highest rates of blood flow in the body. They are served by several arteries branching off the aorta, including the suprarenal and renal arteries. Blood flows to each adrenal gland at the adrenal cortex and then drains into the adrenal medulla. Adrenal hormones are released into the circulation via the left and right suprarenal veins.
The adrenal gland consists of an outer cortex of glandular tissue and an inner medulla of nervous tissue. The cortex itself is divided into three zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis. Each region secretes its own set of hormones.
The adrenal cortex, as a component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, secretes steroid hormones important for the regulation of the long-term stress response, blood pressure and blood volume, nutrient uptake and storage, fluid and electrolyte balance, and inflammation. The HPA axis involves the stimulation of hormone release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary by the hypothalamus. ACTH then stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone cortisol. This pathway will be discussed in more detail below.
The adrenal medulla is neuroendocrine tissue composed of postganglionic sympathetic nervous system (SNS) neurons. It is really an extension of the autonomic nervous system, which regulates homeostasis in the body. The sympathomedullary (SAM) pathway involves the stimulation of the medulla by impulses from the hypothalamus via neurons from the thoracic spinal cord. The medulla is stimulated to secrete the amine hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
One of the major functions of the adrenal gland is to respond to stress. Stress can be either physical or psychological or both. Physical stresses include exposing the body to injury, walking outside in cold and wet conditions without a coat on, or malnutrition. Psychological stresses include the perception of a physical threat, a fight with a loved one, or just a bad day at school.
The body responds in different ways to short-term stress and long-term stress following a pattern known as the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). Stage one of GAS is called the alarm reaction. This is short-term stress, the fight-or-flight response, mediated by the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla via the SAM pathway. Their function is to prepare the body for extreme physical exertion. Once this stress is relieved, the body quickly returns to normal. The section on the adrenal medulla covers this response in more detail.
If the stress is not soon relieved, the body adapts to the stress in the second stage called the stage of resistance. If a person is starving for example, the body may send signals to the gastrointestinal tract to maximize the absorption of nutrients from food.
If the stress continues for a longer term however, the body responds with symptoms quite different than the fight-or-flight response. During the stage of exhaustion, individuals may begin to suffer depression, the suppression of their immune response, severe fatigue, or even a fatal heart attack. These symptoms are mediated by the hormones of the adrenal cortex, especially cortisol, released as a result of signals from the HPA axis.
Adrenal hormones also have several non–stress-related functions, including the increase of blood sodium and glucose levels, which will be described in detail below.
Overview
The adrenal glands, located superior to each kidney, consist of two regions: the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex—the outer layer of the gland—produces mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. The adrenal medulla at the core of the gland produces epinephrine and norepinephrine.
The adrenal glands mediate a short-term stress response and a long-term stress response. A perceived threat results in the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla, which mediate the fight-or-flight response. The long-term stress response is mediated by the secretion of CRH from the hypothalamus, which triggers ACTH, which in turn stimulates the secretion of corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex. The mineralocorticoids, chiefly aldosterone, cause sodium and fluid retention, which increases blood volume and blood pressure.
Source: CNX OpenStax
Additional Materials (4)
Endocrine System, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus and Adrenal glands
Endocrine System Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus and Adrenal glands
Image by TheVisualMD
Adrenal Glands Animation
Video by biosingh36/YouTube
Do You Know What The Adrenal Glands Do?
Video by LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
The Endocrine System and Hormones | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
Endocrine System, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus and Adrenal glands
TheVisualMD
0:34
Adrenal Glands Animation
biosingh36/YouTube
1:08
Do You Know What The Adrenal Glands Do?
LivingHealthyChicago/YouTube
1:59
The Endocrine System and Hormones | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
Diabetes
Insulin resistance (right side) contributes to high glucose levels in the blood.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Insulin resistance (right side) contributes to high glucose levels in the blood.
Mechanism of normal Blood Sugar absorption (Left) Vs. insulin resistance in Type 2 Diabetes (Right).
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high. Glucose comes from the foods you eat. Insulin is a hormone that helps the glucose get into your cells to give them energy. With type 1 diabetes, your body does not make insulin. With type 2 diabetes, the more common type, your body does not make or use insulin well. Without enough insulin, the glucose stays in your blood. You can also have prediabetes. This means that your blood sugar is higher than normal but not high enough to be called diabetes. Having prediabetes puts you at a higher risk of getting type 2 diabetes.
Over time, having too much glucose in your blood can cause serious problems. It can damage your eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Diabetes can also cause heart disease, stroke and even the need to remove a limb. Pregnant women can also get diabetes, called gestational diabetes.
Blood tests can show if you have diabetes. One type of test, the A1C, can also check on how you are managing your diabetes. Exercise, weight control and sticking to your meal plan can help control your diabetes. You should also monitor your blood glucose level and take medicine if prescribed.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (9)
Diabetes Mellitus TYPE 1,2,INSULIN,GLUCOSE
Video by davejaymanriquez/YouTube
Diabetes mellitus (type 1, type 2) & diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Diabetes Mellitus and Type 2 Diabetes: Diagnosis & Management – Family Medicine | Lecturio
Diabetes Mellitus Pathophysiology & Nursing | Diabetes Nursing Lecture NCLEX | Type 1 & Type 2
RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube
3:59
Teen Diabetes Type 1& 2
Teen Kids News/YouTube
8:28
What is diabetes mellitus? | Endocrine system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
22:12
Diabetes Mellitus Pharmacology Medications | NCLEX Nursing Lecture on Management Made Easy
RegisteredNurseRN/YouTube
What Is Diabetes?
Importance of Insulin
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Importance of Insulin
Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in your body. Your pancreas is always secreting a small amount of insulin, but rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors where it is used for energy or stored for future use. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell’s membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. Insulin causes • Skeletal muscle fiber cells o to take up glucose from the blood, use it for energy, and store the rest as glycogen. Skeletal muscle is the major target for glucose, taking up about 50% of the amount available. o to take up amino acids and convert them to protein• Liver cells o to take up glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen to prepare for energy needs after food has been digested and absorbed o to inhibit production of the enzymes involved in breaking glycogen back down o to inhibit the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose • Fat cells o to take up glucose from the blood and make fat • Red blood cells o to take up glucose from the blood and use it for energy • The hypothalamus o to reduce your appetite The net result of all these insulin-mediated actions is the lowering of your glucose, or blood sugar, level.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Is Diabetes?
Diabetes is a chronic (long-lasting) health condition that affects how your body turns food into energy. With diabetes, your body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use it as well as it should.
Most of the food you eat is broken down into sugar (also called glucose) and released into your bloodstream. When your blood sugar goes up, it signals your pancreas to release insulin. Insulin acts like a key to let the blood sugar into your body’s cells for use as energy.
If you have diabetes, your body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use the insulin it makes as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease.
There isn’t a cure yet for diabetes, but losing weight, eating healthy food, and being active can really help. Taking medicine as needed, getting diabetes self-management education and support, and keeping health care appointments can also reduce the impact of diabetes on your life.
Diabetes by the Numbers
34.2 million US adults have diabetes, and 1 in 5 of them don’t know they have it.
Diabetes is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States.
Diabetes is the No. 1 cause of kidney failure, lower-limb amputations, and adult blindness.
In the last 20 years, the number of adults diagnosed with diabetes has more than doubled.
Types of Diabetes
There are three main types of diabetes: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes (diabetes while pregnant).
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is thought to be caused by an autoimmune reaction (the body attacks itself by mistake) that stops your body from making insulin. Approximately 5-10% of the people who have diabetes have type 1. Symptoms of type 1 diabetes often develop quickly. It’s usually diagnosed in children, teens, and young adults. If you have type 1 diabetes, you’ll need to take insulin every day to survive. Currently, no one knows how to prevent type 1 diabetes.
Type 2 Diabetes
With type 2 diabetes, your body doesn’t use insulin well and can’t keep blood sugar at normal levels. About 90-95% of people with diabetes have type 2. It develops over many years and is usually diagnosed in adults (but more and more in children, teens, and young adults). You may not notice any symptoms, so it’s important to get your blood sugar tested if you’re at risk. Type 2 diabetes can be prevented or delayed with healthy lifestyle changes, such as losing weight, eating healthy food, and being active.
Gestational Diabetes
Gestational diabetes develops in pregnant women who have never had diabetes. If you have gestational diabetes, your baby could be at higher risk for health problems. Gestational diabetes usually goes away after your baby is born but increases your risk for type 2 diabetes later in life. Your baby is more likely to have obesity as a child or teen, and more likely to develop type 2 diabetes later in life too.
Prediabetes
In the United States, 88 million adults—more than 1 in 3—have prediabetes. What’s more, more than 80% of them don’t know they have it. With prediabetes, blood sugar levels are higher than normal, but not high enough yet to be diagnosed as type 2 diabetes. Prediabetes raises your risk for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. The good news is if you have prediabetes, a CDC-recognized lifestyle change program can help you take healthy steps to reverse it.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (8)
Complications of diabetes mellitus
Diabetes and Small Vessel Disease : High levels of blood glucose damage the smallest vessels in your body, the capillaries, just as they do the larger vessels. One cause of this damage may be the high levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that glucose creates inside capillary cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
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Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
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Capillary within Muscle Tissue
Insulin and Glucose in Arteriole
Insulin Dispersion
Insulin Dispersion with Molecular Inset
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1) Capillary within Muscle Tissue 2) Insulin and Glucose in Arteriole 3) Insulin Dispersion 4) Insulin Disper
1) Capillary within Muscle Tissue - The body's blood vessels, consisting of arteries, veins, and capillaries, range in size from arteries as wide as a garden hose to capillaries so thin that it would take 10 of them, lined up side by side, to form the thickness of a human hair. But they all have one thing in common: they are designed to move blood as quickly and efficiently as possible. That means they need to be strong, flexible, and smooth. Even the components of your blood, like red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells, are designed for movement. Red blood cells can actually flex so that they are able to flow through the finest of capillaries. Damage to blood vessels is something that all the main complications of diabetes have in common. Diabetes injures both large vessels (arteries) and small vessels (capillaries), leading to atherosclerosis and many other disorders. When the level of glucose in the blood is high, insulin signals certain cells, including muscle, fat, and liver cells, to take glucose in. Without insulin, glucose can't get into the cells, so it remains in the bloodstream. When blood glucose levels are too high (hyperglycemia), many serious health conditions can result. Cardiovascular disease (diseases of the heart and blood vessels) frequently accompanies diabetes because high levels of glucose act as a toxin to the lining of the blood vessels. About three quarters of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease.
2) Insulin and Glucose in Arteriole - GLUT4 is an insulin-regulated glucose transporter expressed primarily in muscle and fat cells. When GLUT4 cannot function properly, you develop insulin-resistance, leading to a buildup of glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) in the bloodstream. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood. Too much glucose in the blood, a condition called hyperglycemia, leads to a number of problems including microangiopathy marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function.
3) Insulin Dispersion - Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin causes skeletal muscle fiber cells, liver cells, fat cells, and red blood cells to take up glucose from the blood and use it for energy or store it as glycogen to prepare for energy needs, or (in the case of fat cells) use it to make fat. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. The net result of all these insulin-mediated actions is the lowering of the glucose (blood sugar) level.
4) Insulin Dispersion with Molecular Inset - Insulin is a potent hormone that has a powerful effect on many of the cells in the body. Rising glucose levels in the blood signal the pancreatic beta cells to produce and release greater amounts of insulin into the bloodstream. Without insulin, glucose would not be able to penetrate through cells' plasma membranes and enter into cell interiors. Glucose is the body's main and most vital fuel. In fact, some cells of the body, such as brain cells and red blood cells, use only glucose as fuel. Insulin causes skeletal muscle fiber cells, liver cells, fat cells, and red blood cells to take up glucose from the blood and use it for energy or store it as glycogen to prepare for energy needs, or (in the case of fat cells) use it to make fat. Insulin attaches to special sites on the cell membrane called insulin receptors. This attachment starts a long chain of events that lead to an increase in the number of glucose transporters, specialized protein molecules in the cell membrane. The glucose transporters form channels in the cell's membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell through a process called facilitated diffusion. The net result of all these insulin-mediated actions is the lowering of the glucose (blood sugar) level.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Index Finger with Translucent Skin
Index Finger with Translucent Skin and Blood Vessels
Index Finger with Translucent Skin, Blood Vessels, and Blood Drop
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Index Finger with Revealed Anatomy
Through the translucent skin in this image, you can see the intricate labyrinth of vessels that exist below the surface of the index finger. The web of vessels shown here represents only a fraction of the complex vascularization of our fingertips. When blood sugar levels get too high, such as in chronic diabetes, these delicate capillaries are usually the first vessels to suffer damage.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Etymology of the disease diabetes mellitus
Etymology of the disease diabetes mellitus
Image by Dr Bilal Alshareef
Diabetes - The different types of diabetes and its treatment
Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
What is Diabetes
Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
What is Diabetes Mellitus? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
Video by healthery/YouTube
Complications of diabetes mellitus
TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
TheVisualMD
1) Capillary within Muscle Tissue 2) Insulin and Glucose in Arteriole 3) Insulin Dispersion 4) Insulin Disper
TheVisualMD
Index Finger with Revealed Anatomy
TheVisualMD
Etymology of the disease diabetes mellitus
Dr Bilal Alshareef
3:05
Diabetes - The different types of diabetes and its treatment
Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
2:31
What is Diabetes
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube
6:48
What is Diabetes Mellitus? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
healthery/YouTube
Diabetes Fast Facts
Depiction of a home test for diabetes, test results, and the 'big 3' symptoms of diabetes
Image by https://www.myupchar.com/en
Depiction of a home test for diabetes, test results, and the 'big 3' symptoms of diabetes
Depiction of a home test for diabetes, test results, and the 'big 3' symptoms of diabetes
Image by https://www.myupchar.com/en
Diabetes Fast Facts
The Big Picture
More than 34 million people in the United States have diabetes, and 1 in 5 of them don’t know they have it.
More than 88 million US adults—over a third—have prediabetes, and more than 80% of them don’t know they have it.
Diabetes is the 7 leading cause of death in the United States (and may be underreported).
Type 2 diabetes accounts for approximately 90% to 95% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes; type 1 diabetes accounts for approximately 5-10%.
In the last 20 years, the number of adults diagnosed with diabetes has more than doubled as the American population has aged and become more overweight or obese.
Cost
Medical costs and lost work and wages for people with diagnosed diabetes total $327 billion yearly.
Medical costs for people with diabetes are twice as high as for people who don’t have diabetes.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Additional Materials (8)
Diabetes Type I and II
Three examples show normal functioning, defect in insulin production, and and defects in insulin receptors, representing normal, Type I and Type II diabetes. From a basic biology e-textbook by Dr. Cheryl Van Buskirk. Illustration by Jessie MNG Lopez
Image by Jessie MNG Lopez/Wikimedia
This browser does not support the video element.
Type 2 diabetes can be reversed
Animation of blood drop disappearing indicating reversal of diabetes.
Video by StoryMD
How Diabetes Damages Blood Vessels
How Diabetes Damages Blood Vessels - (left to right) Hard fatty deposits buildup inside the vessel wall, stiffening it and blocking blood flow; stiff, clogged heart arteries lead to angina and heart attack; clogged brain arteries and blood clots from plaques cause strokes.
Image by TheVisualMD
The global rise of diabetes—and how to prevent it | TED Institute
Video by TED Institute/YouTube
Surprising Facts About Diabetes
Video by National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in the US
Video by Stanford EdTech/YouTube
Coping with the emotional impact of diabetes I John's story I Diabetes UK
Video by Diabetes UK/YouTube
Adults with Type 2 diabetes
Adults with Diabetes : Type 2 diabetes is an epidemic in the US and all over the world. About 24 million Americans have diabetes-that's about 8% of the population.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Type I and II
Jessie MNG Lopez/Wikimedia
0:04
Type 2 diabetes can be reversed
StoryMD
How Diabetes Damages Blood Vessels
TheVisualMD
3:15
The global rise of diabetes—and how to prevent it | TED Institute
TED Institute/YouTube
0:48
Surprising Facts About Diabetes
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)/YouTube
4:22
Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in the US
Stanford EdTech/YouTube
3:26
Coping with the emotional impact of diabetes I John's story I Diabetes UK
Diabetes UK/YouTube
Adults with Type 2 diabetes
TheVisualMD
Growth Disorders
Dwarfism occurs in animals as well as humans; horses can have achondroplastic symptoms, as shown here next to a person with dwarfism.
Image by Dwarfism occurs in animals as well as humans; horses can have achondroplastic symptoms, as shown here next to a person with dwarfism.
Dwarfism occurs in animals as well as humans; horses can have achondroplastic symptoms, as shown here next to a person with dwarfism.
Unknown author
Image by Dwarfism occurs in animals as well as humans; horses can have achondroplastic symptoms, as shown here next to a person with dwarfism.
Growth Disorders
Does your child seem much shorter - or much taller - than other kids his or her age? It could be normal. Some children may be small for their age but still be developing normally. Some children are short or tall because their parents are.
But some children have growth disorders. Growth disorders are problems that prevent children from developing normal height, weight, sexual maturity or other features.
Very slow or very fast growth can sometimes signal a gland problem or disease.
The pituitary gland makes growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other tissues. Children who have too little of it may be very short. Treatment with growth hormone can stimulate growth.
People can also have too much growth hormone. Usually the cause is a pituitary gland tumor, which is not cancer. Too much growth hormone can cause gigantism in children, where their bones and their body grow too much. In adults, it can cause acromegaly, which makes the hands, feet and face larger than normal. Possible treatments include surgery to remove the tumor, medicines, and radiation therapy.
Source: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
Additional Materials (12)
Embryo 51 Day Old (Week 9 Gestational Age, Week 7 Fetal Age) Liver and Nervous System
Computer Generated Image from Micro-MRI, actual size of embryo = 18.0 mm - This image presents a right view of the embryo during the eighth week of development. This age is calculated from the day of fertilization. The spinal cord can be discerned. The groove-like structure on the bottom part of the head indicates a developing external ear, called the auricle. The bulging, round structure near the front of the face is the eye where developing eyelids begin to close up. The limbs can be seen to have elongated.
Prof Michael Turner - How common are neural tube defects and can they be prevented?
safefoodTV/YouTube
3:23
Genetic Birth Defects (Baby Health Guru)
Healthguru/YouTube
Hormones
A hormone called TSH, produced by the pituitary gland, controls the thyroid and the hormones it produces.
Image by TheVisualMD
A hormone called TSH, produced by the pituitary gland, controls the thyroid and the hormones it produces.
The thyroid is a 2-inch, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which play key roles in regulating many aspects of metabolism--the rate at which the cells use energy and carry out chemical processes. A hormone called TSH, produced by the pituitary gland, controls the thyroid and the hormones it produces.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hormones
Hormones are your body's chemical messengers. They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs. They work slowly, over time, and affect many different processes, including
Growth and development
Metabolism - how your body gets energy from the foods you eat
Sexual function
Reproduction
Mood
Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells, make hormones. The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas. In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and women produce them in their ovaries.
Hormones are powerful. It takes only a tiny amount to cause big changes in cells or even your whole body. That is why too much or too little of a certain hormone can be serious. Laboratory tests can measure the hormone levels in your blood, urine, or saliva. Your health care provider may perform these tests if you have symptoms of a hormone disorder. Home pregnancy tests are similar - they test for pregnancy hormones in your urine.
Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine
Additional Materials (12)
Types of Hormones
The structures of peptide hormones (a) oxytocin, (b) growth hormone, and (c) follicle-stimulating hormone are shown. These peptide hormones are much larger than those derived from cholesterol or amino acids.
Image by CNX Openstax
Testosterone Molecule
Medical visualization of a testosterone molecule. Testosterone, as with all of the other main sex hormones, is a steroid hormone derived from cholesterol. Along with dihydrotestosterone, testosterone is one of the most important male sex hormones. Testosterone production is primarily located in leydig cells in the testes. Smaller amounts are produced by other tissues such as the adrenal cortex and by the ovaries and placenta in women. Testosterone is responsible for male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair and deepening of the voice, as well as sperm production. As with all sex hormones, the effects of testosterone aren't limited to reproduction; testosterone affects muscle and bone growth and is involved with the production of red blood cells. Both men and women have all of the main sex hormones, but in very different amounts. Men have much more testosterone than women, but testosterone is essential for women, too.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are Hormones | Physiology | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
How do your hormones work? - Emma Bryce
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Hormones - What Are Hormones - Functions Of Hormones - Types Of Hormones
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
How Your Hormones Work? | HORMONES | Endocrine System | Dr Binocs Show | Peekaboo Kidz
Video by Peekaboo Kidz/YouTube
What are #Hormones? Endocrine System Explained | Know Your Health: Ep. 1
What are Hormones? A Quick Review on their basic mechanisms of action!
5MinuteSchool/YouTube
1:59
The Endocrine System and Hormones | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
5:58
Endocrine System: How Hormones Work?
Science ABC/YouTube
4:03
Thyroid Gland, Hormones and Thyroid Problems, Animation
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Pancreatic Cancer
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Pancreatic Cancer
The pancreas is a gland behind your stomach and in front of your spine. It produces the juices that help break down food and the hormones that help control blood sugar levels. Pancreatic cancer usually begins in the cells that produce the juices. Some risk factors for developing pancreatic cancer include
Smoking
Long-term diabetes
Chronic pancreatitis
Certain hereditary disorders
Pancreatic cancer is hard to catch early. It doesn't cause symptoms right away. When you do get symptoms, they are often vague or you may not notice them. They include yellowing of the skin and eyes, pain in the abdomen and back, weight loss and fatigue. Also, because the pancreas is hidden behind other organs, health care providers cannot see or feel the tumors during routine exams. Doctors use a physical exam, blood tests, imaging tests, and a biopsy to diagnose it.
Because it is often found late and it spreads quickly, pancreatic cancer can be hard to treat. Possible treatments include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. Targeted therapy uses substances that attack cancer cells without harming normal cells.
Source: National Cancer Institute
Additional Materials (17)
Diagram showing pancreatic cancer in the lymph nodes (N staging).
Node (N) describes whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes. N0 means there are no lymph nodes containing cancer. N1 means there are 1 to 3 lymph nodes that contain cancer cells. Cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes means the cancer is more likely to have spread further than the pancreas.
Image by Wikimedia/Cancer Research UK
Pancreatic Cancer - Meditoons™
Video by Meditoons/YouTube
10 Things You Didn't Know About Pancreatic Cancer | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer Animation
Video by LysisMedia.com/YouTube
What is Pancreatic Cancer: 10 Things You Should Know About Pancreatic Cancer | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
What is Pancreatic Cancer? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
Video by healthery/YouTube
Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
The Progress of Pancreatic Cancer Research
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer | Patty's Story
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer | Eric's Story
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Hereditary Pancreatic Cancer | Q&A
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Chemotherapy and Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors - Santhi Vege, M.D. - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
What You Need to Know About Pancreatic Cysts
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Powered by Chemo: Patient with Pancreatic Cancer Tackles Ironman
Video by UC San Diego Health/YouTube
Diagram showing pancreatic cancer in the lymph nodes (N staging).
Wikimedia/Cancer Research UK
0:50
Pancreatic Cancer - Meditoons™
Meditoons/YouTube
1:57
10 Things You Didn't Know About Pancreatic Cancer | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
0:56
Pancreatic Cancer Animation
LysisMedia.com/YouTube
1:30
What is Pancreatic Cancer: 10 Things You Should Know About Pancreatic Cancer | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
6:40
What is Pancreatic Cancer? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
healthery/YouTube
6:32
Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
3:56
The Progress of Pancreatic Cancer Research
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
3:21
Pancreatic Cancer | Patty's Story
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
3:27
Pancreatic Cancer | Eric's Story
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
7:00
Hereditary Pancreatic Cancer | Q&A
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
6:34
Chemotherapy and Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
5:55
Diagnosing Pancreatic Tumors and Cysts - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
2:43
Pancreatic Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
4:08
Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors - Santhi Vege, M.D. - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
9:48
What You Need to Know About Pancreatic Cysts
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
4:12
Powered by Chemo: Patient with Pancreatic Cancer Tackles Ironman
UC San Diego Health/YouTube
Overview
Pancreatic Cancer
Image by StoryMD
Pancreatic Cancer
Amylase is one of several enzymes produced by the pancreas and secreted into the digestive tract to help break down nutrients (amylase is also produced by the salivary glands). The enzyme is usually present in the blood and urine only in small quantities, but when pancreatic tissue is injured, inflamed (pancreatitis) or when the pancreatic duct is blocked or a tumor is present, amylase can leak into the blood and urine. As cancerous tissue overwhelms the pancreas, its function is compromised and enzyme levels fall.
Image by StoryMD
Pancreatic Cancer - General Information
General Information About Pancreatic Cancer
KEY POINTS
Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.
Smoking and health history can affect the risk of pancreatic cancer.
Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss.
Pancreatic cancer is difficult to diagnose early.
Tests that examine the pancreas are used to diagnose and stage pancreatic cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.
The pancreas is a gland about 6 inches long that is shaped like a thin pear lying on its side. The wider end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow end is called the tail. The pancreas lies between the stomach and the spine.
Anatomy of the pancreas. The pancreas has three areas: head, body, and tail. It is found in the abdomen near the stomach, intestines, and other organs.
The pancreas has two main jobs in the body:
To make juices that help digest (break down) food.
To make hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that help control blood sugar levels. Both of these hormones help the body use and store the energy it gets from food.
The digestive juices are made by exocrine pancreas cells and the hormones are made by endocrine pancreas cells. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in exocrine cells.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NIH)
Additional Materials (32)
Pancreas
Illustration of Anatomy of Human Pancreas
Image by OpenStax College
Mitochondrial Dynamics in Pancreatic Cancer
This image shows mitochondrial staining (red) and nuclear staining (blue) of abnormal pancreatic ducts from a mouse model of human pancreatic ductal carcinoma. Mitochondrial shape changes occur throughout the progression of pancreatic cancer and the machinery that regulates the dynamics of mitochondria may be a promising new therapeutic target in the fight against this disease.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2016 NCI Cancer Close Up project and selected for exhibit. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2016 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup2016.
Image by National Cancer Institute \ Univ. of Virginia Cancer Center / David Kashatus
Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer: In Situ : The summary staging system categorizes cancer (shown here in the pancreas) according to its spread. In situ cancer is present only in cells in which it began.
Image by TheVisualMD
Mitochondrial Shape in Pancreatic Cancer
This image shows mitochondrial staining (red) and nuclear staining (blue) of abnormal pancreatic ducts from a mouse model of human pancreatic ductal carcinoma. Mitochondrial shape changes occur throughout the progression of pancreatic cancer and the machinery that regulates the dynamics of mitochondria may be a promising new therapeutic target in the fight against this disease.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2016 NCI Cancer Close Up project. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2016 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup2016.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Univ. of Virginia Cancer Center / David Kashatus
Pancreatic Cancer
Cancer Types _ Pancreatic Cancer Cells or Tissue _ Abnormal Cells or Tissue
Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Tumor-Targeted Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Image-guided Pancreatic Cancer Therapy
Investigators in the Cancer Nanotechnology Platform Partnership (CNPP) at Emory University have developed tumor-targeting magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for image-guided pancreatic cancer therapy. The nanoparticles deliver therapeutic agents into pancreatic cancer tumors and produce signals that can be tracked by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This microscopy image of a tumor section (obtained from a mouse tumor model) shows the blue-stained nanoparticles selectively accumulating in the peripheral tumor area and then penetrating into tumor cells. This image is part of the Nanotechnology Image Library collection.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Lily Yang, M.D., Ph.D., and Hui Mao, Ph.D.
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
MIF-Induced Mesenchymal Marker in Pancreatic Cancer
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) enhances disease aggressiveness and the metastatic potential of pancreatic cancer cells by inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This image, obtained with confocal microscopy, shows enhanced vimentin expression (pink), a mesenchymal marker, in pancreatic cancer cells stably overexpressing MIF.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Naotake Funamizu, S. Perwez Hussain
Pancreatic tuberculosis with splenic tuberculosis mimicking advanced pancreatic cancer with splenic metastasizes
CT scans of the pancreas. CT scan of pancrease demonstrating a mass in the pancreatic tail () and metastasizes in the spleen
Image by Rong, Y., Lou, W., Jin, D.
Celiac Plexus Blockade in computertomography in a patient suffering from back-pain caused by pancreatic cancer.
Back-Pain Caused by Pancreatic Cancer: Celiac Plexus Blockade in computertomography in a patient suffering from back-pain caused by pancreatic cancer.
Image by Hellerhoff
Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer
Amylase is one of several enzymes produced by the pancreas and secreted into the digestive tract to help break down nutrients (amylase is also produced by the salivary glands). The enzyme is usually present in the blood and urine only in small quantities, but when pancreatic tissue is injured, inflamed (pancreatitis) or when the pancreatic duct is blocked or a tumor is present, amylase can leak into the blood and urine. As cancerous tissue overwhelms the pancreas, its function is compromised and enzyme levels fall.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pancreatic Cancer Survivor - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Top 5 things you probably didn't know about Pancreatic Cancer with Dr. John A. Chabot
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Update: What is new in targeted therapy for pancreatic cancer?
Video by ImedexCME/YouTube
Blend of imaging, treatments allows removal of "inoperable" pancreatic cancer
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
Screening in familial pancreatic cancer
Video by ImedexCME/YouTube
Pancreatic Auto Islet Transplantation with Total Pancreatectomy
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer: Diana's Story
Video by NorthShore University HealthSystem/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer Prevention | Lana's Story
Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
How long can I expect to live? What is my prognosis with pancreatic cancer? (Douglas Evans, MD)
Video by Froedtert & the Medical College of Wisconsin/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer Treatment
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Surgery Is Becoming an Option for More Pancreatic Cancer Patients, Mayo Clinic Expert Says
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Nutrition & Pancreatic Cancer Treatment Explanation Video
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Radiation Therapy and Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Pancreatic cancer symptoms
Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube
Mayo Clinic Minute: The link between diabetes and pancreatic cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
An Option for Pancreatic Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Niraparib + Immunotherapy for Pancreatic Cancer
Video by Penn Medicine/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms and Treatment | UPMC On Topic
Video by UPMC/YouTube
Mayo Clinic Minute: Understanding pancreatic cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Diet and Nutrition in Managing Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Researchers Identify Best Drug Therapy for Rare, Aggressive, Pancreatic Cancer
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Pancreatic Cancer - Dr. Allyson Ocean
Video by NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
Pancreas
OpenStax College
Mitochondrial Dynamics in Pancreatic Cancer
National Cancer Institute \ Univ. of Virginia Cancer Center / David Kashatus
Pancreatic Cancer
TheVisualMD
Mitochondrial Shape in Pancreatic Cancer
National Cancer Institute / Univ. of Virginia Cancer Center / David Kashatus
Pancreatic Cancer
Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory _ NCI
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Tumor-Targeted Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Image-guided Pancreatic Cancer Therapy
National Cancer Institute / Lily Yang, M.D., Ph.D., and Hui Mao, Ph.D.
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
MIF-Induced Mesenchymal Marker in Pancreatic Cancer
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Naotake Funamizu, S. Perwez Hussain
Pancreatic tuberculosis with splenic tuberculosis mimicking advanced pancreatic cancer with splenic metastasizes
Rong, Y., Lou, W., Jin, D.
Celiac Plexus Blockade in computertomography in a patient suffering from back-pain caused by pancreatic cancer.
Hellerhoff
Amylase, Pancreatic Cancer
TheVisualMD
2:31
Pancreatic Cancer Survivor - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
2:18
Top 5 things you probably didn't know about Pancreatic Cancer with Dr. John A. Chabot
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
22:06
Update: What is new in targeted therapy for pancreatic cancer?
ImedexCME/YouTube
3:04
Blend of imaging, treatments allows removal of "inoperable" pancreatic cancer
MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
16:43
Screening in familial pancreatic cancer
ImedexCME/YouTube
1:57
Pancreatic Auto Islet Transplantation with Total Pancreatectomy
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
3:57
Pancreatic Cancer: Diana's Story
NorthShore University HealthSystem/YouTube
3:10
Pancreatic Cancer Prevention | Lana's Story
Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube
4:48
How long can I expect to live? What is my prognosis with pancreatic cancer? (Douglas Evans, MD)
Froedtert & the Medical College of Wisconsin/YouTube
1:44
Pancreatic Cancer Treatment
Lee Health/YouTube
3:02
Surgery Is Becoming an Option for More Pancreatic Cancer Patients, Mayo Clinic Expert Says
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
2:58
Nutrition & Pancreatic Cancer Treatment Explanation Video
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
15:59
Radiation Therapy and Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
0:55
Pancreatic cancer symptoms
Michigan Medicine/YouTube
1:01
Mayo Clinic Minute: The link between diabetes and pancreatic cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:42
An Option for Pancreatic Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
1:25
Niraparib + Immunotherapy for Pancreatic Cancer
Penn Medicine/YouTube
4:28
Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms and Treatment | UPMC On Topic
UPMC/YouTube
1:01
Mayo Clinic Minute: Understanding pancreatic cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
10:00
Diet and Nutrition in Managing Pancreatic Cancer - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:42
Researchers Identify Best Drug Therapy for Rare, Aggressive, Pancreatic Cancer
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
4:14
Pancreatic Cancer - Dr. Allyson Ocean
NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/YouTube
Parathyroid Disorders
Parathyroid Gland
Image by BodyParts3D is made by DBCLS
Parathyroid Gland
Image showing thyroid/parathyroid in color against skeleton and various organs.
Image by BodyParts3D is made by DBCLS
Parathyroid Disorders
Most people have four pea-sized glands, called parathyroid glands, on the thyroid gland in the neck. Though their names are similar, the thyroid and parathyroid glands are completely different. The parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps your body keep the right balance of calcium and phosphorous.
If your parathyroid glands make too much or too little hormone, it disrupts this balance. If they secrete extra PTH, you have hyperparathyroidism, and your blood calcium rises. In many cases, a benign tumor on a parathyroid gland makes it overactive. Or, the extra hormones can come from enlarged parathyroid glands. Very rarely, the cause is cancer.
If you do not have enough PTH, you have hypoparathyroidism. Your blood will have too little calcium and too much phosphorous. Causes include injury to the glands, endocrine disorders, or genetic conditions. Treatment is aimed at restoring the balance of calcium and phosphorous.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (1)
Parathyroid
The parathyroid glands are visible as green marks on a human thyroid
Image by Busca tu equilibrio... Yin yang.svg
Parathyroid
Busca tu equilibrio... Yin yang.svg
Pituitary Disorders
Pituitary Gland
Image by TheVisualMD
Pituitary Gland
In normal functioning, environmental stress activates the hypothalamus to release corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to increase production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol. It is cortisol that produces effects to help us deal with stress.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pituitary Disorders
Your pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland at the base of your brain. The pituitary is the "master control gland" - it makes hormones that affect growth and the functions of other glands in the body.
With pituitary disorders, you often have too much or too little of one of your hormones. Injuries can cause pituitary disorders, but the most common cause is a pituitary tumor.
Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
Additional Materials (12)
Pituitary adenoma
Acromegaly pituitary macroadenoma : Pituitary macroadenoma with suprasellar extension, compressing the optic chiasm. Pituitary macroadenomas are 10mm or larger at their widest diameter. A pituitary tumor is considered suprasellar when it has grown above the sella turcica.
Image by Philippe Chanson and Sylvie Salenave
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis integrates and mediates the stress response to early life and later on adversity. The perception of real and/or presumed physical and social threats causes activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Anxious states arise from activation of the amygdala and magnify the stress response via neuronal projections to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). The hippocampus plays an important role in the assessment of stressors and as a site of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mediated negative feedback regulation. Release of the hypothalamic neuropeptides corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) promotes the synthesis and secretion of adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), a posttranslational cleavage product of anterior pituitary pro-opiomelanocortin mRNA (POMC). ACTH in turn stimulates the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal glands. These hormones circulate throughout the whole body and the brain and bind to intracellular nuclear steroid receptors. Hippocampal mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors act to the onset of the stress response, while GR at the hippocampus, PVN, and anterior pituitary terminates the stress response. The GR further transactivates FKBP51 encoding a chaperon protein which curtails GR activity through a fast intracellular negative feedback loop.
Image by Raabe FJ and Spengler D/Wikimedia
Drawing of the outline of a human head showing the location of the pituitary gland just beneath the brain. An inset shows the pituitary gland sitting inthe sella turcica, an area of bone that surrounds the pituitary gland
The pituitary gland sits in the sella turcica.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Empty sella syndrome
False color MRI of Empty Sella
Image by Nevit
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Medical visualization of the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and adjacent blood vessels. The pituitary gland is an pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain; it is connected to the hypothalamus and regulates the production of other hormones throughout the body. The pituitary gland receives messages from the brain through a series of terminal nerve tracts from the hypothalamus, and releases hormones accordingly. These hormones are released into the many vessels exiting the pituitary gland and travel to their target tissue or organ via the bloodstream. The pituitary gland helps control body mechanisms such as growth, blood pressure, breast milk production, water regulation, and metabolism.
Image by TheVisualMD
Brain Revealing Limbic System, Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Brain Revealing Limbic System : 3D visualization of the lateral view of the brain. Through the transparent right hemisphere the inner structures of the brain can be seen collectively the limbic system.
Image by TheVisualMD
Real Questions | Pituitary Disorders | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
Diagnosing and Treating Pituitary Tumors - California Center for Pituitary Disorders at UCSF
Video by UCSF Neurosurgery/YouTube
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland | Endocrine system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Real Questions | Pituitary Surgery | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
Real Questions | Pituitary Surgery | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
Real Questions | Pituitary Disorders | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
Pituitary adenoma
Philippe Chanson and Sylvie Salenave
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Raabe FJ and Spengler D/Wikimedia
Drawing of the outline of a human head showing the location of the pituitary gland just beneath the brain. An inset shows the pituitary gland sitting inthe sella turcica, an area of bone that surrounds the pituitary gland
NIDDK Image Library
Empty sella syndrome
Nevit
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
TheVisualMD
Brain Revealing Limbic System, Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
TheVisualMD
0:50
Real Questions | Pituitary Disorders | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
UCLA Health/YouTube
2:34
Diagnosing and Treating Pituitary Tumors - California Center for Pituitary Disorders at UCSF
UCSF Neurosurgery/YouTube
6:35
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland | Endocrine system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
0:55
Real Questions | Pituitary Surgery | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
UCLA Health/YouTube
0:40
Real Questions | Pituitary Surgery | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
UCLA Health/YouTube
0:55
Real Questions | Pituitary Disorders | UCLA Pituitary Tumor Program
UCLA Health/YouTube
Pituitary Gland
Woman's Brain Revealing Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Image by TheVisualMD
Woman's Brain Revealing Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Woman's Brain Revealing Pituitary Gland : The pituitary gland is a pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the skull, between the optic nerves. It is often referred to as the endocrine system's "master gland" because it regulates the activities of other glands. The pituitary, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when. The pituitary governs testosterone and estrogen production, as well as ovulation and breast milk production; it also helps regulate growth, blood pressure, maintain proper fluid balance, and other aspects of metabolism.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pituitary Gland
The hypothalamus–pituitary complex can be thought of as the “command center” of the endocrine system. This complex secretes several hormones that directly produce responses in target tissues, as well as hormones that regulate the synthesis and secretion of hormones of other glands. In addition, the hypothalamus–pituitary complex coordinates the messages of the endocrine and nervous systems. In many cases, a stimulus received by the nervous system must pass through the hypothalamus–pituitary complex to be translated into hormones that can initiate a response.
The hypothalamus is a structure of the diencephalon of the brain located anterior and inferior to the thalamus. It has both neural and endocrine functions, producing and secreting many hormones. In addition, the hypothalamus is anatomically and functionally related to the pituitary gland (or hypophysis), a bean-sized organ suspended from it by a stem called the infundibulum (or pituitary stalk). The pituitary gland is cradled within the sellaturcica of the sphenoid bone of the skull. It consists of two lobes that arise from distinct parts of embryonic tissue: the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) is neural tissue, whereas the anterior pituitary (also known as the adenohypophysis) is glandular tissue that develops from the primitive digestive tract. The hormones secreted by the posterior and anterior pituitary, and the intermediate zone between the lobes are summarized in image.
Hypothalamus–Pituitary Complex
The hypothalamus region lies inferior and anterior to the thalamus. It connects to the pituitary gland by the stalk-like infundibulum. The pituitary gland consists of an anterior and posterior lobe, with each lobe secreting different hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus.
Pituitary Hormones
Pituitary lobe
Associated hormones
Chemical class
Effect
Anterior
Growth hormone (GH)
Protein
Promotes growth of body tissues
Anterior
Prolactin (PRL)
Peptide
Promotes milk production from mammary glands
Anterior
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Glycoprotein
Stimulates thyroid hormone release from thyroid
Anterior
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Peptide
Stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex
Anterior
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Glycoprotein
Stimulates gamete production in gonads
Anterior
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Glycoprotein
Stimulates androgen production by gonads
Posterior
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Peptide
Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
Posterior
Oxytocin
Peptide
Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
Intermediate zone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Peptide
Stimulates melanin formation in melanocytes
Overview
The hypothalamus–pituitary complex is located in the diencephalon of the brain. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are connected by a structure called the infundibulum, which contains vasculature and nerve axons. The pituitary gland is divided into two distinct structures with different embryonic origins. The posterior lobe houses the axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons. It stores and releases into the bloodstream two hypothalamic hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The anterior lobe is connected to the hypothalamus by vasculature in the infundibulum and produces and secretes six hormones. Their secretion is regulated, however, by releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. The six anterior pituitary hormones are: growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin (PRL).
Source: CNX OpenStax
Additional Materials (28)
Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Gland.
Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Gland.
Image by TheVisualMD
Posterior Pituitary
Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus release oxytocin (OT) or ADH into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. These hormones are stored or released into the blood via the capillary plexus.
Image by CNX Openstax
Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary manufactures seven hormones. The hypothalamus produces separate hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the anterior pituitary. Hormones from the hypothalamus reach the anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system.
Image by CNX Openstax
Pituitary Gland - Anterior and Posterior - Hormones
Video by 5MinuteSchool/YouTube
Endocrine System, Pituitary Gland
Video by Carpe Noctum/YouTube
Hypothalamus Control of the Anterior Pituitary Gland - Hypothalmic Control
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis integrates and mediates the stress response to early life and later on adversity. The perception of real and/or presumed physical and social threats causes activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Anxious states arise from activation of the amygdala and magnify the stress response via neuronal projections to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). The hippocampus plays an important role in the assessment of stressors and as a site of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mediated negative feedback regulation. Release of the hypothalamic neuropeptides corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) promotes the synthesis and secretion of adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), a posttranslational cleavage product of anterior pituitary pro-opiomelanocortin mRNA (POMC). ACTH in turn stimulates the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal glands. These hormones circulate throughout the whole body and the brain and bind to intracellular nuclear steroid receptors. Hippocampal mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors act to the onset of the stress response, while GR at the hippocampus, PVN, and anterior pituitary terminates the stress response. The GR further transactivates FKBP51 encoding a chaperon protein which curtails GR activity through a fast intracellular negative feedback loop.
Image by Raabe FJ and Spengler D/Wikimedia
Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in females
Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in females, with estrogen exerting mainly negative feedback on follicle-stimulating hormone secretion from the pituitary gland.
Image by Lu Kong, Ting Zhang, Meng Tang and Dayong Wang
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the skull between the optic nerves. The pituitary gland secretes hormones. Hormones are chemicals that travel through our blood stream. The pituitary is sometimes referred to as the \"master gland\" as it controls hormone functions such as testosterone production in males and ovulation and estrogen production in females.
Image by TheVisualMD
HPA Axis
This figure describes the relationships between cortisol synthesis by the HPA axis and cortisol binding to hippocampal MR receptors with respect to synaptic firing at CA1 hippocampal neurons
Image by Mark T McAuley1 , Rose Anne Kenny2 , Thomas BL Kirkwood1 , Darren J Wilkinson3 , Janette JL Jones4 and Veronica M Miller
Pituitary gland
Diagram showing the position of the pituitary gland in the brain
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland rendered in 3D
Image by Life Science Databases(LSDB)
Depressed Female with Visible Pituitary Gland
he HPA axis is a complex set of interactions between the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal gland. These interactions provide feedback loops for controlling the brain and body's reactions to stress. In normal functioning, environmental stress activates the hypothalamus to release corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to increase production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol. It is cortisol that produces effects to help us deal with stress. In clinical depression, higher than normal levels of cortisol and CRF have been detected in cerebrospinal fluid.1-3 Treatment of depression with antidepressants or electroconvulsive therapy brings down the high levels of CRH.2,4
Image by TheVisualMD
Pituitary Gland
In normal functioning, environmental stress activates the hypothalamus to release corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to increase production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol. It is cortisol that produces effects to help us deal with stress.
Image by TheVisualMD
Initimate Couple with visible Brain highlighting Pituitary
This image shows a couple engaged in an intimate exchange with partial brain anatomy visible, including the pituitary gland. The pituitary secretes oxytocin, also known as \"the love hormone.\" The image supports content explaining that oxytocin, released upon orgasm, can reduce pain and promote sleep
Image by TheVisualMD
Thyroxine, Free (FT4): Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, which decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thyroxine, Total (T4): Pituitary Gland
The pituitary is a pea-size gland attached to the base of the brain. It is often referred to as the \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands. The pituitary, however, takes its orders from the hypothalamus, an area of the brain that sits above the pituitary and is connected to it by neurons. The hypothalamus decides which particular hormones the pituitary should release and when.
Image by TheVisualMD
Drawing of a body torso showing the brain, with the pituitary gland; the thyroid, with the 4 parathyroid glands; and the pancreas, with a detail of the pancreatic islets
In MEN1, the overactive glands may include the parathyroids, pancreas, or pituitary.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Positive Feedback- Childbirth
Positive feedback is the amplification of a body’s response to a stimulus. For example, in childbirth, when the head of the fetus pushes up against the cervix (1) it stimulates a nerve impulse from the cervix to the brain (2). When the brain is notified, it signals the pituitary gland to release a hormone called Oxytocin (3). Oxytocin is then carried via the bloodstream to the uterus (4) causing contractions, pushing the fetus towards the cervix eventually inducing childbirth.
Image by Hannah.gray05
Brain Revealing Limbic System, Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Brain Revealing Limbic System : 3D visualization of the lateral view of the brain. Through the transparent right hemisphere the inner structures of the brain can be seen collectively the limbic system.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pituitary Sinus
This image shows the pituitary gland situated in the pituitary sinus. It supports content explaining that the hormone oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary, is released upon orgasm. Oxytocin can reduce pain and promote sleep.
Mark T McAuley1 , Rose Anne Kenny2 , Thomas BL Kirkwood1 , Darren J Wilkinson3 , Janette JL Jones4 and Veronica M Miller
Pituitary gland
Cancer Research UK uploader
Pituitary gland
Life Science Databases(LSDB)
Depressed Female with Visible Pituitary Gland
TheVisualMD
Pituitary Gland
TheVisualMD
Initimate Couple with visible Brain highlighting Pituitary
TheVisualMD
Thyroxine, Free (FT4): Pituitary Gland
TheVisualMD
Thyroxine, Total (T4): Pituitary Gland
TheVisualMD
Drawing of a body torso showing the brain, with the pituitary gland; the thyroid, with the 4 parathyroid glands; and the pancreas, with a detail of the pancreatic islets
NIDDK Image Library
Positive Feedback- Childbirth
Hannah.gray05
Brain Revealing Limbic System, Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in your neck, just above your collarbone. It is one of your endocrine glands, which make hormones. Thyroid hormones control the rate of many activities in your body. These include how fast you burn calories and how fast your heart beats. All of these activities are your body's metabolism.
Thyroid problems include
Goiter - enlargement of the thyroid gland
Hyperthyroidism - when your thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormones than your body needs
Hypothyroidism - when your thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormones
Thyroid cancer
Thyroid nodules - lumps in the thyroid gland
Thyroiditis - swelling of the thyroid
To diagnose thyroid diseases, doctors use a medical history, physical exam, and thyroid tests. They sometimes also use a biopsy. Treatment depends on the problem, but may include medicines, radioiodine therapy, or thyroid surgery.
Source: Dept. of Health and Human Services Office on Women's Health
Additional Materials (2)
Thyroid Follicle - In the US 5 person out of 100 have Hashimoto’s disease
TheVisualMD
Pregnancy and Thyroid Follicle
TheVisualMD
Image by Pregnancy and Thyroid Follicle
Thyroid Follicle - In the US 5 person out of 100 have Hashimoto’s disease
Pregnancy and Thyroid Follicle
Pregnancy and Thyroid Follicle
Goiter
Goiter
Image by BruceBlaus
Goiter
Goiter
Image by BruceBlaus
What Is a Goiter?
A goiter is an unusually enlarged thyroid gland. It may happen only for a short time and may go away on its own without treatment. Or it could be a symptom of another thyroid disease that requires treatment. Goiter is more common in women than in men and especially in women before menopause.
Some common causes of goiter include:
Hashimoto's disease
Graves' disease
Thyroid nodules
Thyroiditis
Thyroid cancer
Usually, the only symptom of a goiter is a swelling in your neck. It may be large enough that you can see it or feel the lump with your hand. A very large goiter can also cause a tight feeling in your throat, coughing, or problems swallowing or breathing.
Your doctor will do tests to see if it is caused by another thyroid disease.
Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Additional Materials (16)
A woman suffering from Goiter
A woman suffering from Goiter. An enlarged thyroid gland has been depicted as well.
Image by https://www.myupchar.com
Thyroid Goiter: What Is It? Should It Be Removed?
Video by Clayman Thyroid Cancer Center/YouTube
What is a goiter?
Video by UW Health/YouTube
Why should I consider surgery for my goiter?
Video by UW Health/YouTube
What are some of the risks of having a goiter?
Video by UW Health/YouTube
What is a Goiter? (Enlarged Thyroid)
Video by healthery/YouTube
When a Goiter Becomes a Pain in the Neck
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Approach to a Thyroid Nodule - causes, investigation and treatment
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Thyroid problems - most common thyroid problems, symptoms and treatment
Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
What is a goiter?
A large goiter
Image by Dr. J.S.Bhandari, India
How is goiter treated?
Thyroid, Diffuse Hyperplasia. The goiter was an incidental finding at autopsy.
Image by Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA
Goiter
(credit: “Almazi”/Wikimedia Commons)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: “Almazi”/Wikimedia Commons)
Thyroid Disease in Women
Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. A goiter is any visible enlargement of the thyroid gland. In the past, goiters were often due to a lack of iodine in the diet (iodized salt has greatly reduced such goiters). Goiters can be present in cases of either hormone overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism).
Image by TheVisualMD
Goiter
Image by BruceBlaus
What is a goiter?
Struma mit großem tastbarem Knoten prätracheal
Image by Drahreg01
A woman suffering from Goiter
https://www.myupchar.com
4:58
Thyroid Goiter: What Is It? Should It Be Removed?
Clayman Thyroid Cancer Center/YouTube
0:29
What is a goiter?
UW Health/YouTube
0:43
Why should I consider surgery for my goiter?
UW Health/YouTube
1:04
What are some of the risks of having a goiter?
UW Health/YouTube
4:54
What is a Goiter? (Enlarged Thyroid)
healthery/YouTube
1:52
When a Goiter Becomes a Pain in the Neck
Lee Health/YouTube
10:48
Approach to a Thyroid Nodule - causes, investigation and treatment
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
4:11
Thyroid problems - most common thyroid problems, symptoms and treatment
Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube
What is a goiter?
Dr. J.S.Bhandari, India
How is goiter treated?
Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA
Goiter
CNX Openstax (credit: “Almazi”/Wikimedia Commons)
Thyroid Disease in Women
Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism
TheVisualMD
Goiter
BruceBlaus
What is a goiter?
Drahreg01
Graves Disease
What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?
Image by Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia
What are the symptoms of Graves' disease?
Graves' disease symptoms
Image by Original uploader was Madhero88 at en.wikipedia
What Is Graves' Disease?
Graves' disease is a condition that affects the function of the thyroid, which is a butterfly-shaped gland in the lower neck. The thyroid makes hormones that help regulate a wide variety of critical body functions. For example, thyroid hormones influence growth and development, body temperature, heart rate, menstrual cycles, and weight. In people with Graves' disease, the thyroid is overactive and makes more hormones than the body needs. The condition usually appears in mid-adulthood, although it may occur at any age.
Excess thyroid hormones can cause a variety of signs and symptoms. These include nervousness or anxiety, extreme tiredness (fatigue), a rapid and irregular heartbeat, hand tremors, frequent bowel movements or diarrhea, increased sweating and difficulty tolerating hot conditions, trouble sleeping, and weight loss in spite of an increased appetite. Affected women may have menstrual irregularities, such as an unusually light menstrual flow and infrequent periods. Some people with Graves' disease develop an enlargement of the thyroid called a goiter. Depending on its size, the enlarged thyroid can cause the neck to look swollen and may interfere with breathing and swallowing.
Between 25 and 50 percent of people with Graves' disease have eye abnormalities, which are known as Graves' ophthalmopathy. These eye problems can include swelling and inflammation, redness, dryness, puffy eyelids, and a gritty sensation like having sand or dirt in the eyes. Some people develop bulging of the eyes caused by inflammation of tissues behind the eyeball and "pulling back" (retraction) of the eyelids. Rarely, affected individuals have more serious eye problems, such as pain, double vision, and pinching (compression) of the optic nerve connecting the eye and the brain, which can cause vision loss.
A small percentage of people with Graves' disease develop a skin abnormality called pretibial myxedema or Graves' dermopathy. This abnormality causes the skin on the front of the lower legs and the tops of the feet to become thick, lumpy, and red. It is not usually painful.
Source: MedlinePlus Genetics
Additional Materials (24)
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam`s apple. Hormones produced by the thyroid gland have an enormous impact on many aspects of metabolism.
Image by TheVisualMD
Graves Disease and Graves Ophthalmopathy | Signs, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment
Video by JJ Medicine/YouTube
Medical Management of Graves' Disease in Children and Adolescents
Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
The Surgical Approach for the Pediatric Graves' Disease Patient
Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
What is Graves Disease?
Video by TriHealth Cincinnati/YouTube
Graves' Disease Education
Video by Jennifer Riccobono/YouTube
Graves Disease - Overview (causes, pathophysiology, investigations and treatment)
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Evaluation of Patients With Graves' Disease: Pediatric Thyroid Center at CHOP (3 of 9)
Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
What is Graves’ disease?
Video by UW Health/YouTube
Understanding Hyperthyroidism and Graves Disease
Video by Zero To Finals/YouTube
Treatment Options for Graves' Ophthalmopathy at Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Diagnosing Graves' Ophthalmopathy at Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Graves' Disease Ophthalmology in Children and Adolescents
Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
Treatment Options for Thyroid Eye or Graves’ Disease at Ohio State
Video by Ohio State Wexner Medical Center/YouTube
Graves disease - When your body produces too much Thyroid hormone
When thyroid colloid is extravasated from thyroid follicles and comes into contact with connective tissue a foreign body giant cell reaction occurs. This can occur as the result of thyroiditis, trauma and needle biopsy.
In this case the giant cell appears to have its "mouth" wide open and is in the process of ingesting some colloid. Note the resemblance of this giant cell to PacMan (computer game).
Image by Y. Rosen, MD/Wikimedia
What Is Hashimoto’s Disease?
Hashimoto’s disease is an autoimmune disorder that can cause hypothyroidism, or underactive thyroid. Rarely, the disease can cause hyperthyroidism, or overactive thyroid.
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. In people with Hashimoto’s disease
the immune system makes antibodies that attack the thyroid gland
large numbers of white blood cells, which are part of the immune system, build up in the thyroid
the thyroid becomes damaged and can’t make enough thyroid hormones
Thyroid hormones control how your body uses energy, so they affect nearly every organ in your body—even the way your heart beats.
The thyroid is a small gland in your neck that makes thyroid hormones.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (1)
What is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis?
Video by UW Health/YouTube
0:25
What is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis?
UW Health/YouTube
Hyperthyroidism
Thyroid Gland & Iodine Molecule
Image by TheVisualMD
Thyroid Gland & Iodine Molecule
Image by TheVisualMD
Hyperthyroidism
What is hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism, or overactive thyroid, happens when your thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormones than your body needs.
Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It makes hormones that control the way the body uses energy. These hormones affect nearly every organ in your body and control many of your body's most important functions. For example, they affect your breathing, heart rate, weight, digestion, and moods. If not treated, hyperthyroidism can cause serious problems with your heart, bones, muscles, menstrual cycle, and fertility. But there are treatments that can help.
What causes hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism has several causes. They include:
Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder in which your immune system attacks your thyroid and causes it to make too much hormone. This is the most common cause.
Thyroid nodules, which are growths on your thyroid. They are usually benign (not cancer). But they may become overactive and make too much thyroid hormone. Thyroid nodules are more common in older adults.
Thyroiditis, inflammation of the thyroid. It causes stored thyroid hormone to leak out of your thyroid gland.
Too much iodine. Iodine is found in some medicines, cough syrups, seaweed and seaweed-based supplements. Taking too much of them can cause your thyroid to make too much thyroid hormone.
Too much thyroid medicine. This can happen if people who take thyroid hormone medicine for hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) take too much of it.
Who is at risk for hyperthyroidism?
You are at higher risk for hyperthyroidism if you:
Are a woman
Are older than age 60
Have been pregnant or had a baby within the past 6 months
Have had thyroid surgery or a thyroid problem, such as goiter
Have a family history of thyroid disease
Have pernicious anemia, in which the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells because it does not have enough vitamin B12
Have type 1 diabetes or primary adrenal insufficiency, a hormonal disorder
Get too much iodine, from eating large amounts of foods containing iodine or using iodine-containing medicines or supplements
What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
The symptoms of hyperthyroidism can vary from person to person and may include:
Nervousness or irritability
Fatigue
Muscle weakness
Trouble tolerating heat
Trouble sleeping
Tremor, usually in your hands
Rapid and irregular heartbeat
Frequent bowel movements or diarrhea
Weight loss
Mood swings
Goiter, an enlarged thyroid that may cause your neck to look swollen. Sometimes it can cause trouble with breathing or swallowing.
Adults over age 60 may have different symptoms than younger adults. For example, they may lose their appetite or withdraw from other people. Sometimes this can be mistaken for depression or dementia.
What other problems can hyperthyroidism cause?
If hyperthyroidism isn't treated, it can cause some serious health problems, including:
An irregular heartbeat that can lead to blood clots, stroke, heart failure, and other heart problems
An eye disease called Graves' ophthalmopathy. It can cause double vision, light sensitivity, and eye pain. In rare cases, it can lead to vision loss.
Thinning bones and osteoporosis
Fertility problems in women
Complications in pregnancy, such as premature birth, low birth weight, high blood pressure in pregnancy, and miscarriage
How is hyperthyroidism diagnosed?
Your health care provider may use many tools to make a diagnosis:
A medical history, including asking about symptoms
A physical exam
Thyroid tests, such as
TSH, T3, T4, and thyroid antibody blood tests
Imaging tests, such as a thyroid scan, ultrasound, or radioactive iodine uptake test. A radioactive iodine uptake test measures how much radioactive iodine your thyroid takes up from your blood after you swallow a small amount of it.
What are the treatments for hyperthyroidism?
The treatments for hyperthyroidism include medicines, radioiodine therapy, and thyroid surgery:
Medicines for hyperthyroidism include
Antithyroid medicines, which cause your thyroid to make less thyroid hormone. You probably need to take the medicines for 1 to 2 years. In some cases, you might need to take the medicines for several years. This is the simplest treatment, but it is often not a permanent cure.
Beta blocker medicines, which can reduce symptoms such as tremors, rapid heartbeat, and nervousness. They work quickly and can help you feel better until other treatments take effect.
Radioiodine therapy is a common and effective treatment for hyperthyroidism. It involves taking radioactive iodine by mouth as a capsule or liquid. This slowly destroys the cells of the thyroid gland that produce thyroid hormone. It does not affect other body tissues. Almost everyone who has radioactive iodine treatment later develops hypothyroidism. This is because the thyroid hormone-producing cells have been destroyed. But hypothyroidism is easier to treat and causes fewer long-term health problems than hyperthyroidism.
Surgery to remove part or most of the thyroid gland is done in rare cases. It might be an option for people with large goiters or pregnant women who cannot take antithyroid medicines. If you have all of your thyroid removed, you will need to take thyroid medicines for the rest of your life. Some people who have part of their thyroid removed also need to take medicines.
If you have hyperthyroidism, it's important not to get too much iodine. Talk to your health care provider about which foods, supplements, and medicines you need to avoid.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (5)
Who is more likely to develop hyperthyroidism?
Anxiety, Symptom of Hyperthyroidism : The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces hormones two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. Hyperthyroidism (when too much hormone is produced) is often caused by an autoimmune disorder called Graves' disease, in which antibodies produced by the immune system over-stimulate the thyroid; symptoms include anxiety and mood swings.
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What Is Hyperthyroidism?
Video by American Association of Clinical Endocrinology/YouTube
Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Hypothyroidism
Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism
Image by TheVisualMD
Woman With Goiter Due to Hypothyroidism
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck that produces two hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, and metabolism. A goiter is any visible enlargement of the thyroid gland. In the past, goiters were often due to a lack of iodine in the diet (iodized salt has greatly reduced such goiters). Goiters can be present in cases of either hormone overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism).
Image by TheVisualMD
Hypothyroidism
What is hypothyroidism?
Hypothyroidism, or underactive thyroid, happens when your thyroid gland doesn't make enough thyroid hormones to meet your body's needs.
Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It makes hormones that control the way the body uses energy. These hormones affect nearly every organ in your body and control many of your body's most important functions. For example, they affect your breathing, heart rate, weight, digestion, and moods. Without enough thyroid hormones, many of your body's functions slow down. But there are treatments that can help.
What causes hypothyroidism?
Hypothyroidism has several causes. They include:
Hashimoto's disease, an autoimmune disorder where your immune system attacks your thyroid. This is the most common cause.
Thyroiditis, inflammation of the thyroid
Congenital hypothyroidism, hypothyroidism that is present at birth
Surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid
Radiation treatment of the thyroid
Certain medicines
In rare cases, a pituitary disease or too much or too little iodine in your diet
Who is at risk for hypothyroidism?
You are at higher risk for hypothyroidism if you:
Are a woman
Are older than age 60
Have had a thyroid problem before, such as a goiter
Have had surgery to correct a thyroid problem
Have received radiation treatment to the thyroid, neck, or chest
Have a family history of thyroid disease
Were pregnant or had a baby in the past 6 months
Have Turner syndrome, a genetic disorder that affects females
Have pernicious anemia, in which the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells because it does not have enough vitamin B12
Have Sjogren's syndrome, a disease that causes dry eyes and mouth
Have type 1 diabetes
Have rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that affects the joints
Have lupus, a chronic autoimmune disease
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?
The symptoms of hypothyroidism can vary from person to person and may include:
Fatigue
Weight gain
A puffy face
Trouble tolerating cold
Joint and muscle pain
Constipation
Dry skin
Dry, thinning hair
Decreased sweating
Heavy or irregular menstrual periods
Fertility problems in women
Depression
Slowed heart rate
Goiter, an enlarged thyroid that may cause your neck to look swollen. Sometimes it can cause trouble with breathing or swallowing.
Because hypothyroidism develops slowly, many people don't notice symptoms of the disease for months or even years.
What other problems can hypothyroidism cause?
Hypothyroidism can contribute to high cholesterol. In rare cases, untreated hypothyroidism can cause myxedema coma. This is a condition in which your body's functions slow down to the point that it becomes life-threatening.
During pregnancy, hypothyroidism can cause complications, such as premature birth, high blood pressure in pregnancy, and miscarriage. It can also slow the baby's growth and development.
How is hypothyroidism diagnosed?
Your health care provider may use many tools to make a diagnosis:
A medical history, including asking about your symptoms
A physical exam
Thyroid tests, such as
TSH, T3, T4, and thyroid antibody blood tests
Imaging tests, such as a thyroid scan, ultrasound, or radioactive iodine uptake test. A radioactive iodine uptake test measures how much radioactive iodine your thyroid takes up from your blood after you swallow a small amount of it.
What are the treatments for hypothyroidism?
The treatment for hypothyroidism is medicine to replace the hormone that your own thyroid can no longer make. About 6 to 8 weeks after you start taking the medicine, you will get a blood test to check your thyroid hormone level. Your health care provider will adjust your dose if needed. Each time your dose is adjusted, you'll have another blood test. Once you find the right dose, you will probably get a blood test in 6 months. After that, you will need the test once a year.
If you take your medicine according to the instructions, you usually should be able to control the hypothyroidism. You should never stop taking your medicine without talking with your health care provider first.
If you have Hashimoto's disease or other types of autoimmune thyroid disorders, you may be sensitive to harmful side effects from iodine. Talk to your health care provider about which foods, supplements, and medicines you need to avoid.
Women need more iodine when they are pregnant because the baby gets iodine from the mother's diet. If you are pregnant, talk with your health care provider about how much iodine you need.
Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)
Additional Materials (3)
Ferritin and Hypothyroidism - Is Iron Your Problem?
Video by Dr. Nikolas Hedberg, D.C./YouTube
Hypothyroidism: Mayo Clinic Radio
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
How a thyroid gland can become underactive
Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube
10:06
Ferritin and Hypothyroidism - Is Iron Your Problem?
Dr. Nikolas Hedberg, D.C./YouTube
9:22
Hypothyroidism: Mayo Clinic Radio
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
2:24
How a thyroid gland can become underactive
Bupa Health UK/YouTube
Thyroid Cancer
Thyroid cancer rates have been steadily increasing since the 90’s.
Image by StoryMD
Thyroid cancer rates have been steadily increasing since the 90’s.
Thyroid cancer diagnosis has been steadily increasing since the 1990’s and has the fastest growing rates of cancer for both men and women.
Image by StoryMD
Thyroid Cancer: What You Need to Know
What is thyroid cancer?
Thyroid cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the thyroid. Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It makes hormones that control the way the body uses energy. These hormones affect nearly every organ in your body and control many of your body's most important functions. For example, they affect your breathing, heart rate, weight, digestion, and moods.
What are the different types of thyroid cancer?
There are different types of thyroid cancer; the main ones include:
Differentiated thyroid cancer, which includes papillary cancer and follicular cancer
Medullary thyroid cancer
Anaplastic thyroid cancer
Who is more likely to develop thyroid cancer?
Certain people are more likely to develop thyroid cancer. Your risk is higher if you:
Are between ages 25 and 65
Are a woman
Are Asian
Were exposed to certain types of radiation, including from radiation treatments to your head or neck as a child or from a radiation emergency
Have had a goiter (enlarged thyroid)
Having certain genetic conditions, including certain types of multiple endocrine neoplasia
Have a family history of thyroid cancer or thyroid disease
What are the symptoms of thyroid cancer?
Thyroid cancer may not cause symptoms at first. It is sometimes found during a routine physical exam. You may get signs or symptoms as the cancer gets bigger. The symptoms may include:
A lump (nodule) in the neck
Trouble breathing
Trouble swallowing
Pain when swallowing
Hoarseness or other changes to your voice that do not get better
How is thyroid cancer diagnosed?
To find out if you have thyroid cancer, your health care provider may use:
A physical exam, including checking your neck for swelling, lumps, or anything that seems unusual
A medical history
Thyroid tests
Other blood or imaging tests
A biopsy
What are the treatments for thyroid cancer?
Treatment for thyroid cancer depends on the type of cancer you have and whether the cancer has spread. Often, more than one type of treatment may be needed. The treatment options include:
Surgery.
Radiation therapy, including radioactive iodine therapy.
Chemotherapy.
Thyroid hormone therapy.
Targeted therapy, which uses drugs or other substances that attack specific cancer cells with less harm to normal cells.
Watchful waiting, which means that you don't get treatment right away. Your regularly checks to see if your signs or symptoms appear or change.
Source: NIH: National Cancer Institute
Additional Materials (24)
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Diagram showing after surgery for medullary thyroid cancer with the central lymph nodes and the thyroid gland removed
Diagram showing after surgery for medullary thyroid cancer with the central lymph nodes and the thyroid gland removed.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Who Gets Thyroid Cancer (Thyroid Cancer 101 - Part 2)
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Why Are Thyroid Cancer Rates Increasing So Quickly? (Thyroid Cancer 101 - Part 1)
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Thyroid Nodules & Thyroid Cancer: What You Need to Know | UCLAMDChat
Video by UCLA Health/YouTube
Thyroid Disease and Thyroid Cancer
Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube
Understanding Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer: Maria E. Cabanillas, M.D.
Video by ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors' Association, Inc./YouTube
Thyroid Problems Explained: Symptoms of #Thyroid Conditions and Who Should Get a Thyroid Check
Video by LetsGetChecked/YouTube
Experts Discuss Thyroid Cancer Questions | Memorial Sloan Kettering
Video by Memorial Sloan Kettering/YouTube
Medullary Thyroid Cancer Treatment Overview.
Video by ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors' Association, Inc./YouTube
Signs and Symptoms of Thyroid Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Treating Thyroid Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Surviving Thyroid Cancer: 1 Year Later (Patient Testimonial Update: Erica Ervin)
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Could it Be Thyroid Cancer?
Video by Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
Thyroid Animation
Video by Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
Thyroid Program | Boston Children's Hospital
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
The thyroid gland and thyroid cancer
Video by Top Doctors UK/YouTube
Thyroid Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
Video by National Cancer Institute/YouTube
Vandetanib Give Medullary Thyroid Cancer Patients A Second Chance
Video by MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
Thyroid Goiter: What Is It? Should It Be Removed?
Video by Clayman Thyroid Cancer Center/YouTube
Diagnosis and Initial Treatment of Medullary Thyroid Cancer
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Thyroid Cancer - The Nebraska Medical Center
Video by Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
Thyroid cancer - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
What is Thyroid Cancer? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
Video by healthery/YouTube
Woman with Visible Thyroid
The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland produces two main hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The hormones help maintain body temperature, heart rate, moods, energy levels, bowel function and rates of fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. The thyroid and the hormones it produces are under the control of a hormone called TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) produced by the pituitary gland, which is often referred to as the \"master gland\" because it regulates the activities of other endocrine glands.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Diagram showing after surgery for medullary thyroid cancer with the central lymph nodes and the thyroid gland removed
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
0:35
Who Gets Thyroid Cancer (Thyroid Cancer 101 - Part 2)
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
0:53
Why Are Thyroid Cancer Rates Increasing So Quickly? (Thyroid Cancer 101 - Part 1)
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
1:01:49
Thyroid Nodules & Thyroid Cancer: What You Need to Know | UCLAMDChat
UCLA Health/YouTube
1:19:44
Thyroid Disease and Thyroid Cancer
University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube
6:50
Understanding Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer: Maria E. Cabanillas, M.D.
ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors' Association, Inc./YouTube
9:21
Thyroid Problems Explained: Symptoms of #Thyroid Conditions and Who Should Get a Thyroid Check
LetsGetChecked/YouTube
23:32
Experts Discuss Thyroid Cancer Questions | Memorial Sloan Kettering
Memorial Sloan Kettering/YouTube
9:32
Medullary Thyroid Cancer Treatment Overview.
ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors' Association, Inc./YouTube
2:06
Signs and Symptoms of Thyroid Cancer | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
1:41
Treating Thyroid Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
2:00
Surviving Thyroid Cancer: 1 Year Later (Patient Testimonial Update: Erica Ervin)
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
3:36
Could it Be Thyroid Cancer?
Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center/YouTube
1:48
Thyroid Animation
Columbia University Department of Surgery/YouTube
3:06
Thyroid Program | Boston Children's Hospital
Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
7:31
The thyroid gland and thyroid cancer
Top Doctors UK/YouTube
3:50
Thyroid Cancer Statistics | Did You Know?
National Cancer Institute/YouTube
3:23
Vandetanib Give Medullary Thyroid Cancer Patients A Second Chance
MD Anderson Cancer Center/YouTube
4:58
Thyroid Goiter: What Is It? Should It Be Removed?
Clayman Thyroid Cancer Center/YouTube
8:05
Diagnosis and Initial Treatment of Medullary Thyroid Cancer
OncLiveTV/YouTube
7:01
Thyroid Cancer - The Nebraska Medical Center
Nebraska Medicine Nebraska Medical Center/YouTube
13:24
Thyroid cancer - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology
Osmosis/YouTube
4:42
What is Thyroid Cancer? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)