A healthy bladder can hold up to 16 ounces of urine for 2 to 5 hours. If this isn't the norm, read about the problems it may be attributed to.
Female Urinary System
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine and Urination
Infant Urination
Image by OpenClipart-Vectors
Infant Urination
Image by OpenClipart-Vectors
Urine and Urination
Your kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and extra water from your blood. The waste is called urea. Your blood carries it to the kidneys. From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until you are ready to urinate. It swells into a round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty. If your urinary system is healthy, your bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (2 cups) of urine comfortably for 2 to 5 hours.
You may have problems with urination if you have
Kidney failure
Urinary tract infections
An enlarged prostate
Bladder control problems like incontinence, overactive bladder, or interstitial cystitis
A blockage that prevents you from emptying your bladder
Some conditions may also cause you to have blood or protein in your urine. If you have a urinary problem, see your health care provider. Urinalysis and other urine tests can help to diagnose the problem. Treatment depends on the cause.
Source: NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
Additional Materials (18)
Female Urinary System
Female Urinary System
Image by TheVisualMD
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Should You Be Drinking Your Own Urine?
Video by The Infographics Show/YouTube
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney and Urine Transport
Video by Catalyst University/YouTube
Collecting your Finger Prick and Urine Sample
Video by LetsGetChecked/YouTube
What Does Your PEE Say About You?
Video by AsapSCIENCE/YouTube
What can cause urine to have a foul odor?
Video by IntermountainMoms/YouTube
Urinalysis - OSCE Guide
Video by Geeky Medics/YouTube
Urination | Renal system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Frequent Urination in Children - Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
Video by FirstCry Parenting/YouTube
Micturition Reflex - Neural Control of Urination Animation Video.
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Urination In The Middle of the Night Explained by Expert Urologist
Video by Best Doctors/YouTube
How Do We Pee? Urination Process Animation - Neural Control of Bladder - Micturition Reflex Video
Video by Science Art/YouTube
The Causes of Frequent Nighttime Urination Medical Course
Video by Toledoo Briaan/YouTube
Frequent urination during pregnancy
Video by BabyCenter/YouTube
Why is my toddler having frequent urination?
Video by IntermountainMoms/YouTube
Peeing All the Time During Pregnancy?! Here's Why! | Frequent Urination During Pregnancy
Video by What To Expect/YouTube
Stress Urinary Incontinence in Women, Animation
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Female Urinary System
TheVisualMD
6:50
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
10:12
Should You Be Drinking Your Own Urine?
The Infographics Show/YouTube
10:00
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney and Urine Transport
Catalyst University/YouTube
3:29
Collecting your Finger Prick and Urine Sample
LetsGetChecked/YouTube
2:59
What Does Your PEE Say About You?
AsapSCIENCE/YouTube
1:31
What can cause urine to have a foul odor?
IntermountainMoms/YouTube
2:21
Urinalysis - OSCE Guide
Geeky Medics/YouTube
9:33
Urination | Renal system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
2:32
Frequent Urination in Children - Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
FirstCry Parenting/YouTube
1:40
Micturition Reflex - Neural Control of Urination Animation Video.
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
5:12
Urination In The Middle of the Night Explained by Expert Urologist
Best Doctors/YouTube
2:42
How Do We Pee? Urination Process Animation - Neural Control of Bladder - Micturition Reflex Video
Science Art/YouTube
3:56
The Causes of Frequent Nighttime Urination Medical Course
Toledoo Briaan/YouTube
1:38
Frequent urination during pregnancy
BabyCenter/YouTube
1:17
Why is my toddler having frequent urination?
IntermountainMoms/YouTube
0:56
Peeing All the Time During Pregnancy?! Here's Why! | Frequent Urination During Pregnancy
What To Expect/YouTube
2:05
Stress Urinary Incontinence in Women, Animation
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Urine
Ureter
Prostatic Urethra
Penis
1
2
3
The Pathway of Urine
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Ureter
Prostatic Urethra
Penis
1
2
3
The Pathway of Urine
From the kidneys, urine flows into the bladder through the ureters. The internal sphincter muscle controls the flow of urine out of the bladder and into the urethra. The prostatic urethra carries urine through the prostate. Urine flows out of the prostate, into the penis, and out of the body.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Urine
Liquid by-product of excretion produced in the kidneys, temporarily stored in the bladder until discharge through the urethra.
Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
Additional Materials (3)
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
What Does Your PEE Say About You?
Video by AsapSCIENCE/YouTube
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
NIDDK Image Library
2:59
What Does Your PEE Say About You?
AsapSCIENCE/YouTube
6:50
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Ketones in Urine Test
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
{"label":"Ketones in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":20},"text":"A negative test result is normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"S","long":"Small","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":20,"max":40},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Large","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":80},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]}],"value":10}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative test result is normal.
Related conditions
The test measures ketone levels in your urine. Normally, your body burns glucose (sugar) for energy. If your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead. This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine. High ketone levels in urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
The test is often used to help monitor people at a higher risk of developing ketones. These include people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you have diabetes, ketones in urine can mean that you are not getting enough insulin. If you don't have diabetes, you may still be at risk for developing ketones if you:
Experience chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea
Have a digestive disorder
Participate in strenuous exercise
Are on a very low-carbohydrate diet
Have an eating disorder
Are pregnant
Your health care provider may order a ketones in urine test if you have diabetes or other risk factors for developing ketones. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of ketoacidosis. These include:
Nausea or vomiting
Abdominal pain
Confusion
Trouble breathing
Feeling extremely sleepy
People with type 1 diabetes are at a higher risk for ketoacidosis.
A ketones in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will be given instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If you do the test at home, follow the instructions that are in your test kit. Your kit will include a package of strips for testing. You will either be instructed to provide a clean catch sample in a container as described above or to put the test strip directly in the stream of your urine. Talk to your health care provider about specific instructions.
You may have to fast (not eat or drink) for a certain period of time before taking a ketones in urine test. Ask your health care provider if you need to fast or do any other type of preparation before your test.
There is no known risk to having a ketones in urine test.
Your test results may be a specific number or listed as a "small," "moderate," or "large" amount of ketones. Normal results can vary, depending on your on your diet, activity level, and other factors. Because high ketone levels can be dangerous, be sure to talk to your health care provider about what is normal for you and what your results mean.
Ketone test kits are available at most pharmacies without a prescription. If you are planning to test for ketones at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to perform and can provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Ketones in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003585.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=ketone_bodies_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Video by Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Video by Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
Image by BruceBlaus
5:46
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
DrER.tv/YouTube
1:00
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
5:50
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
11:26
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
BruceBlaus
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
{"label":"Bilirubin Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"High levels of bilirubin could mean your liver is not functioning correctly. However, high levels can also be due to medications, exercise, or certain foods.","conditions":["Biliary tract disease","Cirrhosis","Gallstones in the biliary tract","Hepatitis","Liver disease","Tumors of the liver or gallbladder"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.
Related conditions
A bilirubin in urine test measures the levels of bilirubin in your urine. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance made during the body's normal process of breaking down red blood cells. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid in your liver that helps you digest food. If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into the blood and urine. Bilirubin in urine may be a sign of liver disease.
A bilirubin in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to check for liver problems.
Your health care provider may have ordered a bilirubin in urine test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms include:
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Dark-colored urine
Abdominal pain
Nausea and vomiting
Fatigue
Because bilirubin in urine can indicate liver damage before other symptoms appear, your health care provider may order a bilirubin in urine test if you are at a higher risk for liver damage. Risk factors for liver disease include:
Family history of liver disease
Heavy drinking
Exposure or possible exposure to hepatitis virus
Obesity
Diabetes
Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container to your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations to test for bilirubin in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a bilirubin in urine test.
If bilirubin is found in your urine, it may indicate:
A liver disease such as hepatitis
A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
A problem with liver function
A bilirubin in urine test is only one measure of liver function. If your results are abnormal, your health care provider may order additional blood and urine tests, including a liver panel. A liver panel is a series of blood tests that measure various enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver. It is often used to detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003595.htm [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
{"label":"Glucose in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":15},"text":"Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":40},"text":"If high levels of glucose in urine are found in pregnant women, it may indicate\u00a0gestational diabetes. A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.","conditions":["Diabetes","Pregnancy","Renal glycosuria"]}],"value":7.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose in your urine. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If too much glucose gets into the blood, the extra glucose will be eliminated through your urine. A urine glucose test can be used to help determine if blood glucose levels are too high, which may be a sign of diabetes.
A glucose in urine test may be part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. A glucose in urine test may also be used to screen for diabetes. However, a urine glucose test is not as accurate as a blood glucose test. It may be ordered if blood glucose testing is difficult or not possible. Some people can't get blood drawn because their veins are too small or too scarred from repeated punctures. Other people avoid blood tests due to extreme anxiety or fear of needles.
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
Increased thirst
More frequent urination
Blurred vision
Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
You don't need any special preparations for this test.
There is no known risk to having a glucose in urine test.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
Diabetes
Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
TheVisualMD
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
{"label":"Urine Specific Gravity Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.8,"max":1.002},"text":"Your urine is too diluted.","conditions":["Diabetes","Kidney disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Pyelonephritis","Kidney failure","Overhydration"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.002,"max":1.03},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.03,"max":1.2},"text":"Your urine is too concentrated. ","conditions":["Liver disease","Adrenal glands disorder","Heart disease","Dehydration","Shock"]}],"value":1.02}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
1.002
1.03
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
In the kidneys, most of the water, ions, and nutrients are returned to the body while waste products and excess ions are excreted through the urine.
Normally, the color of urine is straw-yellow but it may be affected by several situations, including infections, intake of certain foods or medications, or insufficient or excessive fluid intake. Your urine color may reflect how concentrated or diluted is your urine.
A urine specific gravity (SG) test is used to compare the density of your urine to the normal density of water. The result gives an overview of the concentration of the solutes (particles) in your urine. In other words, it shows how well your kidneys are diluting urine.
A shift in the urine SG test result may give the first indication that your kidneys are not working properly. However, if a kidney disorder is suspected, further tests should be taken to confirm or exclude certain disease.
A urine specific gravity test is mainly used as a partial analysis to assess the kidney’s ability to concentrate and dilute urine. Thus, it can be used to help detect certain disorders or diseases of the urinary tract.
Your doctor may order a urine specific gravity test as part of your routine health checkup, or to help diagnose or monitor the following conditions:
Urinary tract infection
Dehydration or overhydration
Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)
Kidney failure
Shifts in sodium levels (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
Diabetes
Shock
Heart failure
Testing for urine specific gravity starts with mid-stream urine sample collection. It is recommended that the sample is collected in the morning when the urine concentration is the highest.
To collect the urine sample, you need to clean your genitals and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container. You need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external germs. Once you have collected enough urine, put the container cap on and then you can finish emptying your bladder into the toilet.
After the collection, the sample is transported to the laboratory.
Your doctor may ask you to stop taking certain medications and foods before the test.
There are no risks related to a urine gravity test.
The normal value for urine specific gravity is 1.002-1.030.
Lower-than-normal values of urine gravity may indicate:
Higher-than-normal urine gravity test results may refer to an increased level of some substances in your urine, such as proteins, bacteria, glucose, urine crystals, red and white blood cells. These findings may occur in cases of:
Liver disease
Adrenal glands disorder
Heart disease
Dehydration (not consuming enough water, or losing too much fluid through sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea)
Shock
Certain foods may affect the color of your urine; therefore, it's advised not to eat foods such as beet, rhubarb, blackberries, carrots or lava beans before giving a urine sample.
Sometimes doctors may choose a urine osmolality test instead of a urine specific gravity test. The urine osmolarity test is more specific and could help your doctor to diagnose certain disorders more accurately.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003587.htm [accessed on Oct 09, 2021]
Urine Specific Gravity Test: Overview, Tests, and Procedure [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Urine specific gravity test: Procedure and results [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (20)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
The glomeruli are sets of looping blood vessels in nephrons--the tiny working units of the kidneys that filter wastes and remove extra fluid from the blood.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
Drawing of a swollen kidney that results from ureteropelvic junction obstruction. The point of blockage is labeled UPJ obstruction. UPJ obstruction occurs when urine is blocked where the ureter joins the kidney.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is usually eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid digestion. Under normal circumstances, very little, if any, bilirubin is excreted in the urine, but in cases of liver damage or a blockage of the bile ducts, some bilirubin can leak out and appear in the urine, turning it a darker color.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
Adequate water intake and kidney health. Replacing the water lost through sweating and waste elimination is vital to our health. Remaining hydrated is one way to help prevent kidney stones, which can form when certain waste minerals are highly concentrated in the urine. In this 3-D visualization, a clear bottle pours water into a model of a human kidney.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.
Image by TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Anatomy and physiology of animals Summary of the processes involved in the formation of urine.
Image by Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body
Image by BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.
Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
TheVisualMD
Urine
Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
{"label":"Red Blood Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{cells}\/uL","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"One cross (+)","long":"One cross (+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":25},"text":"This indicates that small but significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Repeat test may be necessary and should be looked at in clinical setting.","conditions":["Persistent microscopic haematuria","Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Two crosses (++)","long":"Two crosses (++)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"This indicates that significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{cells}/uL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.
Related conditions
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, are cells that can be found circulating in the blood. They are produced in the bone marrow (the spongy tissue inside some of your bones), and their function is to carry a protein called hemoglobin through the body, which in turn delivers oxygen to the tissues and organs.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that RBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not usually ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells per high-powered field are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).; further information should be gathered to make a diagnose.
Presence of RBC’s in urine may be due to:
Glomerular disorders
Glomerulonephritis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Renal disorders
Polycystic kidney disease
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
Cancer
Cystitis
Pyelonephritis
Nephrolithiasis
Prostatitis
Intake or certain drugs
Trauma
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, menstruation traces, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
Epithelial Cells, Urine Test
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
{"label":"Epithelial Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Few","long":"Few","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"\"Few\" cells are generally considered in the normal range.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Moderate","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"\"Moderate\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Many","long":"Many","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"\"Many\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Few.
"Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range.
Related conditions
Epithelial cells are a type of cell that lines the surfaces of your body. They are found on your skin, blood vessels, urinary tract, and organs. An epithelial cells in urine test looks at urine under a microscope to see if the number of your epithelial cells is in the normal range. It's normal to have a small amount of epithelial cells in your urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition.
An epithelial cells in urine test is a part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine. A urinalysis may include a visual examination of your urine sample, tests for certain chemicals, and an examination of urine cells under a microscope. An epithelial cells in urine test is part of a microscopic exam of urine.
Your health care provider may have ordered an epithelial cells in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if your visual or chemical urine tests showed abnormal results. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a urinary or kidney disorder. These symptoms may include:
Frequent and/or painful urination
Abdominal pain
Back pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container will have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations for the test. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having the test.
Results are often reported as an approximate amount, such as "few," moderate," or "many" cells. "Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range. "Moderate" or "many" cells may indicate a medical condition such as:
Urinary tract infection
Yeast infection
Kidney disease
Liver disease
Certain types of cancer
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment. You may need more tests before you can get a diagnosis. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
There are three types of epithelial cells that line the urinary tract. They are called transitional cells, renal tubular cells, and squamous cells. If there are squamous epithelial cells in your urine, it may mean your sample was contaminated. This means that the sample contains cells from the urethra (in men) or the vaginal opening (in women). It can happen if you do not clean well enough when using the clean catch method.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Cancer screening
Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Markhamilton
Cancer screening
TheVisualMD
Blood in Urine Test
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
{"label":"Blood in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
A test called a urinalysis can detect whether there is blood in your urine. A urinalysis checks a sample of your urine for different cells, chemicals, and other substances, including blood. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection, or liver disease.
A urinalysis, which includes a test for blood in urine, may be done as part of a regular checkup or to check for disorders of the urinary tract, kidney, or liver.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine exam. You may also need this test if you have seen blood in your urine or have other symptoms of a urinary disorder. These symptoms include:
Painful urination
Frequent urination
Back pain
Abdominal pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." It includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the needed amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations before getting a test for blood in your urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a blood in urine test.
There are a variety of factors that can cause red or white blood cells to be present in the urine. Many are not cause for concern. Small amounts of blood in the urine may be due to certain medicines, intense exercise, sexual activity, or menstruation. If larger amounts of blood are found, your health care provider may request further testing.
Increased red blood cells in urine may indicate:
A viral infection
Inflammation of the kidney or bladder
A blood disorder
Bladder or kidney cancer
Increased white blood cells in urine may indicate:
A bacterial urinary tract infection. This is the most common cause of a high white blood cell count in urine.
Inflammation of the urinary tract or kidneys
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
A blood in urine test is usually part of a typical urinalysis. In addition to checking for blood, a urinalysis measures other substances in the urine, including proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals.
Lab Tests Online: Blood in Urine (Hematuria) [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
Video by mdconversation/YouTube
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Video by Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
Blood in the Urine
Video by St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Microscopic hematuria
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Image by J3D3
This browser does not support the video element.
Bleeding Tissue
Blood continues to flow into tissue after the piercing needle has left the finger. Camera starts off looking at the cut edges of bleeding capillaries in the tissue and then looks down at the cavity where blood is beginning to pool.
Video by TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
12:53
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
mdconversation/YouTube
0:50
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
2:24
Blood in the Urine
St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
J3D3
0:08
Bleeding Tissue
TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
Mucus, Urine Test
Mucus in Urine Test
A mucus in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Too much mucus or mucus that has changed in color or consistency can be a sign of a serious health issue.
Mucus in Urine Test
A mucus in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Too much mucus or mucus that has changed in color or consistency can be a sign of a serious health issue.
{"label":"Mucus (urine) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"It's common to find mucus in your urine. It is typically thin, fluid, and transparent, or it may be cloudy white, or off-white. If your results show a small or moderate amount of mucus in your urine, it is mostly likely due to normal discharge.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"An abnormal or positive result reveals either a large amount of mucus in urine, or the mucus is no longer clear, white, or off-white.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Sexually transmitted infection","Kidney stones","Irritable bowel syndrome","Ulcerative colitis","Bladder cancer"]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
It's common to find mucus in your urine. It is typically thin, fluid, and transparent, or it may be cloudy white, or off-white. If your results show a small or moderate amount of mucus in your urine, it is mostly likely due to normal discharge.
Related conditions
Mucus is a thick, slippery fluid that coats and moistens certain parts of the body, including the nose, mouth, throat, and urinary tract. A small amount of mucus in your urine (pee) is normal. Having too much mucus may be a sign of a urinary tract infection (UTI) or other medical condition. A test called urinalysis can detect whether there is too much mucus in your urine.
Other names: microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, urine test, urine analysis, UA
A mucus in urine test may be part of a urinalysis. A urinalysis may be done during a regular check-up, or your health care provider may order the test if you have signs of a urinary tract infection (UTI) or other condition that can cause mucus in urine.
A urinalysis may include a visual check of your urine sample, tests for certain chemicals, and an examination under a microscope to look for certain types of cells. A mucus in urine test is part of a microscopic exam of urine.
A urinalysis is often part of a routine checkup. Your provider may include a mucus in urine test in your urinalysis if you have symptoms of a UTI. These include:
Frequent urge to urinate, even when you have little urine in your bladder
Painful urination
Dark, cloudy, or reddish-colored urine
Bad smelling urine
Weakness
Fatigue
You will need to give a urine sample for the test. A health care professional may give you a cleansing wipe, a small container, and instructions for how to use the "clean catch" method to collect your urine sample. It's important to follow these instructions so that germs from your skin don't get into the sample:
Wash your hands with soap and water and dry them.
Open the container being careful not to touch the inside.
Clean your genital area with the cleansing wipe:
For a penis, wipe the entire head (end) of the penis. If you have a foreskin, pull it back first.
For a vagina, the labia (the folds of skin around the vagina) should be separated and wiped from front to back on the inner sides.
Urinate into the toilet for a few seconds, then stop the flow. Start urinating again, this time into the container. Don't let the container touch your body.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container should have markings to show how much urine is needed.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Put the cap on the and return it as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
You don't need any special preparations for this test. If your provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a test for mucus in urine.
A normal test result usually shows a small or moderate amount of mucus in your urine. A large amount of mucus may be a sign of a medical problem, including:
A urinary tract infection (UTI)
A sexually transmitted disease (STD)
Kidney stones
Irritable bowel syndrome
Bladder cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
If a urinalysis is part of your regular checkup, your urine will be tested for a variety of substances along with mucus. These include red and white blood cells, proteins, acid and sugar levels, and the concentration of particles in your urine.
If you get frequent UTIs, your provider may recommend more testing, as well as steps that may help prevent future infections.
Mucus in Urine: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 07, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
sore throat vs peritonsillar abscess
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
3:22
sore throat vs peritonsillar abscess
DrER.tv/YouTube
Nitrites in Urine Test
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
{"label":"Nitrites in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a urinary tract infection.","conditions":["UTI"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.
Related conditions
A urinalysis, also called a urine test, can detect the presence of nitrites in the urine. Normal urine contains chemicals called nitrates. If bacteria enter the urinary tract, nitrates can turn into different, similarly named chemicals called nitrites. Nitrites in urine may be a sign of a urinary tract infection (UTI).
UTIs are one of the most common types of infections, especially in women. Fortunately, most UTIs are not serious and are usually treated with antibiotics. It's important to see your health care provider if you have symptoms of a UTI so you can start treatment right away.
Other names: urine test, urine analysis, microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, UA
A urinalysis, which includes a test for nitrites in urine, may be part of a regular exam. It may also be used to check for a UTI.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine checkup or if you have symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms of a UTI may include:
Frequent urge to urinate, but little urine comes out
Painful urination
Dark, cloudy, or reddish colored urine
Bad smelling urine
Weakness and fatigue, particularly in older women and men
Fever
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider
You don't need any special preparations to test for nitrites in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a nitrites in urine test.
If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a UTI. However, even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites. If you have symptoms of a UTI, your health care provider will also look at other results of your urinalysis, especially the white blood cell count. A high white blood cell count in urine is another possible sign of an infection. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If a urinalysis is part of your regular checkup, your urine will be tested for a variety of substances along with nitrites. These include red and white blood cells, proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals in your urine.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
0:45
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Osmosis/YouTube
Protein in Urine Test
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
{"label":"Protein in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels.<br \/>\n<br \/>\nIf your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Lupus","High blood pressure","Preeclampsia","Diabetes","Certain types of cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. Proteins are substances that are essential for your body to function properly. Protein is normally found in the blood. If there is a problem with your kidneys, protein can leak into your urine. While a small amount is normal, a large amount of protein in urine may indicate kidney disease.
A protein in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to look for or to monitor kidney disease.
Your health care provider may have ordered a protein test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of kidney disease. These symptoms include:
Difficulty urinating
Frequent urination, especially at night
Nausea and vomiting
Loss of appetite
Swelling in the hands and feet
Fatigue
Itching
A protein in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will receive instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If at home, you will use a test kit. The kit will include a package of strips for testing and instructions on how to provide a clean catch sample. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Your health care provider may also request you collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This "24-hour urine sample test" is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including protein, can vary throughout the day. Collecting several samples in a day may provide a more accurate picture of your urine content.
You don't need any special preparations to test for protein in urine. If your health care provider has ordered a 24-hour urine sample, you will get specific instructions on how to provide and store your samples.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a urine in protein test.
If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels. Your health care provider may recommend additional urinalysis tests if a high level of protein is found. This testing may include a 24-hour urine sample test.
If your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition. These include:
Urinary tract infection
Lupus
High blood pressure
Preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy, marked by high blood pressure. If it is not treated, preeclampsia can be life-threatening to the mother and baby.
Diabetes
Certain types of cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If you will be doing your urine test at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which test kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to do and provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Urine Total Protein Test for Diseased Glomerulus : The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, which are recycled in the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
TheVisualMD
Phosphate in Urine Test
Phosphate Urine Test
Also called: Urine Phosphate
A phosphate in urine test measures the level of phosphate in your urine. Abnormal levels may be a sign of a serious health problem.
Phosphate Urine Test
Also called: Urine Phosphate
A phosphate in urine test measures the level of phosphate in your urine. Abnormal levels may be a sign of a serious health problem.
{"label":"Phosphate Urine Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/h","code":"mg\/(24.h)","name":"milligram per 24 hour"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":400},"text":"Low phosphate levels may mean insufficient phosphorus or vitamin D intake, or too much potassium in your diet, as well as several medical conditions.","conditions":["Kidney or liver diseases","Hypoparathyroidism","Severe malnutrition"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":400,"max":1300},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used. Your age, diet, and gender can also affect your phosphate levels, as can pregnancy, exercise, and even the time of year.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1300,"max":2000},"text":"High phosphate levels may mean insufficient potassium intake, or too much phosphorus in your diet, as well as several medical conditions.","conditions":["Kidney diseases","Hyperparathyroidism","Vitamin D excess"]}],"value":850}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/h
400
1300
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used. Your age, diet, and gender can also affect your phosphate levels, as can pregnancy, exercise, and even the time of year.
Related conditions
A phosphate in urine test measures the amount of phosphate in a urine (pee) sample that you collect over a 24-hour period. Phosphate is an electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body.
Phosphate is made of the mineral phosphorous combined with oxygen. Phosphate works with the mineral calcium to build strong bones and teeth. Most of your phosphate is stored in your bones. But phosphate is in every cell of your body and it affects almost everything your cells do, including how your nerves work and how your body uses energy.
Most people get more phosphate than they need from food. Your kidneys control the amount of phosphate in your blood by removing most of the extra phosphate through your urine. Your parathyroid glands in your neck make hormones which affect how much phosphate your kidneys remove.
If you have a problem with your kidneys or your parathyroid glands, the phosphate levels in your urine may be too high or too low. This can be a sign of a serious health problem.
A phosphate in urine test may be used to help:
Diagnose kidney problems
Diagnose disorders of the parathyroid glands
Find out if too much phosphate in urine is causing kidney stones, small, pebble-like material that form in the kidneys
You may need a phosphate in urine test if you have:
Symptoms of a kidney problem
Had a kidney stone
Problems with your electrolyte balance, which affects your acid/base (pH) level
Had abnormal results on a calcium test
Calcium and phosphate work together, so problems with calcium levels can mean problems with phosphate levels as well. Calcium testing in blood and/or urine is often part of a routine checkup.
You'll need to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a 24-hour urine sample test. You will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your sample. Your health care provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
You don't need any special preparations for a phosphate in urine test. Be sure to carefully follow all the instructions for providing a 24-hour urine sample.
There is no known risk to having a phosphate in urine test.
The terms phosphate and phosphorous are both used to mean the same thing in test results. So, your results may say "phosphorous levels" or "phosphate levels." Your results may include guidelines for normal, low, and high levels, but your provider will consider your health, age, and other factors when deciding what is normal for you.
High phosphate/phosphorous levels in your urine may mean you have:
Kidney disease
Hyperparathyroidism, a condition in which your parathyroid gland produces too much parathyroid hormone.
Too much vitamin D in your body, usually from taking too many supplements
Low phosphate/phosphorous levels in your urine may mean you have:
Kidney disease
Liver disease
Hypoparathyroidism, a condition in which your parathyroid gland produces too little parathyroid hormone
Your provider will likely order other tests to help make a diagnosis. If your phosphate/phosphorous levels are not normal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Eating a meal high in phosphorous or using laxatives with sodium phosphate can affect your results. Also, children often have higher phosphate levels because their bones are still growing. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Phosphate is often tested in blood. Your provider may order both a blood and urine test to see how much phosphate your kidneys are removing.
Phosphate in Urine: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Oct 05, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Urine Volume Test
Urine Volume Test
Also called: Urine 24-hour volume, 24-hour urine collection
The urine 24-hour volume test measures the amount of urine produced in a day. The urine volume may be measured during a comprehensive urine test to check kidney function.
Urine Volume Test
Also called: Urine 24-hour volume, 24-hour urine collection
The urine 24-hour volume test measures the amount of urine produced in a day. The urine volume may be measured during a comprehensive urine test to check kidney function.
{"label":"Urine Volume Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mL\/h","code":"mL\/(24.h)","name":"milliliter per 24 hour"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"CL","long":"Critically low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":100},"text":"This result indicates no or minimal urine output, also called anuria. Anuria is when the kidneys stop producing urine.","conditions":["Kidney failure","Kidney stone","Kidney cancer","Enlarged prostate"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":500},"text":"Low urine output means that you produce less urine than normal, also called oliguria. A minimum of 400 to 500 mL urine must be produced daily to rid the body of wastes. Oliguria can occur as a result of various causes, including infections, dehydration, and urinary tract blockages.","conditions":["Dehydration","Blood loss","Diarrhea","Cardiogenic shock","Kidney disease","Enlarged prostate"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"D","long":"Decresead","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":500,"max":800},"text":"A urine output of 500 mL per day is generally considered adequate for normal function. However, decreased urine volume is a major risk factor for kidney stones.","conditions":["Inadequate water intake"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":800,"max":2000},"text":"A \"normal\" urine volume depends on your age and gender. However, urine output between 800 to 2,000 milliliters (mL) per day, if you have a normal fluid intake of about 2 liters per day, is considered normal. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"I","long":"Increased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2000,"max":2500},"text":"Your urine output may increase for 24 hours after having tests that involve injecting a special dye (contrast medium) into your vein during imaging tests such as a CT scan or an MRI scan.","conditions":["Excessive water intake","Imaging tests"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"E","long":"Excessive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2500,"max":4000},"text":"Excessive urine output means that your body makes larger than normal amounts of urine each day, also called polyuria. Polyuria may indicate diabetes insipidus or diabetes mellitus.","conditions":["Diabetes mellitus","Diabetes insipidus","Polydipsia","Excess caffeine or alcohol","Kidney disease","Certain drugs, such as diuretics","Sickle cell anemia","Excessive water intake"]}],"value":1400}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mL/h
100
500
800
2000
2500
Your result is Normal.
A "normal" urine volume depends on your age and gender. However, urine output between 800 to 2,000 milliliters (mL) per day, if you have a normal fluid intake of about 2 liters per day, is considered normal.
Related conditions
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003425.htm [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003147.htm [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003146.htm [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://www.healthline.com/health/urine-24-hour-volume [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=92&ContentID=P08955 [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://cnx.org/contents/f01808b8-5784-470e-a451-f1c96a109bd1 [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482482/ [accessed on Sep 20, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Urine Culture
Urine Culture
Also called: Urine Culture and Sensitivity
A urine culture is a test that is used to diagnose a urinary tract infection and identify the specific kind of bacteria that is causing the disease. This test does not detect the presence of viruses or parasites.
Urine Culture
Also called: Urine Culture and Sensitivity
A urine culture is a test that is used to diagnose a urinary tract infection and identify the specific kind of bacteria that is causing the disease. This test does not detect the presence of viruses or parasites.
{"label":"Urine Culture Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"CFU\/mL","code":"[CFU]\/mL","name":"colony forming units per milliliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1000},"text":"A negative result will read something like \u201cno growth seen in 24 or 48 hours\u201d. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1000,"max":200000},"text":"A positive result will report the name and number of the bacteria that is the causal agent of the infection. ","conditions":["Urinary tract infection (UTI)",""]}],"value":500}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
CFU/mL
1000
Your result is Negative.
A negative result will read something like “no growth seen in 24 or 48 hours”.
Related conditions
A urine culture is a test where a sample of your urine is added to a substance that promotes germ growth.
This is useful to determine whether you have a urinary tract infection (UTI), and if that’s the case, detect and identify the specific microorganism that is causing said infection.
This test also helps minimize the use of unnecessary antibiotic treatment, therefore reducing the chance of bacterial resistance to antibiotics (which happens when a bacteria is no longer killed by an antibiotic that has been previously used).
Your doctor may want to order this test if you have signs and symptoms of a UTI, such as:
Back pain
Abdominal pain
A burning sensation when you urinate
An increase of voiding frequency
Blood in the urine
You will be asked to provide a urine sample by voiding into a sterile urine container.
To adequately do this, you need to clean your genitals, and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container.
If you are unable to provide a clean urine sample, a catheter (a thin rubber tube) may be inserted through your urethra and into your bladder to collect a urine sample. In rare cases, if a catheter cannot be used, a needle can be inserted into your abdomen to aspirate a urine sample directly from your bladder.
No test preparation is needed. Your doctor may advise you to refrain from starting any antibiotic treatment before the sample is collected.
There are no known risks associated with this test when using the “clean catch” technique. If the urine sample is collected through a catheter or by needle aspiration, you may feel mild pain during the procedure.
In rare cases, your urethra or bladder can be perforated when using a catheter; or you can get an infection in the puncture site from a needle aspiration procedure.
The urine culture test result will come back as positive or negative.
A negative result will read something like “no growth seen in 24 or 48 hours”.
A positive result will report the name and number of the bacteria that is the causal agent of the infection. Usually, the presence of more than 100,000 colony forming units (CFU)/mL of a microorganism is indicative of UTI.
However, in the presence of symptoms, or when the urine sample was collected through catheterization or needle aspiration, lower numbers (1,000 up to 100,000 CFU/mL) may indicate UTI.
If there are more than 2 types of microorganisms above 10,000 CFU/mL identified, then it’s probable that the urine specimen was contaminated, either by improper sample collection or handling.
Once a urine culture test has come back positive, automatically the laboratory will also run a susceptibility test, which is done to determine the specific antibiotics that can be used to inhibit the growth of the harmful bacteria causing the infection. This way your doctor can start you on the appropriate therapy as soon as possible.
You should avoid taking non-prescribed antibiotics to treat yourself. If you do so, you risk having your urine culture test result to come back negative even if the bacteria is still present, therefore making it more difficult for your doctor to prescribe you with the correct treatment.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003751.htm [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003752.htm [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8105 [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://labtestsonline.org/tests/urine-culture [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/36361/urine-culture-comprehensive [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/36371/urine-culture-routine [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=urine_culture [accessed on Mar 14, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)
The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and eliminate them in the urine. Two tubes called ureters connect the kidneys to the bladder, which holds urine until it is excreted. It was long thought that urine is sterile up to the point when it reaches the urethra, but recently researchers found that bacteria can be present in the bladders of some healthy women. Most UTIs, however, are thought to be caused by bacteria that enter the urethra through its opening near the vagina. According to the American Urological Association, urinary tract infections result in more than 7 million visits to doctors; offices each year (about 5% of all visits to primary care physicians).
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: UTIs During Pregnancy
Pregnant women are more vulnerable to getting UTIs because of all the many changes, physical and hormonal, that occur during pregnancy. The kidneys enlarge, and the ureters (the tubes that lead from the kidneys to the bladder) and the bladder are compressed by the growing uterus, often preventing the bladder from emptying fully. The urine itself becomes less acidic and contains more sugars, proteins, and hormones. To help prevent UTIs, pregnant women should drink plenty of fluids, avoid taking baths, wipe from front to back, and wear loose, comfortable clothing and cotton underwear. It's important to treat UTIs to prevent serious complications for both mother and fetus. Fortunately, there are antibiotics that are safe to take during pregnancy, such as fosfomycin and ceftibuten.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine cultured on Oxoid Brilliance UTI Agar plate. 1uL of urine spread onto agar surface. Top sample is from patient with clinical urinary tract infection (UTI). Bottom sample is a mixed culture.
Urine cultured on Oxoid Brilliance UTI Agar plate. 1uL of urine spread onto agar surface. Top sample is from patient with clinical urinary tract infection (UTI). Bottom sample is a mixed culture.
Image by Nathan Reading from Halesowen, UK
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)
TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
TheVisualMD
Urine Culture: UTIs During Pregnancy
TheVisualMD
Urine cultured on Oxoid Brilliance UTI Agar plate. 1uL of urine spread onto agar surface. Top sample is from patient with clinical urinary tract infection (UTI). Bottom sample is a mixed culture.
Nathan Reading from Halesowen, UK
Crystals in Urine Test
Crystals in Urine Test
Also called: Urine crystals
A crystals in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. It can help diagnose kidney stones.
Crystals in Urine Test
Also called: Urine crystals
A crystals in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. It can help diagnose kidney stones.
{"label":"Crystals in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Your urine contains many chemicals. Sometimes these chemicals form solids, called crystals. A crystals in urine test looks at the amount, size, and type of crystals in your urine. It's normal to have a few small urine crystals. Larger crystals or specific types of crystals can become kidney stones. Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like substances that can get stuck in the kidneys. A stone can be as small as a grain of sand, as big as a pea, or even larger. While kidney stones rarely cause serious damage, they can be very painful.
A crystals in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine. A urinalysis may include a visual check of your urine sample, tests for certain chemicals, and an examination of urine cells under a microscope. A crystals in urine test is part of a microscopic exam of urine. It may be used to help diagnose kidney stones or a problem with your metabolism, the process of how your body uses food and energy.
A urinalysis is often part of a routine checkup. Your health care provider may include a crystals in urine test in your urinalysis if you have symptoms of a kidney stone. These include:
Sharp pains in your abdomen, side, or groin
Back pain
Blood in your urine
Frequent urge to urinate
Pain when urinating
Cloudy or bad-smelling urine
Nausea and vomiting
You will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may also request that you collect all urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a "24-hour urine sample test." It is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including crystals, can vary throughout the day. Your health care provider or a laboratory professional will give you a container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. A 24-hour urine sample test usually includes the following steps:
Empty your bladder in the morning and flush that urine away. Record the time.
For the next 24 hours, save all your urine passed in the container provided.
Store your urine container in the refrigerator or a cooler with ice.
Return the sample container to your health care provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
You don't need any special preparations for a crystals in urine test. Be sure to carefully follow all the instructions for providing a 24-hour urine sample.
There is no known risk to having a crystals in urine test.
If a large number, large size, or certain types of crystal are found in your urine, it may mean you have a kidney stone that requires medical treatment, but it doesn't always mean you need treatment. Sometimes a small kidney stone can pass through your urine on its own, and cause little or no pain. Also, certain medicines, your diet, and other factors can affect your results. If you have questions about your urine crystal results, talk to your health care provider.
If a urinalysis is part of your regular checkup, your urine will be tested for a variety of substances in addition to crystals. These include red and white blood cells, proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, bacteria, and yeast.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (9)
Drawing of three kidney stones of various shapes. The stones are labeled golf ball–sized and brown, small and smooth, and jagged and yellow
Kidney stones vary in size and shape. These stones are not actual size.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Kidney stone
Localisation of pain caused by kidney stones
Image by Image by Blausen.com staff. \"Blausen gallery 2014\". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 20018762
Kidney stone
KUB Radiograph showing a large staghorn calculus involving the major calyces and renal pelvis in a person with severe scoliosis. Struvite stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn calculi which can require invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy or even anatrophic nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment.
Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Who gets kidney stones?
Most people who have early-stage kidney disease can drink a liberal amount of fluids. But as CKD progresses, the kidneys become less able to remove water from the bloodstream. Drinking too much fluid can cause hypertension and swelling. The heart becomes strained as it works harder to pump the increased volume of blood. If you have CKD, consult with your doctor about how many fluids you can safely drink. Let your doctor know if you are producing either more or less urine than you used to or if you have any swelling in any part of your body. As a general rule, the more urine you produce, the more you fluids you can drink.
Image by TheVisualMD
What are the symptoms of kidney stones?
Kidney Stones causing Back Pain : Most types of kidney disease, such as those caused by high blood pressure and diabetes, don't cause pain. Kidney stones and infections do cause pain. Although the pain actually originates in the organ, it may seem to come from the back or from other parts of your body. Pain caused by your kidneys is usually felt in your flank area, at the lower edge of the ribs and on either side of the spine. Kidney pain is usually sharp and severe, and it generally occurs in waves.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid
Fluorescent uric acid : Spiked rods of monosodium urate crystals photographed under polarized light from a synovial fluid sample. Formation of en: monosodium urate crystals in the joints are associated with gout.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Micrograph showing crystals within a urine cytology specimen
Micrograph showing crystals within a urine cytology specimen. Pap stain.
Image by Nephron
Drawing of three kidney stones of various shapes. The stones are labeled golf ball–sized and brown, small and smooth, and jagged and yellow
NIDDK Image Library
Kidney stone
Image by Blausen.com staff. \"Blausen gallery 2014\". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine. DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 20018762
Kidney stone
Nevit Dilmen (talk)
Who gets kidney stones?
TheVisualMD
What are the symptoms of kidney stones?
TheVisualMD
Uric acid
Bobjgalindo
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Doruk Salancı
Micrograph showing crystals within a urine cytology specimen
Nephron
PH of Urine Test
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Acid Loading Test, Urine pH, Alkaline Urine Test, Acidic Urine Test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. Any pH higher than 8 is basic or alkaline, and any under 6 is acidic. A urine pH test is carried out as a part of a urinalysis.
{"label":"Urine pH reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.5},"text":"This means that your urine is acidic. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of meat, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Metabolic acidosis","Respiratory acidosis","Xanthine kidney stones","Cystine kidney stones","Uric acid kidney stones","Diabetes","Diarrhea","Starvation","Fanconi syndrome","Milkman syndrome"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":8},"text":"A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":14},"text":"This means that your urine is alkaline. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Kidney failure","Urinary tract infection","Calcium carbonate kidney stones","Calcium phosphate kidney stones","Struvite kidney stones","Respiratory alkalosis","Metabolic alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"value":6.3,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
pH
4.5
8
Your result is Normal.
A normal urine pH range is between 4.5 and 8.0.
Related conditions
A urine pH test is the analysis of the acidity/alkalinity of the urine. It is part of the chemical examination in a urinalysis. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
Some of the most common uses of the urine pH test are:
Evaluate the risk of developing kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
Assessment of metabolic acidosis
Monitor treatment of uric acid kidney stones
Help identify crystals in the urine
You will need to provide a urine sample.
No preparations are required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
A high urine pH (alkaline urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables. Other causes include:
Kidney failure
Urinary tract infection
Kidney stones made up from calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate)
Respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis
A low urine pH (acid urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of meat. Other causes include:
Metabolic acidosis
Respiratory acidosis
Kidney stones made up from xanthine, cystine, and uric acid
Diabetes
Diarrhea
Starvation
Fanconi syndrome
Milkman syndrome
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
013037: pH, Urine | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
{"label":"White Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{cells}\/uL","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Borderline","long":"Borderline","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":100},"text":"This is usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment. Discuss your result with your doctor. ","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Vaginal infection"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":200},"text":"A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Urinary tract inflammation","Pyelonephritis","Glomerulonephritis","Interstitial nephritis","Renal inflammatory processes"]}],"value":5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{cells}/uL
10
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, are part of the immune system. These cells protect your body against viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungus, and any other strange organism or substance that may want to enter into your system.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that WBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
The normal range for WBCs in urine is:
<10 WBC/µl: not significant
10-100 WBC/µl: usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment
>100 WBC/µl: suggestive of infection
It is also considered normal to have less than 5 WBCs/hpf. A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
Pyuria
Pyuria : White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Pyuria
Bobjgalindo
Calcium, Urine Test
Calcium, Urine Test
A calcium in urine test measures calcium levels in urine. Abnormal calcium levels may indicate a kidney stone or other medical condition.
Calcium, Urine Test
A calcium in urine test measures calcium levels in urine. Abnormal calcium levels may indicate a kidney stone or other medical condition.
{"label":"Calcium, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/h","code":"mg\/(24.h)","name":"milligram per 24 hour"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":100},"text":"","conditions":["Kidney Stones","malabsorption disorders","vitamin D deficiency","hypoparathyroidism","use of thiazide diuretics"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":300},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":300,"max":600},"text":"Abnormally high levels of calcium can result in fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, increased thirst and urination.","conditions":["Hypercalcemia","Milk-alkali Syndrome","Idiopathic Hpercalciuria","Sarcoidosis","renal tubular acidosis","vitamin D intoxication","use of loop diuretics","kidney failure"]}],"value":200}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/h
100
300
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A calcium in urine test measures the amount of calcium in your urine. Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. You need calcium for healthy bones and teeth. Calcium is also essential for proper functioning of your nerves, muscles, and heart. Almost all of your body's calcium is stored in your bones. A small amount circulates in the blood, and the remainder is filtered by the kidneys and passed into your urine. If urine calcium levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a medical condition, such as kidney disease or kidney stones. Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like substances that can form in one or both kidneys when calcium or other minerals build up in the urine. Most kidney stones are formed from calcium.
Too much or too little calcium in the blood can also indicate a kidney disorder, as well as certain bone diseases, and other medical problems. So if you have symptoms of one of these disorders, your health care provider may order a calcium blood test, along with a calcium in urine test. In addition, a calcium blood test is often included as part of a regular check-up.
A calcium in urine test may be used to diagnose or monitor kidney function or kidney stones. It may also be used to diagnose disorders of the parathyroid, a gland near the thyroid that helps regulate the amount of calcium in your body.
You may need a calcium in urine test if you have symptoms of a kidney stone. These symptoms include:
Severe back pain
Abdominal pain
Nausea and vomiting
Blood in the urine
Frequent urination
You may also need a calcium in urine test if you have symptoms of a parathyroid disorder.
Symptoms of too much parathyroid hormone include:
Nausea and vomiting
Loss of appetite
Abdominal pain
Fatigue
Frequent urination
Bone and joint pain
Symptoms of too little parathyroid hormone include:
Abdominal pain
Muscle cramps
Tingling fingers
Dry skin
Brittle nails
You'll need to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a 24-hour urine sample test. Your health care provider or a laboratory professional will give you a container to collect your urine in and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. A 24-hour urine sample test generally includes the following steps:
Empty your bladder in the morning and flush that urine down. Do not collect this urine. Record the time.
For the next 24 hours, save all your urine in the container provided.
Store your urine container in a refrigerator or a cooler with ice.
Return the sample container to your health provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
You don't need any special preparations for a calcium in urine test. Be sure to carefully follow all the instructions for providing a 24-hour urine sample.
There is no known risk to having a calcium in urine test.
If your results show higher than normal calcium levels in your urine, it may indicate:
Risk for or the presence of a kidney stone
Hyperparathyroidism, a condition in which your parathyroid gland produces too much parathyroid hormone
Sarcoidosis, a disease that causes inflammation in the lungs, lymph nodes, or other organs
Too much calcium in your diet from vitamin D supplements or milk
If your results show lower than normal calcium levels in your urine, it may indicate:
Hypoparathyroidism, a condition in which your parathyroid gland produces too little parathyroid hormone
Vitamin D deficiency
A kidney disorder
If your calcium levels are not normal, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition needing treatment. Other factors, such as diet, supplements, and certain medicines, including antacids, can affect your urine calcium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
A calcium in urine test does not tell you how much calcium is in your bones. Bone health can be measured with a type of x-ray called a bone density scan, or dexa scan. A dexa scan measures the mineral content, including calcium, and other aspects of your bones.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (4)
Female Skeletal System and Pivot Joint
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the female skeletal system. Joints (pivots) along a central axis (the spine), bend and turn the connecting limbs allowing the arms and legs flexibility to place themselves in infinite positions.
Image by TheVisualMD
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones throughout a person's life; calcium also plays critical roles in nerve signaling, muscle contraction, the health of blood vessels, and the regularity of the heart beat. So important are these functions that when calcium levels are inadequate, the body will demineralize bone to maintain normal blood levels of the mineral.
Image by TheVisualMD
Coronary Calcium Scan
Coronary Calcium Scan. Figure A shows the position of the heart in the body and the location and angle of the coronary calcium scan image. Figure B is a coronary calcium scan image showing calcifications in a coronary artery.
Image by NHLBI/NIH
Human Skeleton
Relaxed Adult Human Skeleton
Image by HypnoArt
Female Skeletal System and Pivot Joint
TheVisualMD
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.
TheVisualMD
Coronary Calcium Scan
NHLBI/NIH
Human Skeleton
HypnoArt
Urine Color Test
Urine Color Test
Also called: Color Ur
A urine color test is a macroscopic analysis that evaluates how pigmented the urine looks. Regular urine color ranges from clear to pale yellow. An unusual urine color can be a sign of a health problem.
Urine Color Test
Also called: Color Ur
A urine color test is a macroscopic analysis that evaluates how pigmented the urine looks. Regular urine color ranges from clear to pale yellow. An unusual urine color can be a sign of a health problem.
{"label":"Urine color reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Y","long":"Yellow","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Regular urine color ranges from clear to pale yellow. Urobilin or urochrome is the chemical primarily responsible for the yellow color of urine.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"ROP","long":"Red or pink","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"This can be due to the presence\u00a0of blood, certain foods such as beets, or medications such as rifampin or phenazopyridine.","conditions":["Hematuria","Hemoglobinuria","Myoglobinuria","Porphyria","Intake of certain drugs"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"O","long":"Orange","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"The most common cause of orange-colored urine is dehydration. Other causes include the intake of certain\u00a0medications or\u00a0problems with your liver or bile duct.\u00a0","conditions":["Dehydration","Bile pigments","Intake of certain drugs","Liver problems","Bile duct problems"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"BOG","long":"Blue or green","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"This can be a result of\u00a0the intake or administration of dyes, medications, or due to certain medical conditions.","conditions":["Pseudomonal UTI","Biliverdin","Familial benign hypercalcemia","Blue diaper syndrome","Intake of certain drugs"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"DB","long":"Dark brown","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":5},"text":"This can result from foods like fava beans or aloe; medications such as antimalarial drugs, metronidazole, nitrofurantoin, and methocarbamol; medical conditions related to liver and kidney disorders; or from extreme exercise.<br \/>\n","conditions":["Bile pigments","Melanin","Methemoglobin","Muscle injury","Extreme exercise","Kidney disorders","Liver problems"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"O","long":"Other","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":6},"text":"The color of urine changes with the hydration level but may also change due to pigments in the food or from taking certain medicines. Some color changes may be a sign of a health condition that needs medical attention.","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":2},{"abnormal":3},{"borderline":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Yellow.
Regular urine color ranges from clear to pale yellow. Urobilin or urochrome is the chemical primarily responsible for the yellow color of urine.
Related conditions
A urine color test is a macroscopic analysis that evaluates how pigmented the urine looks. It is done by just looking at your urine sample, there is no need for special machines.
Normal urine has a yellow or amber tone, without any debris. Components of certain drugs and foods (such as beets or berries) can modify the color of urine and this can still be normal.
However, that’s not the case for certain medical conditions where the color of the urine reveal important information and can be helpful to diagnose a disease. Nowadays, unless something particular is being measured with a urine color test, a regular urinalysis is performed, which includes not only the urine color test, but will also include many other important aspects to consider when evaluating a person’s urine.
The most common uses for the urine test are:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
Drug screening
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking and any unusual food or beverage you’ve recently ingested.
No risks are associated with this test.
Normal urine has a yellow or amber tone. Unusual colors might be due to certain foods, medications, or a specific medical condition.
Red or pink urine: can be due to the presence of blood (hematuria), certain foods such as beets, or medications such as rifampin or phenazopyridine.
Orange urine: dehydration is the most common cause of orange-colored urine. Other causes include the intake of certain medications such as sulfasalazine, phenazopyridine, and certain chemotherapy drugs. It can also be due to problems with your liver or bile duct.
Blue or green urine: can be a result of dyes; medications such as indomethacin, propofol or amitriptyline; or due to a rare inherited disorder known as familial benign hypercalcemia, sometimes called blue diaper syndrome. Green urine can be found in urinary tract infections caused by Pseudomonas bacteria.
Dark brown urine: can result from intake of certain foods such as fava beans or aloe; medications such as antimalarial drugs, metronidazole, nitrofurantoin, or methocarbamol; medical conditions related to liver and kidney disorders; or from extreme exercise.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review; Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1153-1162. [accessed on Aug 18, 2018]
Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]
Urinalysis: MedlinePlus [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]
Jiexiu Zhao. Validation of urine colour L*a*b* for assessing hydration amongst athletes. Frontiers in Nutrition. Mar 13, 2024. doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.997189 [accessed on Mar 13, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (7)
Urine color variations
Color change in Urine indicating Well hydrated, Dehydrated, and Extremely Dehydrated
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Urine Hydration chart
Image by Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia
urine color chart to assess how hydrated you are
Are you drinking enough water? Use this urine colour chart to assess how hydrated you are. It's important to drink plenty of water every day to stay healthy.
Document by HealthDirect - Australian Government Department of Health
Urine of patient with porphyria
Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.
Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Hydration Status
Document by CDC
Choluria
Choluria
Image by Jmarchn/Wikimedia
Urine color variations
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Urine Hydration chart
Aishik Rehman/Wikimedia
urine color chart to assess how hydrated you are
HealthDirect - Australian Government Department of Health
Urine of patient with porphyria
Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
Hydration Status
CDC
Choluria
Jmarchn/Wikimedia
Urination
Urination male
Image by !Original:Steven K. EllisVector: Baidax/Wikimedia
Urination male
Depiction of male urination.
Image by !Original:Steven K. EllisVector: Baidax/Wikimedia
Urination
Discharge of urine, liquid waste processed by the kidney, from the body.
Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
Additional Materials (4)
Male urination - on white - 2
Drawing depicting human male urination
Image by Steven K Ellis/Wikimedia
Female urination - on white - 11
Urination beer semki
Image by Kokotron/Wikimedia
Don't Urinate or Difficulty urinating
Official sign in Berlin, Germany: don't piss here
Image by Gerbil/Wikimedia
Physiology of Micturition
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Male urination - on white - 2
Steven K Ellis/Wikimedia
Female urination - on white - 11
Kokotron/Wikimedia
Don't Urinate or Difficulty urinating
Gerbil/Wikimedia
16:27
Physiology of Micturition
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Urination in Infants
Full Diaper
Image by Mahesh Patel
Full Diaper
Full Baby diaper
Image by Mahesh Patel
Urination in Infants
Infants urinate as often as every 1 to 3 hours or as infrequently as every 4 to 6 hours. In case of sickness or if the weather is very hot, urine output might drop by half and still be normal.
Urination should never be painful. If you notice any signs of distress while your infant is urinating, notify your child's health care provider because this could be a sign of infection or some other problem in the urinary tract. In a healthy child, urine is light to dark yellow in color. (The darker the color, the more concentrated the urine; the urine is more concentrated when the child is not drinking much liquid.) The presence of blood in the urine or a bloody spot on the diaper is not normal and should prompt a call to the health care provider. If this bleeding occurs with other symptoms, such as abdominal pain or bleeding in other areas, immediate medical attention is needed.
Source: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
Additional Materials (9)
Urinary and Bowel Disorders in Children
Video by PrincetonHealth/YouTube
Bloody Urine: Cause for Concern?
Video by HopkinsChildrens/YouTube
UTIs in Children | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
Learn About the Voiding CystoUrethroGram (VCUG) Prodedure
Video by Mayo Clinic Health System/YouTube
Is That Blood In My Newborns Urine? | Pediatric Advice
Video by paulthomasmd - Dr. Paul/YouTube
Frequent Urination in Children - Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
Video by FirstCry Parenting/YouTube
Urinary Tract Infections: Dr. MacAleer, CHOC Children's
The Nephron : Each kidney contains over one million nephrons, the structural and functional units of the kidneys. Nephrons are very fine blood-filtering tubules, about 1-2 inches long. At one end of the tubule is a capsule that contains a cluster of capillaries called the glomerulus. Together, the capsule and glomerulus form the renal corpuscle. Blood flows to and from the glomerulus through tiny arteries called arterioles. In the glomerulus, fluid filters out of the blood and through the inner wall of the capsule into the nephron tubule. As it does so, certain substances are secreted into it, and others, like water, are selectively reabsorbed from it. The final product in this process is urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Physiology of Urine Formation
Having reviewed the anatomy and microanatomy of the urinary system, now is the time to focus on the physiology. You will discover that different parts of the nephron utilize specific processes to produce urine: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. You will learn how each of these processes works and where they occur along the nephron and collecting ducts. The physiologic goal is to modify the composition of the plasma and, in doing so, produce the waste product urine.
Failure of the renal anatomy and/or physiology can lead suddenly or gradually to renal failure. In this event, a number of symptoms, signs, or laboratory findings point to the diagnosis.
Symptoms of Kidney Failure
Weakness
Lethargy
Shortness of breath
Widespread edema
Anemia
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Heart arrhythmias
Uremia (high urea level in the blood)
Loss of appetite
Fatigue
Excessive urination
Oliguria (too little urine output)
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute is termed the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The heart pumps about 5 L blood per min under resting conditions. Approximately 20 percent or one liter enters the kidneys to be filtered. On average, this liter results in the production of about 125 mL/min filtrate produced in men (range of 90 to 140 mL/min) and 105 mL/min filtrate produced in women (range of 80 to 125 mL/min). This amount equates to a volume of about 180 L/day in men and 150 L/day in women. Ninety-nine percent of this filtrate is returned to the circulation by reabsorption so that only about 1–2 liters of urine are produced per day.
Calculating Urine Formation per Day
Flow per minute (mL)
Calculation
Renal blood flow
1050
Cardiac output is about 5000 mL/minute, of which 21 percent flows through the kidney.
5000*0.21 = 1050 mL blood/min
Renal plasma flow
578
Renal plasma flow equals the blood flow per minute times the hematocrit. If a person has a hematocrit of 45, then the renal plasma flow is 55 percent.
1050*0.55 = 578 mL plasma/min
Glomerular filtration rate
110
The GFR is the amount of plasma entering Bowman’s capsule per minute. It is the renal plasma flow times the fraction that enters the renal capsule (19 percent).
578*0.19 = 110 mL filtrate/min
Urine
1296 ml/day
The filtrate not recovered by the kidney is the urine that will be eliminated. It is the GFR times the fraction of the filtrate that is not reabsorbed (0.8 percent).
110*.008 = 0.9 mL urine /min
Multiply urine/min times 60 minutes times 24 hours to get daily urine production.
0.9*60*24 = 1296 mL/day urine
GFR is influenced by the hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure on either side of the capillary membrane of the glomerulus. Recall that filtration occurs as pressure forces fluid and solutes through a semipermeable barrier with the solute movement constrained by particle size. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure produced by a fluid against a surface. If you have a fluid on both sides of a barrier, both fluids exert a pressure in opposing directions. Net fluid movement will be in the direction of the lower pressure. Osmosis is the movement of solvent (water) across a membrane that is impermeable to a solute in the solution. This creates a pressure, osmotic pressure, which will exist until the solute concentration is the same on both sides of a semipermeable membrane. As long as the concentration differs, water will move. Glomerular filtration occurs when glomerular hydrostatic pressure exceeds the luminal hydrostatic pressure of Bowman’s capsule. There is also an opposing force, the osmotic pressure, which is typically higher in the glomerular capillary.
To understand why this is so, look more closely at the microenvironment on either side of the filtration membrane. You will find osmotic pressure exerted by the solutes inside the lumen of the capillary as well as inside of Bowman’s capsule. Since the filtration membrane limits the size of particles crossing the membrane, the osmotic pressure inside the glomerular capillary is higher than the osmotic pressure in Bowman’s capsule. Recall that cells and the medium-to-large proteins cannot pass between the podocyte processes or through the fenestrations of the capillary endothelial cells. This means that red and white blood cells, platelets, albumins, and other proteins too large to pass through the filter remain in the capillary, creating an average colloid osmotic pressure of 30 mm Hg within the capillary. The absence of proteins in Bowman’s space (the lumen within Bowman’s capsule) results in an osmotic pressure near zero. Thus, the only pressure moving fluid across the capillary wall into the lumen of Bowman’s space is hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic (fluid) pressure is sufficient to push water through the membrane despite the osmotic pressure working against it. The sum of all of the influences, both osmotic and hydrostatic, results in a net filtration pressure (NFP) of about 10 mm Hg.
Net Filtration Pressure
The NFP is the sum of osmotic and hydrostatic pressures.
A proper concentration of solutes in the blood is important in maintaining osmotic pressure both in the glomerulus and systemically. There are disorders in which too much protein passes through the filtration slits into the kidney filtrate. This excess protein in the filtrate leads to a deficiency of circulating plasma proteins. In turn, the presence of protein in the urine increases its osmolarity; this holds more water in the filtrate and results in an increase in urine volume. Because there is less circulating protein, principally albumin, the osmotic pressure of the blood falls. Less osmotic pressure pulling water into the capillaries tips the balance towards hydrostatic pressure, which tends to push it out of the capillaries. The net effect is that water is lost from the circulation to interstitial tissues and cells. This “plumps up” the tissues and cells, a condition termed systemic edema.
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
NFP determines filtration rates through the kidney. It is determined as follows:
As you can see, there is a low net pressure across the filtration membrane. Intuitively, you should realize that minor changes in osmolarity of the blood or changes in capillary blood pressure result in major changes in the amount of filtrate formed at any given point in time. The kidney is able to cope with a wide range of blood pressures. In large part, this is due to the autoregulatory nature of smooth muscle. When you stretch it, it contracts. Thus, when blood pressure goes up, smooth muscle in the afferent capillaries contracts to limit any increase in blood flow and filtration rate. When blood pressure drops, the same capillaries relax to maintain blood flow and filtration rate. The net result is a relatively steady flow of blood into the glomerulus and a relatively steady filtration rate in spite of significant systemic blood pressure changes. Mean arterial blood pressure is calculated by adding 1/3 of the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures to the diastolic pressure. Therefore, if the blood pressure is 110/80, the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is 30. One third of this is 10, and when you add this to the diastolic pressure of 80, you arrive at a calculated mean arterial pressure of 90 mm Hg. Therefore, if you use mean arterial pressure for the GBHP in the formula for calculating NFP, you can determine that as long as mean arterial pressure is above approximately 60 mm Hg, the pressure will be adequate to maintain glomerular filtration. Blood pressures below this level will impair renal function and cause systemic disorders that are severe enough to threaten survival. This condition is called shock.
Determination of the GFR is one of the tools used to assess the kidney’s excretory function. This is more than just an academic exercise. Since many drugs are excreted in the urine, a decline in renal function can lead to toxic accumulations. Additionally, administration of appropriate drug dosages for those drugs primarily excreted by the kidney requires an accurate assessment of GFR. GFR can be estimated closely by intravenous administration of inulin. Inulin is a plant polysaccharide that is neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidney. Its appearance in the urine is directly proportional to the rate at which it is filtered by the renal corpuscle. However, since measuring inulin clearance is cumbersome in the clinical setting, most often, the GFR is estimated by measuring naturally occurring creatinine, a protein-derived molecule produced by muscle metabolism that is not reabsorbed and only slightly secreted by the nephron.
Chapter Review
The entire volume of the blood is filtered through the kidneys about 300 times per day, and 99 percent of the water filtered is recovered. The GFR is influenced by hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure. Under normal circumstances, hydrostatic pressure is significantly greater and filtration occurs. The hydrostatic pressure of the glomerulus depends on systemic blood pressure, autoregulatory mechanisms, sympathetic nervous activity, and paracrine hormones. The kidney can function normally under a wide range of blood pressures due to the autoregulatory nature of smooth muscle.
Overview
The entire volume of the blood is filtered through the kidneys about 300 times per day, and 99 percent of the water filtered is recovered. The GFR is influenced by hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure. Under normal circumstances, hydrostatic pressure is significantly greater and filtration occurs. The hydrostatic pressure of the glomerulus depends on systemic blood pressure, autoregulatory mechanisms, sympathetic nervous activity, and paracrine hormones. The kidney can function normally under a wide range of blood pressures due to the autoregulatory nature of smooth muscle.
Source: CNX OpenStax
Additional Materials (3)
Nephron Anatomy
An illustration depicting the nephron anatomy.
Image by BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Anatomy and physiology of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, and nephron
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Nephron Anatomy
BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
6:50
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
12:21
Anatomy and physiology of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, and nephron
Osmosis/YouTube
Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
Female Urinary System
Male Urinary System
1
2
Female and Male Urinary Systems
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Female Urinary System
Male Urinary System
1
2
Female and Male Urinary Systems
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
Rather than start with urine formation, this section will start with urine excretion. Urine is a fluid of variable composition that requires specialized structures to remove it from the body safely and efficiently. Blood is filtered, and the filtrate is transformed into urine at a relatively constant rate throughout the day. This processed liquid is stored until a convenient time for excretion. All structures involved in the transport and storage of the urine are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. This transport and storage system not only stores the waste, but it protects the tissues from damage due to the wide range of pH and osmolarity of the urine, prevents infection by foreign organisms, and for the male, provides reproductive functions.
Urethra
The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for disposal. The urethra is the only urologic organ that shows any significant anatomic difference between males and females; all other urine transport structures are identical (Figure 25.3).
Figure 25.3 Female and Male Urethras The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. This image shows (a) a female urethra and (b) a male urethra.
The urethra in both males and females begins inferior and central to the two ureteral openings forming the three points of a triangular-shaped area at the base of the bladder called the trigone (Greek tri- = “triangle” and the root of the word “trigonometry”). The urethra tracks posterior and inferior to the pubic symphysis (see Figure 25.3a). In both males and females, the proximal urethra is lined by transitional epithelium, whereas the terminal portion is a nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. In the male, pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines the urethra between these two cell types. Voiding is regulated by an involuntary autonomic nervous system-controlled internal urinary sphincter, consisting of smooth muscle and voluntary skeletal muscle that forms the external urinary sphincter below it.
Female Urethra
The external urethral orifice is embedded in the anterior vaginal wall inferior to the clitoris, superior to the vaginal opening (introitus), and medial to the labia minora. Its short length, about 4 cm, is less of a barrier to fecal bacteria than the longer male urethra and the best explanation for the greater incidence of UTI in women. Voluntary control of the external urethral sphincter is a function of the pudendal nerve. It arises in the sacral region of the spinal cord, traveling via the S2–S4 nerves of the sacral plexus.
Male Urethra
The male urethra passes through the prostate gland immediately inferior to the bladder before passing below the pubic symphysis (see Figure 25.3b). The length of the male urethra varies between men but averages 20 cm in length. It is divided into four regions: the preprostatic urethra, the prostatic urethra, the membranous urethra, and the spongy or penile urethra. The preprostatic urethra is very short and incorporated into the bladder wall. The prostatic urethra passes through the prostate gland. During sexual intercourse, it receives sperm via the ejaculatory ducts and secretions from the seminal vesicles. Paired Cowper’s glands (bulbourethral glands) produce and secrete mucus into the urethra to buffer urethral pH during sexual stimulation. The mucus neutralizes the usually acidic environment and lubricates the urethra, decreasing the resistance to ejaculation. The membranous urethra passes through the deep muscles of the perineum, where it is invested by the overlying urethral sphincters. The spongy urethra exits at the tip (external urethral orifice) of the penis after passing through the corpus spongiosum. Mucous glands are found along much of the length of the urethra and protect the urethra from extremes of urine pH. Innervation is the same in both males and females.
Bladder
The urinary bladder collects urine from both ureters (Figure 25.4). The bladder lies anterior to the uterus in females, posterior to the pubic bone and anterior to the rectum. During late pregnancy, its capacity is reduced due to compression by the enlarging uterus, resulting in increased frequency of urination. In males, the anatomy is similar, minus the uterus, and with the addition of the prostate inferior to the bladder. The bladder is a retroperitoneal organ whose "dome" distends superiorly when the bladder is filling with urine.
The bladder is a highly distensible organ comprised of irregular crisscrossing bands of smooth muscle collectively called the detrusor muscle. The interior surface is made of transitional cellular epithelium that is structurally suited for the large volume fluctuations of the bladder. When empty, it resembles columnar epithelia, but when stretched, it “transitions” (hence the name) to a squamous appearance (see Figure 25.4). Volumes in adults can range from nearly zero to 500–600 mL.
The detrusor muscle contracts with significant force in the young. The bladder’s strength diminishes with age, but voluntary contractions of abdominal skeletal muscles can increase intra-abdominal pressure to promote more forceful bladder emptying. Such voluntary contraction is also used in forceful defecation and childbirth.
Micturition Reflex
Micturition is a less-often used, but proper term for urination or voiding. It results from an interplay of involuntary and voluntary actions by the internal and external urethral sphincters. When bladder volume reaches about 150 mL, an urge to void is sensed but is easily overridden. Voluntary control of urination relies on consciously preventing relaxation of the external urethral sphincter to maintain urinary continence. As the bladder fills, subsequent urges become harder to ignore. Ultimately, voluntary constraint fails with resulting incontinence, which will occur as bladder volume approaches 300 to 400 mL.
Normal micturition is a result of stretch receptors in the bladder wall that transmit nerve impulses to the sacral region of the spinal cord to generate a spinal reflex. The resulting parasympathetic neural outflow causes contraction of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter. At the same time, the spinal cord inhibits somatic motor neurons, resulting in the relaxation of the skeletal muscle of the external urethral sphincter. The micturition reflex is active in infants but with maturity, children learn to override the reflex by asserting external sphincter control, thereby delaying voiding (potty training). This reflex may be preserved even in the face of spinal cord injury that results in paraplegia or quadriplegia. However, relaxation of the external sphincter may not be possible in all cases, and therefore, periodic catheterization may be necessary for bladder emptying.
Nerves involved in the control of urination include the hypogastric, pelvic, and pudendal (Figure 25.5). Voluntary micturition requires an intact spinal cord and functional pudendal nerve arising from the sacral micturition center. Since the external urinary sphincter is voluntary skeletal muscle, actions by cholinergic neurons maintain contraction (and thereby continence) during filling of the bladder. At the same time, sympathetic nervous activity via the hypogastric nerves suppresses contraction of the detrusor muscle. With further bladder stretch, afferent signals traveling over sacral pelvic nerves activate parasympathetic neurons. This activates efferent neurons to release acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions, producing detrusor contraction and bladder emptying.
Figure 25.5 Nerves Innervating the Urinary System
Ureters
The kidneys and ureters are completely retroperitoneal, and the bladder has a peritoneal covering only over the dome. As urine is formed, it drains into the calyces of the kidney, which merge to form the funnel-shaped renal pelvis in the hilum of each kidney. The renal pelvis narrows to become the ureter of each kidney. As urine passes through the ureter, it does not passively drain into the bladder but rather is propelled by waves of peristalsis. As the ureters enter the pelvis, they sweep laterally, hugging the pelvic walls. As they approach the bladder, they turn medially and pierce the bladder wall obliquely. This is important because it creates an one-way valve (a physiological sphincter rather than an anatomical sphincter) that allows urine into the bladder but prevents reflux of urine from the bladder back into the ureter. Children born lacking this oblique course of the ureter through the bladder wall are susceptible to “vesicoureteral reflux,” which dramatically increases their risk of serious UTI. Pregnancy also increases the likelihood of reflux and UTI.
The ureters are approximately 30 cm long. The inner mucosa is lined with transitional epithelium (Figure 25.6) and scattered goblet cells that secrete protective mucus. The muscular layer of the ureter consists of longitudinal and circular smooth muscles that create the peristaltic contractions to move the urine into the bladder without the aid of gravity. Finally, a loose adventitial layer composed of collagen and fat anchors the ureters between the parietal peritoneum and the posterior abdominal wall.
Male Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System / Female Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System
Male Skeleton and Female Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System
Male Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System
Female Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System
Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human of a male figure with the muscular and skeletal systems and a focus on the urogenital system.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Urinary system
An illustration of the male and female human urinary system, including kidneys, bladder, ureter and urethra, pelvic floor muscles and the prostate.
Image by NIH Medical Arts
Female Urinary System
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the female urinary system revealing lateral view of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. The urinary system is responsible for fluid balance and waste excretion. Blood enters the kidneys where waste products are excreted to form a fluid called filtrate. Filtrate continues to collect additional waste products and minerals as it travels through the winding tubules of the kidney. Eventually the filtrate becomes urine as it is channeled out of the kidney, into the ureters, down to the bladder and eventually out through the urethra to the external body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Urinary System
3D visualization reconstructed from scanned human data of the urinary system revealing anterior view of the kidneys, ureters and bladder. The urinary system is responsible for fluid balance and waste excretion. Blood enters the kidneys where waste products are excreted to form a fluid called filtrate. Filtrate continues to collect additional waste products and minerals as it travels through the winding tubules of the kidney. Eventually the filtrate becomes urine as it is channeled out of the kidney, into the ureters, down to the bladder and eventually out through the urethra to the external body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urinary System Bladder, Kidneys, Ureters and Urethra
Urinary System _ Bladder, Kidneys, Ureters and Urethra
Image by TheVisualMD
Urinary System
Each day, our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of cellular wastes, along with excess electrolytes and water. As sensitive monitors of the body's fluid balance, the kidneys help regulate blood pressure. They also monitor oxygen levels in the blood and, if they detect a deficit, release a hormone that triggers red blood cell production.
Image by TheVisualMD
Drawing of woman coughing with pelvic bone and bladder revealed. An inset shows an enlarged view of the bladder with weak pelvic floor muscles that allow urine to escape
In stress incontinence, weak pelvic muscles can let urine escape when a cough or other action puts pressure on the bladder.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Male Urinary System
This anterior view of a male torso reveals the upper urinary tract (kidneys, ureter and bladder) in situ. Anatomy overlaying this system including the liver, pancreas, small intestines, and ribs, have been \"ghosted in\" in order to allow an unobstructed view of the structures underneath. Completely visible anatomy surrounding the kidneys include the perirenal fat, adrenal gland, pelvis, aorta, vena cava and lower spinal column. The kidneys are the body's primary filtering system, responsible for processing and eliminating wastes from the bloodstream such as excess salts and proteins. Once extracted, these are then broken down into a substance called urea. Urea flows to the bladder and is eventually expelled as urine. Working non-stop day and night, the kidneys filter nearly 200 quarts of blood per day, producing about two quarts of urine (depending on body size). The left kidney is usually positioned slightly higher in the body than the right. This occurs because the developing liver on the right side of the spine grows more rapidly than the kidneys and displaces the right kidney downwards.
Image by TheVisualMD
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney and Urine Transport
Video by Catalyst University/YouTube
Male Skeleton and Female Skeleton and Muscle Showing Urogenital System
TheVisualMD
Urinary system
NIH Medical Arts
Female Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Urinary System Bladder, Kidneys, Ureters and Urethra
TheVisualMD
Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Drawing of woman coughing with pelvic bone and bladder revealed. An inset shows an enlarged view of the bladder with weak pelvic floor muscles that allow urine to escape
NIDDK Image Library
Male Urinary System
TheVisualMD
10:00
Internal Anatomy of the Kidney and Urine Transport
Catalyst University/YouTube
Urination Disorders
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
The presence of blood in urine bag
Image by Own work/Wikimedia
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
The presence of blood in urine bag
!!! translate.google !!! Postrenal hematuria - the presence of blood in urine (because of damage to the urethra and prostate).
Image by Own work/Wikimedia
Urination Disorders
Abnormalities in the process of urine voiding, including bladder control, frequency of urination, as well as the volume and composition of urine.
Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
Additional Materials (1)
Biology of the Kidneys and Urinary Tract | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
1:48
Biology of the Kidneys and Urinary Tract | Merck Manual Consumer Version