Fanconi syndrome is a rare disorder of kidney tubule function in which certain substances normally absorbed into the bloodstream by the kidneys are released into the urine instead.
3D Rendering of the vascularization of the human kidney
Image by TheVisualMD
Summary
What Is Fanconi Syndrome?
Fanconi syndrome (FS) affects the way the kidneys work. In FS, the kidneys do not properly absorb electrolytes and other substances into the body. Symptoms can begin at any age. They may include slow growth, fragile bones, frequent urination, and dehydration. Other symptoms include weakness, tremors, and fatigue. FS can occur as an isolated condition or as part of other diseases. Isolated FS may be caused by genetic variants in one of several different genes, and can be inherited in families. FS can also occur as part of another condition or as a side effect of certain medications and other environmental exposures. Diagnosis is based on the symptoms, clinical exam, and urine testing. Treatment depends on the cause, and is focused on managing the symptoms.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Symptoms
What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Fanconi Syndrome?
Symptoms may include:
Excess protein and other nutrients in the urine
Growth delay
Dehydration
Thirst
Fatigue
Muscle weakness
FS may cause soft, weak bones, known an rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. This can lead to bone pain and fractures. Lack of absorption of potassium can lead to tremor, numbness, and tingling. In some cases, FS can sometimes lead to kidney failure.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Causes
What Causes Fanconi Syndrome?
EHHADH, SLC34A1, GATM, or NDUFAF6 gene not working correctly. DNA changes known as pathogenic variants are responsible for making genes work incorrectly or sometimes, not at all.
In many cases, FS occurs a part of another inherited condition. Cystinosis is the most common inherited condition associated with FS.
FS can also be caused by environmental causes, such as heavy metals, drugs used in chemotherapy, and some other chemicals.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Inheritance
How Is Fanconi Syndrome Inherited?
If Fanconi syndrome occurs as part of another condition, inheritance depends on the underlying condition.
Many cases of Fanconi syndrome are not inherited in families and occur due to environmental exposures.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Diagnosis
How Is Fanconi Syndrome Diagnosed?
Fanconi syndrome is diagnosed based on the symptoms, clinical exam, and urine testing. People with Fanconi syndrome may have abnormally high amounts of protein, glucose, potassium, and salts in their urine.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Amino Acids Test
Amino Acids Test
Also called: Amino Acid Panel
Amino acids are protein building blocks necessary for the body to function properly. When the body cannot break down an amino acid, it starts to build up in the organism, causing serious health problems and even death. The amino acids test is a routine screening test done in all newborns.
Amino Acids Test
Also called: Amino Acid Panel
Amino acids are protein building blocks necessary for the body to function properly. When the body cannot break down an amino acid, it starts to build up in the organism, causing serious health problems and even death. The amino acids test is a routine screening test done in all newborns.
Amino acids are protein building blocks that are important for many body functions, especially metabolism. Metabolism is the process through which your body converts food into the energy you need to live.
An amino acid test measures the levels of several amino acids in your baby’s blood.
Amino acid metabolism disorders can seriously affect how the body works. People with these disorders can’t break down certain amino acids, which causes harmful substances to build-up in the body. Without treatment, this could eventually lead to serious health problems and even death.
Since many newborns with amino acid metabolism disorders seem healthy at first, the amino acids test is done as routine screening on all newborns before discharge from the hospital.
A small sharp tool called a lancet will be used to prick your baby’s finger or heel to collect a drop of blood.
No preparations are usually necessary. Follow the instructions provided by your baby’s healthcare practitioner.
Your baby will cry and feel some pain when their skin is pricked; however, it is a quick procedure, and you can comfort them immediately after the extraction.
Low
Decreased amino acid levels may occur due to certain medical conditions, inadequate nutrition, and fever, among others. However, this is not suggestive of an amino acid metabolism disorder.
Normal
Normal amino acids levels mean your baby does not have any of the most common amino acid metabolism disorders. No further testing is required.
High
An increased amino acid level indicates your baby cannot break down (metabolize) that amino acid adequately. This strongly suggests an amino acid metabolism disorder. Further testing may be necessary.
Babies diagnosed with amino acid metabolism disorders can live a healthy life if they are promptly diagnosed and treated.
Plasma amino acids: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 02, 2018]
https://www.marchofdimes.org/baby/amino-acid-metabolism-disorders.aspx [accessed on Sep 15, 2020]
https://www.intechopen.com/books/biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis/amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders [accessed on Sep 15, 2020]
https://www.mountsinai.on.ca/care/family-medicine-genetics-program/paediatric [accessed on Sep 15, 2020]
https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/82594 [accessed on Sep 15, 2020]
https://www.cdc.gov/nbslabbulletin/bulletin.html [accessed on Sep 15, 2020]
Additional Materials (42)
Codons sun ("codesonne" in german); shows which base sequence encodes which amino acid; vectorized from png file
Codons sun ("codesonne" in german); shows which base sequence encodes which amino acid; vectorized from png file
Image by Mouagip (talk)
Amino Acid (Single) Molecule
Every type of protein is constructed of a long sequence of amino acids, which are organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. You might think of protein as a chain and amino acids as the links. About 20 amino acids (or 22, depending on how they`re categorized) are combined to make proteins in great structural variety. Protein types number in the hundreds of thousands, each with a sequence that is unique in the number, type, order, and shape of amino acids in its chain. There are two categories of amino acids. Essential amino acids are those that the body cannot produce. These 9 amino acids must be derived from your diet. The 11 nonessential amino acids are naturally synthesized in the body - but they are still essential to your health and well-being. In this model, carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, nitrogen atoms are blue, radicals are purple, and oxygen atoms are red. Interactive also available on white background. Please contact us at image@thevisualmd.com for details.
Image by TheVisualMD
Amino Acid (Folded) Molecule
Every type of protein is constructed of a long sequence of amino acids, which are organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds (green) to form an amino acid chain, called a peptide. When more than 4 amino acids bond together, it is called a polypeptide. These chains can contain hundreds of amino acids. The twenty amino acids can be conjoined and reordered in so many varieties as to yield hundreds of thousands of different protein types. With just two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond, constituting a dipeptide chain, there are 400 possible combinations. With three amino acids (a tripeptide), 8000 combinations. Variables include the number and type of amino acids combined; their sequence along a chain; the number of peptide bonds linking them together; the shapes assumed as polypeptide chains fold; and the three-dimensional structure of a chain or of multiple chains linked together. This model shows 4 amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, nitrogen atoms are blue, radicals are purple, peptide bonds are green, and oxygen atoms are red.Interactive also available on white background. Please contact us at image@thevisualmd.com for details.
Image by TheVisualMD
Amino Acid (Full) Molecule
Every type of protein is constructed of a long sequence of amino acids, which are organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds (green) to form an amino acid chain, or peptide. When more than 4 amino acids bond together, it is called a polypeptide. Polypeptides E69can contain hundreds of amino acids. The twenty amino acids can be conjoined and reordered in so many varieties as to yield hundreds of thousands of different protein types. With just two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond, constituting a dipeptide chain, there are 400 possible combinations. With three amino acids (a tripeptide), 8000 combinations. Variables include the number and type of amino acids combined; their sequence along a chain; the number of peptide bonds linking them together; the shapes assumed as polypeptide chains fold; and the three-dimensional structure of a chain or of multiple chains linked together. This model shows a full amino acid. Carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, nitrogen atoms are blue, radicals are purple, peptide bonds are green, and oxygen atoms are red. Interactive also available on white background. Please contact us at image@thevisualmd.com for details.
Image by TheVisualMD
Making Proteins
The process of protein synthesis begins within the nucleus of a cell, where DNA resides. In the process called transcription, a DNA helix is first unwound or "unzipped" to divulge the instructions for assembling a particular type of protein molecule. The instructions are then copied, or transcribed, to mRNA (messenger RNA), a snake-like strand that will carry the blueprint off for production. When transcription is complete, the mRNA exits the cell nucleus with its duplicate of the blueprint and shuttles off to the protein-making factory, a ribosome, to begin a process called translation. In translation, the ribosome translates the mRNA information - it reads the blueprints - to begin protein production. The mRNA remains at the ribosome factory and is itself used as the template for protein production. Amino acid molecules from within the cell are transported to the ribosome by tRNA (transfer RNA) and dock to the mRNA`s assembly line one by one. Each amino acid is adjoined to another by a peptide bond, creating a chain. The selection and sequence of amino acids in the chain, as determined by the blueprint, are central to defining which type of protein is being produced. The completed chain moves from the ribosome and is folded into a three-dimensional shape that further defines what kind of protein it will be. The protein is released and, like a final product sent out for delivery, taxis off in the blood stream to where it`s needed.
Image by TheVisualMD
Building Blocks
Amino acids are characterized as building blocks primarily because they are the structural units combined to make proteins. But the metaphor works a level or two deeper as well. Like a child`s play blocks, the amino acids can be stacked and grouped in many different ways with the potential for a broad assortment of protein constructions. Moreover, once a construction is erected, it can then be deconstructed without destroying the individual pieces — and the pieces used again to create entirely new structures. In the process of protein metabolism, the amino acid blocks are repeatedly disassembled and reassembled. The destructive and constructive phases (catabolism and anabolism, respectively) give shape, form, and purpose to the proteins that make life possible.
Image by TheVisualMD
Key Word: Protein
Second only to water as the most plentiful substance in the body, protein is central to critical functions throughout your life. Protein is a miraculous multitasker, and numerous activities of the brain and body depend on it fundamentally. It is a veritable Swiss Army knife of a nutrient that, once ingested, unlocks its modest packaging to serve a variety of critical functions and capabilities. Every type of protein is constructed of a long sequence of amino acids, which are organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. You might think of protein as a chain and amino acids as the links. Protein is available in numerous food sources, which provide amino acids that are deconstructed and then reconstructed into protein within the body. Animal foods, such as meat and dairy, are rich sources of “complete” proteins, which means their amino-acid chains are fully composed and can be easily absorbed during digestion. Most plant proteins, such as those in beans and legumes, are less complete in their protein makeup. Vegetarians need to take care to represent all of the essential amino acids in their diet.
Image by TheVisualMD
DNA Repair
Mutations can lead to changes in the protein sequence encoded by the DNA.
Image by CNX Openstax
Tyrosine
A non-essential amino acid. In animals it is synthesized from PHENYLALANINE. It is also the precursor of EPINEPHRINE; THYROID HORMONES; and melanin.
Tranfer RNA (tRNA) and Messenger RNA (mRNA) Involved in Protein Synthesis
The process of protein synthesis begins within the nucleus of a cell, where DNA resides. The first step is to reveal the blueprint. In the process called transcription, general transcription factors and RNA polymerase bind to the promoter region of a DNA nucleotide. The DNA helix is first unwound or \"unzipped\" to divulge the instructions for assembling a particular type of protein molecule. The instructions are then copied, or transcribed, to mRNA (messenger RNA), a snake-like strand that will carry the blueprint off for production (blue). When transcription is complete, the mRNA exits the cell nucleus with its duplicate of the blueprint and shuttles off to the protein-making factory, the ribosome. The mRNA remains at the ribosome factory and is itself used as the template for protein production. The strand is long and feeds in one side of the ribosome and out the other, advancing like a strip of film through a projector. Production commences as the amino acid \"parts\" arrive at the factory. As pictured here, amino acid molecules from within the cell are transported to the ribosome by tRNA (transfer RNA, yellow) and dock to the mRNA's assembly line one by one. Each amino acid is adjoined to another by a peptide bond, creating a chain. The selection and sequence of amino acids in the chain, as determined by the blueprint, are central to defining which type of protein is being produced.
Image by TheVisualMD
Peptide Bond
Different amino acids join together to form peptides, polypeptides, or proteins via dehydration synthesis. The bonds between the amino acids are peptide bonds.
Image by CNX Openstax
The Shape of Proteins
(a) The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain. (b) The secondary structure, which can take the form of an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet, is maintained by hydrogen bonds between amino acids in different regions of the original polypeptide strand. (c) The tertiary structure occurs as a result of further folding and bonding of the secondary structure. (d) The quaternary structure occurs as a result of interactions between two or more tertiary subunits. The example shown here is hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen to body tissues.
Image by CNX Openstax
Ornithine 3D Molecule
An amino acid produced in the urea cycle by the splitting off of urea from arginine. Ornithine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that plays a role in the urea cycle. Ornithine is abnormally accumulated in the body in ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency. The radical is ornithyl.
Structure of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Image by CNX Openstax
The Genetic Code
This figure shows the genetic code for translating each nucleotide triplet in mRNA into an amino acid or a termination signal in a nascent protein. (credit: modification of work by NIH)
Image by CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIH)
Notable mutations
Selection of notable mutations, ordered in a standard table of the genetic code of amino acids.
As can be seen, clinically important missense mutations generally change the properties of the coded amino acid residue between being basic, acidic, polar or nonpolar, while nonsense mutations result in a stop codon.
In the case of cancers, mutations cause aggravation of the conditions by impairing tumor suppressors or activating oncogenes.
Every U (uracil) in the mRNA corresponds to a T (thymine) in the original DNA. Therefore, mutations are often noted using T rather than U.
Mutations mentioned
Sickle-cell disease: GAG to GTG in the hemoglobin gene [1]
Huntington's disease: CAG insertions, which adds a string of glutamines to Huntingtin[1]
Friedreich's ataxia: In most cases, the mutant frataxin gene contains expanded GAA triplet repeats in the first intron;[2]
Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA), caused by an expansion of a CAG repeat encoding a polyglutamine tract in the atrophin-1 protein.[3]
Kennedy's disease, caused by expansion of a CAG repeat in the first exon of the androgen receptor gene.[4]
Fragile X Syndrome: CGG insertions on the X chromosome.[1] Practically, however, these are not related to arginine, because the mutations are located in the 5' untranslated region.
CTG in myotonic dystrophy.[5]
Spinocerebellar ataxia. Many types are caused by CAG repeats, see Wikipedia:Spinocerebellar ataxia#Treatment and prognosis for details.
Spinocerebellar ataxia: CTG [6]
β-thalassemia (β-globin gene)
C to U resulting in stop signal UAG [7]
also UGG to UGA[8]
D1822V by GAC->GTC[9] is the most common missense APC variant described to date in colorectal cancer.[10]
A49T (GCC to ACC)[11], V63M and V89L[11] are the most common missense substitutions in prostatic or type II steroid 5alpha-reductase gene in prostate cancer tissue.[12]
p.R50X is the most common nonsense mutation in myophosphorylase in McArdle's disease,[13] the most common Glycogen storage disease
Image by Mikael Häggström
Types of Hormones
The structures of peptide hormones (a) oxytocin, (b) growth hormone, and (c) follicle-stimulating hormone are shown. These peptide hormones are much larger than those derived from cholesterol or amino acids.
Image by CNX Openstax
Propagation of the Signal
In protein phosphorylation, a phosphate group (PO4-3 ) is added to residues of the amino acids serine, threonine, and tyrosine.
Image by CNX Openstax
Frameshift mutation
This type of mutation occurs when the addition or loss of DNA bases changes a gene's reading frame. A reading frame consists of groups of 3 bases that each code for one amino acid. A frameshift mutation shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code for amino acids. The resulting protein is usually nonfunctional. Insertions, deletions, and duplications can all be frameshift mutations.
Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine
Intron
An intron is a portion of a gene that does not code for amino acids.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Making Proteins
Image by TheVisualMD
A Protein for a Life Stage
Image by TheVisualMD
A Protein for a Life Stage
There are thousands upon thousands of protein types. So varied are their structures and functions that researchers still struggle to categorize them all, let alone understand what each one does. It`s another example of nature always being one giant step ahead of science. Many proteins are multifunctional and serve different systems of the body via different processes. Protein variety covers the biological spectrum from the physiological, cellular, chromosomal, and neurological to the hormonal, antioxidant, metabolic, and immunological. The orchestration and integration of protein function is as complex as life itself. In the images above, we`re looking at just two examples of a handful of specific proteins to demonstrate the macroscopic effects of microscopic protein molecules. While proteins support health all throughout your life, certain proteins have pronounced effects at specific developmental stages.
Image by TheVisualMD
Proline 3d Molecule
A non-essential amino acid that is synthesized from GLUTAMIC ACID. It is an essential component of COLLAGEN and is important for proper functioning of joints and tendons.
Glutamine 3D Molecule
A non-essential amino acid present abundantly throughout the body and is involved in many metabolic processes. It is synthesized from GLUTAMIC ACID and AMMONIA. It is the principal carrier of NITROGEN in the body and is an important energy source for many cells. (MESH/NLM/NIH)
Missense Mutation Example
One of the nucleotides (adenine) is replaced by another (cytosine) in the DNA sequence. This results in an incorrect amino acid being incorporated into the protein sequence.
Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine/Wikimedia
Methionine 3D Molecule
A sulfur-containing essential L-amino acid that is important in many body functions.
Leucine 3D Molecule
An essential branched-chain amino acid important for hemoglobin formation.
L-Threonin - L-Threonine
Structure of L-threonine
Image by NEUROtiker
Amino acid valine, simplified formula (i.e. without stereochemistry)
Image by Sten André
Nonsense Mutation
A nonsense mutation is the substitution of a single base pair that leads to the appearance of a stop codon where previously there was a codon specifying an amino acid.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
3D model of a phenylalanine molecule
3D model of a phenylalanine molecule
Image by Manuel Almagro Rivas
Isoleucine 3D Molecule
An essential branched-chain aliphatic amino acid found in many proteins. It is an isomer of LEUCINE. It is important in hemoglobin synthesis and regulation of blood sugar and energy levels.
Histidine 3D Molecule
An essential amino acid that is required for the production of HISTAMINE.
Valine 3D Molecule
A branched-chain essential amino acid that has stimulant activity. It promotes muscle growth and tissue repair. It is a precursor in the penicillin biosynthetic pathway. (MESH/NLM/NIH)
Threonine 3D Molucule
An essential amino acid occurring naturally in the L-form, which is the active form. It is found in eggs, milk, gelatin, and other proteins.
Cystine 3D Molecule
A covalently linked dimeric nonessential amino acid formed by the oxidation of CYSTEINE. Two molecules of cysteine are joined together by a disulfide bridge to form cystine. (MESH/NLM/NIH)
Tryptophan
An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for NITROGEN balance in adults. It is a precursor of INDOLE ALKALOIDS in plants. It is a precursor of SEROTONIN (hence its use as an antidepressant and sleep aid). It can be a precursor to NIACIN, albeit inefficiently, in mammals.
The Genetic Code
DNA holds all of the genetic information necessary to build a cell’s proteins. The nucleotide sequence of a gene is ultimately translated into an amino acid sequence of the gene’s corresponding protein.
Image by CNX Openstax
Point-Mutation-Sickle-Cell-Mutated-Hemoglobin 01
Diagram showing a part of the mutated DNA strand, resulting change in mRNA and amino acid sequence.
Image by Thomas Samuel for ACC-BioinnovationLab/Wikimedia
Vicilin Protein
Vicilin, found in lentils and nuts, is an example of an incomplete storage protein. This molecule was constructed based on the protein molecules in a garden pea. Plant proteins are considered `incomplete` or `low quality` because they lack one or more essential amino acid. Amino acids are the building blocks.
Image by TheVisualMD
Protein Structure
Protein Structure
Protein Structure
Protein Structure
1
2
3
4
Protein Structure
Every type of protein is constructed of a long sequence of amino acids, which are organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to form an amino acid chain, called a peptide. When more than 4 amino acids bond together, it is called a polypeptide. These chains can contain hundreds of amino acids. About 20 amino acids (or 22, depending on how they`re categorized) are combined to make proteins in great structural variety. Protein types number in the hundreds of thousands, each with a sequence that is unique in the number, type, order, and shape of amino acids in its chain. This interactive shows a single amino acid which is joined by peptide bonds to three other amino acids to form a peptide. The peptide then folds and joins with other polypeptide chains to form a protein. Carbon atoms are dark gray, hydrogen atoms are white, nitrogen atoms are blue, radicals are purple, peptide bonds are green, and oxygen atoms are red.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Codons sun ("codesonne" in german); shows which base sequence encodes which amino acid; vectorized from png file
Mouagip (talk)
Amino Acid (Single) Molecule
TheVisualMD
Amino Acid (Folded) Molecule
TheVisualMD
Amino Acid (Full) Molecule
TheVisualMD
Making Proteins
TheVisualMD
Building Blocks
TheVisualMD
Key Word: Protein
TheVisualMD
DNA Repair
CNX Openstax
Tyrosine
Tranfer RNA (tRNA) and Messenger RNA (mRNA) Involved in Protein Synthesis
TheVisualMD
Peptide Bond
CNX Openstax
The Shape of Proteins
CNX Openstax
Ornithine 3D Molecule
Structure of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
CNX Openstax
The Genetic Code
CNX Openstax (credit: modification of work by NIH)
Notable mutations
Mikael Häggström
Types of Hormones
CNX Openstax
Propagation of the Signal
CNX Openstax
Frameshift mutation
U.S. National Library of Medicine
Intron
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Making Proteins
TheVisualMD
A Protein for a Life Stage
TheVisualMD
A Protein for a Life Stage
TheVisualMD
Proline 3d Molecule
Glutamine 3D Molecule
Missense Mutation Example
U.S. National Library of Medicine/Wikimedia
Methionine 3D Molecule
Leucine 3D Molecule
L-Threonin - L-Threonine
NEUROtiker
Sten André
Nonsense Mutation
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
3D model of a phenylalanine molecule
Manuel Almagro Rivas
Isoleucine 3D Molecule
Histidine 3D Molecule
Valine 3D Molecule
Threonine 3D Molucule
Cystine 3D Molecule
Tryptophan
The Genetic Code
CNX Openstax
Point-Mutation-Sickle-Cell-Mutated-Hemoglobin 01
Thomas Samuel for ACC-BioinnovationLab/Wikimedia
Vicilin Protein
TheVisualMD
Protein Structure
TheVisualMD
Electrolyte Panel
Electrolyte Panel
Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes
An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.
Electrolyte Panel
Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes
An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.
Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity, heart rhythm, and other important functions. An electrolyte panel, also known as a serum electrolyte test, is a blood test that measures levels of the body's main electrolytes:
Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in the body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
Chloride, which also helps control the amount of fluid in the body. In addition, it helps maintain healthy blood volume and blood pressure.
Potassium, which helps your heart and muscles work properly.
Bicarbonate, which helps maintain the body's acid and base balance. It also plays an important role in moving carbon dioxide through the bloodstream.
Abnormal levels of any of these electrolytes can be a sign of a serious health problem, including kidney disease, high blood pressure, and a life-threatening irregularity in heart rhythm.
An electrolyte panel is often part of a routine blood screening or a comprehensive metabolic panel. The test may also be used to find out if your body has a fluid imbalance or an imbalance in acid and base levels.
Electrolytes are usually measured together. But sometimes they are tested individually. Separate testing may be done if a provider suspects a problem with a specific electrolyte.
You may need this test if you have symptoms indicating that your body's electrolytes may be out of balance. These include:
Nausea and/or vomiting
Confusion
Weakness
Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't any special preparations for an electrolyte panel.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will include measurements for each electrolyte. Abnormal electrolyte levels can be caused by several different conditions, including:
Dehydration
Kidney disease
Heart disease
Diabetes
Acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
Your specific results will depend on which electrolyte is affected and whether levels are too low or too high. If your electrolyte levels were not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical problem needing treatment. Many factors can affect electrolyte levels. These include taking in too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids and blood pressure medicines may cause abnormal results.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Your health care provider may order another test, called an anion gap, along with your electrolyte panel. Some electrolytes have a positive electric charge. Others have a negative electric charge. The anion gap is a measurement of the difference between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a serious health problem.
Electrolyte Panel: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (10)
Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
8:05
Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
9:43
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
4:19
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
6:36
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
EmpoweRN/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
Sodium
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
{"label":"Sodium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":139,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. Sodium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Sodium also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
You get most of the sodium you need in your diet. If you take in too much, your kidneys get rid of the extra sodium in your urine. Normally, your body keeps your sodium levels in a very narrow range. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a kidney problem, dehydration, or another type of medical condition.
A sodium blood test is a routine test that may be used to check your general health. It may be used to help find and monitor conditions that affect the balance of fluids, electrolytes, and acidity in your body.
The test is often done as part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel. It may also be part of two other groups of tests called a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP)
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
Thirst
Urinating (peeing) very little
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your provider will let you know exactly how to prepare for a sodium blood test. On the day of the test, you may need to skip or delay certain medicines. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines, herbs, or supplements that you take. But don't stop any medicines without talking with your provider first.
You may also need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Ask your provider if you have any questions.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
A disorder of the adrenal glands
A kidney disease
Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
Kidney diseases
Cirrhosis of the liver
Heart failure
Certain brain and lung diseases
Certain types of cancer
Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
Addison disease
Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Sodium levels are often measured with other electrolytes in another test called the anion gap. An anion gap test looks at the difference between negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. The test checks for acid imbalances and other conditions.
Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth
Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.
Image by TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.
Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Image by Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.
Image by TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter
Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
3:07
Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
3:33
Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
6:46
You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
4:42
Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
Chloride
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
{"label":"Chloride reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":101,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
A chloride blood test measures the amount of chloride in your blood. Chloride is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Chloride is often measured with other electrolytes to diagnose or monitor conditions, such as kidney disease, heart failure, liver disease, and high blood pressure.
You usually get a chloride test as part of a routine blood screening to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose conditions related to an imbalance of acids or fluids in your body.
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
Vomiting over a long period of time
Diarrhea
Fatigue
Weakness
Dehydration
Trouble breathing
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a chloride blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Dehydration
Kidney disease
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Heart failure
Lung disease
Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Urine also contains some chloride. Your provider may also recommend a urine chloride test to get more information about your chloride levels.
Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (12)
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride
Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
Cross section Human Stomach
Image by TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
TheVisualMD
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
TED-Ed/YouTube
4:07
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
TheVisualMD
Potassium
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
{"label":"Potassium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypokalemia","long":"Hypokalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Low levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting and diarrhea, or the side effects of drugs including, mostly commonly, diuretics.","conditions":["Acute or chronic diarrhea","Cushing syndrome (rare)","Diuretics","Hyperaldosteronism","Hypokalemic periodic paralysis","Not enough potassium in the diet","Renal artery stenosis","Renal tubular acidosis (rare)","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hyperkalemia","long":"Hyperkalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":7},"text":"Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia, which is most commonly caused by reduced kidney function, particularly in dialysis patients.","conditions":["Addison disease (rare)","Blood transfusion","Certain medicines","Crushed tissue injury","Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis","Hypoaldosteronism (very rare)","Kidney insufficiency or failure","Metabolic or respiratory acidosis","Red blood cell destruction","Too much potassium in your diet"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":4.3,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
A potassium blood test measures the amount of potassium in your blood. Potassium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control fluid levels and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity and perform other important functions.
Your cells, nerves, heart, and muscles need potassium to work properly. Potassium levels that are too high or too low may be a sign of a medical problem.
Other names: potassium serum, serum potassium, serum electrolytes, K
A potassium blood test measures how much potassium is in your blood. The test is often part of a group of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. It may be used to monitor or diagnose conditions related to abnormal potassium levels. These conditions include kidney disease, high blood pressure, and heart disease.
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Fatigue
Muscle weakness
Nausea
Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
Irregular heartbeat
Muscle cramps
Weak or twitching muscles
Fatigue
Nausea
Constipation
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a potassium blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
Use of prescription diuretics
Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
Using too many laxatives
Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
Kidney disease
Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Repeated clenching and relaxing of your fist just before or during your blood test may temporarily increase the potassium levels in your blood. This may lead to an incorrect result.
Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
Video by DoctorOz/YouTube
Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube
What Causes Cramps?
Video by Life Noggin/YouTube
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
Video by Fox News/YouTube
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Potassium Food
Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium Ion
Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Muscle Spasm
Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Heart Rate
Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Neural Conduction
Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
TED-Ed/YouTube
5:18
3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
DoctorOz/YouTube
4:03
Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube
1:46
What Causes Cramps?
Life Noggin/YouTube
3:26
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Wendy Westwood/YouTube
3:35
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
Fox News/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Potassium Food
TheVisualMD
Potassium Ion
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Muscle Spasm
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Heart Rate
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Neural Conduction
TheVisualMD
Bicarbonate
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"pCO2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"value":40,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Carbon dioxide is an odorless, colorless gas. It is a waste product that your body makes when it uses food for energy.
Your blood carries carbon dioxide to your lungs. When you exhale, you breathe out carbon dioxide. Having too much or too little carbon dioxide in your blood can be a sign of a health problem.
Most of the carbon dioxide in your body is in the form of bicarbonate, which is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. A CO2 blood test is often part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel.
An electrolyte panel may be part of a regular check-up. The test may also help diagnose or monitor conditions related to an electrolyte imbalance. These include high blood pressure and diseases of the kidneys, lungs, or liver.
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
Trouble breathing
Confusion
Weakness
Fatigue
Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a CO2 blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
Lung diseases
Cushing's syndrome
Kidney failure
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Shock
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Some prescription and over-the-counter medicines can increase or decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines you are taking.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Uric Acid Test
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
{"label":"Uric Acid Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.4},"text":"Your uric acid levels are low (hypouricemia). You should talk to your doctor to know what this result means in your specific case. ","conditions":["Kidney disease","Liver disease","Diabetes","Low purine diet","Exposure to toxic compounds","Fanconi syndrome","Wilson's disease (rare)","Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion","Medications that decrease uric acid levels","Cancer"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.4,"max":7},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":7,"max":15},"text":"Your uric acid levels are high (hyperuricemia). You should talk to your doctor to know what this result means in your specific case. ","conditions":["Gout","Kidney stones","Kidney disease","High purine diet","Hypothyroidism","Hyperparathyroidism","Hypoparathyroidism","Addison disease","Alcoholism","Cancer","Acidosis","Starvation","Medications that increase uric acid levels","Cancer"]}],"value":5.2}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
3.4
7
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
This test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of your blood or urine (pee). Uric acid is a normal waste product that your body makes when it breaks down chemicals called purines. Purines come from your cells when they die. Purines are also found in many foods and beverages.
Most uric acid dissolves in your blood. Your kidneys filter the uric acid out of your blood, and it leaves your body in your urine. If uric acid builds up in your blood, it can form needle-shaped crystals in and around your joints. This condition is called gout.
Gout is a type of arthritis that causes painful swelling in your joints. High uric acid levels can also cause kidney stones, or kidney failure. But not everyone with high levels of uric acid will have these problems.
A uric acid blood test may be used to:
Help diagnose gout, usually when done with a synovial fluid analysis.
Monitor uric acid levels in people who are having cancer chemotherapy or certain other cancer treatments. When treatment kills cancer cells quickly, they release large amounts of purines into the blood. This can lead to serious problems from high uric acid levels. Testing helps catch an increase in uric acid so it can be treated early.
A uric acid urine test may be used to:
Help find out whether high levels of uric acid are causing kidney stones
Monitor the risk of developing kidney stones in people who have gout
You may need a uric acid blood test if you:
Have symptoms of gout. Symptoms usually happen in one joint at a time. The big toe is most commonly affected, but your other toes, ankle, or knee may have symptoms, which include:
Intense pain
Swelling
Redness
Feeling warm
Had or are having certain types of cancer treatments.
You may also need a uric acid urine test if you:
Have symptoms of a kidney stone, including:
Sharp pain in your lower abdomen (belly), side, groin or back
Blood in your urine
Frequent urge to urinate (pee)
Not being able to urinate at all or only urinating a little bit
Pain when urinating
Cloudy or bad-smelling urine
Nausea and vomiting
Fever and chills
Have gout and your health care provider wants to monitor your risk for developing kidney stones
A uric acid test may be done as a blood test or a urine test. Your provider will decide which test you need.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a uric acid urine test, you'll need to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a 24-hour urine sample test. You will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
Usually, you don't need any special preparations for a uric acid blood test. Many medicines, including aspirin, can affect your uric acid levels. Taking niacin (vitamin B-3) can also affect your results. So, be sure to tell your provider about all the medicines you take. But don't stop taking any medicines without talking with your provider first.
There is no known risk to having a uric acid blood or urine test.
High uric acid levels in a blood test may happen if:
Your body makes too much uric acid
Your kidneys can't remove uric acid from your blood
You are eating too many foods that cause high levels of purines such as:
Red meat and organ meats, including liver and kidney
Certain kinds of seafood, including shellfish, anchovies, sardines, trout, and tuna
Alcohol (all types)
High fructose corn syrup in soda and sweets
Your provider may order more tests to help diagnose what's causing the problem. High levels of uric acid may be related to many conditions, including:
Gout
Kidney disease
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body (metastatic cancer)
Side effects from certain cancer treatments
Alcohol use disorder
Preeclampsia, a condition that can cause dangerously high blood pressure in pregnant women
Low levels of uric acid in blood are uncommon and usually don't cause health problems. Health conditions that are related to low uric acid levels are usually diagnosed using other tests.
High uric levels in urine, may be related to:
Gout
Kidney stones or having a high risk for kidney stones
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body
Obesity
An inherited genetic condition, such as Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, that makes it hard for your body to get rid of uric acid
Low levels of uric acid in urine may be related to kidney disease, lead poisoning, or alcohol use disorder.
If your results show a high level of uric acid in your blood or urine, it doesn't always mean you have a condition that needs treatment. Many people have high levels of uric acid without having health problems.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider. Medicines and/or changes in your diet may help you keep your uric acid levels in a healthy range.
Uric Acid Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
LabCorp: Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia (High Uric Acid) [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric acid - blood : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
URIC - Clinical: Uric Acid, Serum [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia: Symptoms, Treatment, and More [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (15)
Uric Acid: Uric Acid Is a Waste Product
Uric acid is produced when the body breaks down substances called purines. Purines have two sources: They're end products of the breakdown of body proteins, and they're also found in a number of foods, including liver, anchovies, lentils, spinach, and beer. Uric acid is filtered out of the blood as a waste product by the kidneys. Two thirds of the uric acid produced daily is excreted by the kidneys, and the remaining one third leaves the body in the stool. Levels of uric acid in the body vary widely during the day as well as from day to day and from season to season, so several uric acid tests may be performed over an extended period of time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric Acid: Obesity and Gout
Gout is linked with obesity--and as the incidence of obesity has escalated, so has that of gout. Gout prevalence has doubled over the last 20 years or so. About 70% of people with gout are overweight, and 14% are obese (defined as having a body mass index of 30 or over). People who are obese are two to four times more likely to develop gout and are likely to develop it at a younger age. It's not entirely clear why obesity is linked with gout, but it's thought that it may be due to the increased insulin resistance associated with obesity. Moderate-intensity exercise benefits gout because it helps to control uric acid levels in the body while stretching and strengthening joints. The best forms of exercise for gout place minimal stress on the joints, such as swimming and water aerobics.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid
Fluorescent uric acid : Spiked rods of monosodium urate crystals photographed under polarized light from a synovial fluid sample. Formation of en: monosodium urate crystals in the joints are associated with gout.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Nitrogenous Wastes
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. "Moose" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS)
Image by CNX Openstax
Who Is Likely to Develop Gout?
Chronic Gout : Gouty tophi on knee and elbow of middle aged nurse
Image by NickGorton
What Is Gout?
Gout in left foot : A side-by-side comparison shot of gout in the main toe of the left foot, showing significant swelling of the surrounding tissue.
Image by Fatlittlebastard
What Are the Four Stages of Gout?
Gout in foot.
Image by vagawi
Gripped by Gout - Avoiding the Ache and Agony - NIH News in Health
Gout and Pseudogout, Joint Pain- Everything You Need To Know- Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
2:19
Psuedogout - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
7:00
How Do Kidney Stones Form? How Can We Prevent Them?
VIP Urology/YouTube
1:10
How to Recognize the Signs and Symptoms of Kidney Stones
Howcast/YouTube
Treatment
How Might Fanconi Syndrome Be Treated?
Specialists involved in the care of someone with Fanconi syndrome may include:
Nephrologist
Orthopedist
Nutritionist
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
Statistics
How Common Is Fanconi Syndrome?
Fanconi syndrome can be isolated or acquired, and may be caused by genetic variants or environmental exposures. Because it has many different causes, it is unclear how many people have this condition.
Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
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Fanconi Syndrome
Fanconi syndrome is a rare disorder of kidney tubule function in which certain substances normally absorbed into the bloodstream by the kidneys are released into the urine instead.