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COPD in Women

Table of Contents

COPD in Women

COPD and Women's Lung Health

COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is a progressive, chronic lung disease that makes it difficult to breathe. COPD impacts men and women differently. More women than men have COPD. Women also tend to develop COPD at a younger age. Learn how COPD affects women and how it can be prevented.

Woman with visible Anatomy highlighting Lungs

Image by TheVisualMD

What Is COPD?

Two Conditions of COPD

Image by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH

Two Conditions of COPD

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, or COPD, is used to describe two main conditions: chronic bronchitis, which causes inflammation and excess mucus in the lungs, and emphysema, which damages air sacs in the lungs.

Image by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH

What Is COPD?

COPD is a name for a group of illnesses that include emphysema and, often, chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema often happen at the same time in the same person.

COPD is a progressive, chronic disease that makes it difficult to breathe. Chronic means that people with COPD will have COPD for the rest of their lives. Progressive means that symptoms will continue to get worse.

A person with COPD has airways that don’t allow as much air into the lungs as healthy airways and lungs. The airways may also be inflamed, which causes cells that make mucus to grow more than normal. This can lead to chronic coughing to get rid of the extra mucus.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (11)

A Quick Guide On COPD

This guide provides an overview of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), its symptoms, how it affects breathing, and how it's diagnosed and treated. It can be used by health care professionals to have a dialogue with patients or as a general handout to raise awareness about COPD.

Document by NHLBI

Enlarged view of lung tissue showing the difference between healthy lung and Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Enlarged view of lung tissue showing the difference between healthy lung and Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Image by National Institutes of Health

The Basics of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Patients and Everyday Activities

Video by Novartis/YouTube

Asthma and COPD

Video by healthy6215/YouTube

COPD Animation

Video by Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube

Management and Treatment of COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

Diagnosis and Evaluation of COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

How chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) develops

Video by Bupa Health UK/YouTube

Understanding COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

How Can Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Be Managed?

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

A Quick Guide On COPD

NHLBI

Enlarged view of lung tissue showing the difference between healthy lung and Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

National Institutes of Health

3:53

The Basics of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

NHLBI/YouTube

3:18

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Patients and Everyday Activities

Novartis/YouTube

7:59

Asthma and COPD

healthy6215/YouTube

0:38

COPD Animation

Blausen Medical Corporate/YouTube

7:34

Management and Treatment of COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

6:38

Diagnosis and Evaluation of COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

2:21

How chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) develops

Bupa Health UK/YouTube

4:36

Understanding COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

4:16

How Can Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Be Managed?

NHLBI/YouTube

What Is Chronic Bronchitis?

Depiction of a person suffering from Bronchitis

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

Depiction of a person suffering from Bronchitis

Depiction of a person suffering from Bronchitis. The typical symptoms of Bronchitis have been shown. Also, the change in bronchi under bronchitis has been illustrated.

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

What Is Chronic Bronchitis?

Chronic bronchitis is inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, the airways you use to breathe. The inflammation makes it difficult for air to flow to and from the lungs. This causes you to cough up thick mucus or phlegm. A person with chronic bronchitis coughs up mucus on most days.

Over time, the irritation from the inflammation and coughing also causes the walls of the bronchial tubes to thicken and develop scars. If the walls become too thick or scarred, they can block airflow to and from your lungs. This causes shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing.

Most people with chronic bronchitis have COPD. Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of chronic bronchitis in women and men. Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with chronic bronchitis.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (7)

What Causes Acute Bronchitis?

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

Chronic bronchitis pathophysiology | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Signs and Symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

What Is Bronchitis?

Bronchitis : Figure A shows the location of the lungs and bronchial tubes in the body. Figure B is an enlarged, detailed view of a normal bronchial tube. Figure C is an enlarged, detailed view of a bronchial tube with bronchitis. The tube is inflamed and contains more mucus than usual.

Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

What is chronic bronchitis? | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Chronic bronchitis treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Acute Bronchitis- Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment

Video by Diseases & its Pathology/YouTube

0:52

What Causes Acute Bronchitis?

Rehealthify/YouTube

7:27

Chronic bronchitis pathophysiology | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

0:35

Signs and Symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis

Rehealthify/YouTube

What Is Bronchitis?

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute

8:17

What is chronic bronchitis? | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

11:10

Chronic bronchitis treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

1:54

Acute Bronchitis- Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment

Diseases & its Pathology/YouTube

What Is Emphysema?

Depiction of a woman suffering from Emphysema, a type of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

Depiction of a woman suffering from Emphysema, a type of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

This is a depiction of a woman suffering from Emphysema, a type of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Normal alveoli have been shown in comparison with damaged alveoli.

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

What Is Emphysema?

Emphysema is a type of COPD. In emphysema, the lung tissue gets weak, and the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) break down. Normally, oxygen from the air goes into the blood through the air sac walls in the lungs. If you have emphysema, the damaged air sac walls means less oxygen can get into your blood. This causes shortness of breath.

Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of emphysema. There are more men living with emphysema than women, but that may be changing. Women are now diagnosed with emphysema almost as often as men.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (6)

Emphysema Treatment

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Emphysema diagnosis | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Emphysema - Pathophysiology (COPD)

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

What is emphysema? | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Emphysema treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Emphysema on Left Lung

3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs showing the left lung with emphysema. Emphysema is a type of chronic obstructive lung disease. It is often caused by exposure to toxic chemicals or long-term exposure to tobacco smoke. It is characterized by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue, destruction of structures supporting the alveoli and destruction of capillaries feeding the alveoli.

Image by TheVisualMD

5:59

Emphysema Treatment

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

7:27

Emphysema diagnosis | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

9:48

Emphysema - Pathophysiology (COPD)

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

10:55

What is emphysema? | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

10:21

Emphysema treatment | Respiratory system diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Emphysema on Left Lung

TheVisualMD

Key Facts

Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Lungs

Image by TheVisualMD

Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Lungs

Trachea and Lungs : Visualization of the human respiratory tract and heart, based on segmented human data. The thyroid cartilage resides above the trachea. The trachea branches above the heart into the two lungs. Several branching bronchi and bronchioles are shown penetrating throughout the lungs. The bronchiole tree conducts air, allowing oxygen to pass into the lungs and carbon monoxide to exit.

Image by TheVisualMD

COPD — Key Facts

Chronic lower respiratory disease, mainly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is the fourth leading cause of death in the US. While tobacco smoke is the primary cause, 1 in 4 people with COPD have never smoked. Air pollutants at home (secondhand smoke), at work (fumes), and genetics can also cause COPD. Symptoms include chronic or smoker’s cough, chronic phlegm production, shortness of breath, and wheezing. Early detection and treatment may change its course. A breathing test can measure lung function and detect COPD in those at risk. Treatment requires a careful and thorough doctor’s evaluation, avoiding tobacco smoke, and removing air pollutants from the home and at work. Symptoms may be treated with medication. A doctor may also consider pulmonary rehabilitation, a personalized treatment program that teaches you how to manage your COPD symptoms to improve quality of life.

Key Facts

COPD refers to a group of diseases that cause airflow blockage and breathing-related problems.
COPD affects more than 15 million Americans.
More than 150,000 Americans die of COPD each year – that is 1 death every 4 minutes!
The most important aspect of treatment for COPD is avoiding tobacco smoke and other air pollutants.

Avoid Tobacco Smoke

Prevention of COPD begins with reducing and eliminating smoking initiation among teenagers and young adults and encouraging tobacco cessation among current smokers.

Get Diagnosed

Individuals with a history of smoking or a family history of COPD and who also have respiratory symptoms should ask their physician for a spirometry test to determine if they have COPD.

Prevention Tips

In certain situations, COPD may be preventable. There are several opportunities for prevention. Some of the most important are:

If you are a smoker, quit. Approximately 75% of COPD deaths are attributed to cigarette smoking.
Avoid exposure to air pollutants in the home and workplace.
Get vaccinated during flu season if you have COPD to reduce the risk of flare-ups.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Who Is At Risk?

Drawing of an Older Woman with COPD

Image by Deo prasad Rai/Wikimedia

Drawing of an Older Woman with COPD

COPD usually happens to people who are 40 and older. More women than men have COPD. Women also develop COPD at a younger age (often between 45 and 64). Also, the number of men dying from COPD is going down, while the number of women dying from COPD continues to go up.

Image by Deo prasad Rai/Wikimedia

Who Gets COPD?

COPD usually happens to people who are 40 and older. More women than men have COPD. Women also develop COPD at a younger age (often between 45 and 64). Also, the number of men dying from COPD is going down, while the number of women dying from COPD continues to go up.

Researchers are not exactly sure why COPD affects women more. Researchers think it may be because:

The number of women who smoke is now almost as high as the number of men who smoke. Experts think that cigarette smoke may be more damaging to women’s lungs. Women have smaller lungs and bronchial tubes than men, so the same amount of inhaled smoke may cause more damage.
The hormone estrogen may make women’s lungs more sensitive to tobacco smoke exposure.
Some studies show that breathing in pollutants such as dust may affect women more than men. Women usually have smaller lungs and bronchial tubes, so the same amount of inhaled pollutants may cause more damage.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (5)

COPD - Are You at Risk?

COPD is a serious lung disease that over time makes it hard to breathe. Its official name is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, but COPD has other names, like emphysema or chronic bronchitis.

Document by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Common Risk Factors for COPD (45179153855)

Common risk factors for COPD include being over 40 years old, having a history of smoking, or long-term exposure to lung irritants. There is also the possibility of a rare genetic condition. Visit COPD.nhlbi.nih.gov to learn more. Credit: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH

Image by NIH Image Gallery from Bethesda, Maryland, USA/Wikimedia

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Women | May Lin Wilgus, MD | UCLAMDChat

Video by UCLA Health/YouTube

COPD in Women and Men

Video by AllHealthGo/YouTube

Understanding Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in women | UCLA Health

Video by UCLA Health/YouTube

COPD - Are You at Risk?

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Common Risk Factors for COPD (45179153855)

NIH Image Gallery from Bethesda, Maryland, USA/Wikimedia

34:19

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Women | May Lin Wilgus, MD | UCLAMDChat

UCLA Health/YouTube

2:33

COPD in Women and Men

AllHealthGo/YouTube

1:08

Understanding Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in women | UCLA Health

UCLA Health/YouTube

How Does It Affect Women?

Depiction of a person with a lung or lower respiratory tract infection

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

Depiction of a person with a lung or lower respiratory tract infection

Depiction of a person suffering from a lung or lower respiratory tract infection. The typical symptoms of LRTI have been shown, along with inflammation in air sacs that happens because of it.

Image by https://www.myupchar.com

How Does COPD Affect Women’s Health?

Women living with COPD often have other health problems, including:

Asthma. Many women with COPD also have asthma, another type of lung disease.
Osteoporosis. This condition is more common in women, but more than half of people with COPD have osteoporosis. Experts are not sure why this is. It may be related to steroid medicines that are sometimes used to treat COPD. But some studies show that COPD is a risk factor for osteoporosis even without medicine.
Anxiety and depression. Anxiety and depression also affect many women with COPD. In one study, women with COPD had higher levels of anxiety and depression compared with both men with COPD and women who did not have COPD.
Heart disease. Researchers think that COPD may cause inflammation throughout the body, including the blood vessels. This inflammation can make blood vessels stiff and increase the risk for plaque buildup. Over time, this can lead to heart disease.

Women with COPD may also have other health problems caused by smoking or secondhand smoke. These include lung cancer, high blood pressure, and heart disease.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (3)

Patient perspective - Anxiety, depression and COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

Asthma and COPD

Video by healthy6215/YouTube

Overcoming Depression with COPD

Video by Healthtipz/YouTube

1:48

Patient perspective - Anxiety, depression and COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

7:59

Asthma and COPD

healthy6215/YouTube

4:16

Overcoming Depression with COPD

Healthtipz/YouTube

What Are the Symptoms?

COPD Symptoms

Image by TheVisualMD

COPD Symptoms

COPD Symptoms

Image by TheVisualMD

What Are Symptoms of COPD?

At first, COPD may cause no symptoms. Or you may have mild symptoms that you think are some other illness. As COPD gets worse, symptoms usually become more serious.

Common symptoms of COPD include:

An ongoing cough or coughing up lots of mucus or phlegm (often called “smoker’s cough”)
Shortness of breath, especially with moderate physical activity
Wheezing (a whistling or squeaky sound when you breathe)
Chest tightness

Studies show that COPD may be underdiagnosed in women. That may be because COPD was more common in men until recently. If you have symptoms of COPD, talk to your doctor about tests for COPD.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (5)

Common Signs of COPD

November is National COPD Awareness Month.Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a debilitating lung disease that makes it hard to breathe, is a leading cause of death and disability in the United States.Common signs of COPD include constant cough, excess sputum, wheezing, and shortness of breath & breathlessness.

Image by National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Recognize the early symptoms of COPD: Learn More Breathe Better

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

COPD: Signs and Symptoms

Video by AllHealthGo/YouTube

COPD Symptoms and Treatments

Video by Beaumont Health/YouTube

Signs and symptoms of COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

Common Signs of COPD

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

0:31

Recognize the early symptoms of COPD: Learn More Breathe Better

NHLBI/YouTube

2:37

COPD: Signs and Symptoms

AllHealthGo/YouTube

5:48

COPD Symptoms and Treatments

Beaumont Health/YouTube

0:36

Signs and symptoms of COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

Image by Jmarchn

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

Doing a spirometry

Image by Jmarchn

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

To find out whether you have COPD, your doctor will:

Ask you questions about your symptoms, health, and family health history
Ask about your exposure, now or in the past, to things that can cause COPD, such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, dust, or chemicals
Do a physical exam, including using a stethoscope to listen for wheezing or other unusual chest sounds
Do a spirometry test. For this test, your doctor will ask you to take a deep breath and blow as hard as you can into a machine that measures how much air you breathe out and how fast.

Other tests can include:

Chest X-ray or chest computed tomography (CT) scan. These tests create pictures of the heart and lungs. The pictures can show signs of COPD. They can also show whether your symptoms are caused by another health problem, such as heart failure.
Arterial blood gas test. This blood test measures the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in your blood. It can help determine whether you need oxygen therapy.
Pulse oximetry. This test also measures the oxygen levels in your blood but uses a painless clip, called a probe, on your finger or earlobe. The probe uses light to tell your doctor whether you need extra oxygen.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (4)

Diagnosis and Evaluation of COPD

Video by Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

How is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Diagnosed?

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Taking a Spirometry Test

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Spirometry: how to take a lung function test

Video by The European Lung Foundation/YouTube

6:38

Diagnosis and Evaluation of COPD

Animated COPD Patient/YouTube

2:54

How is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Diagnosed?

NHLBI/YouTube

3:11

Taking a Spirometry Test

NHLBI/YouTube

4:00

Spirometry: how to take a lung function test

The European Lung Foundation/YouTube

Spirometry Test

Spirometry Test

Also called: Breathing Test, Lung Capacity, Pulmonary Function Testing

Spirometry is a pulmonary function test that is used to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions such as asthma or COPD. During this test, you will make maximum breathing efforts several times, and a special machine called spirometer will be used to calculate and graph your results.

Spirometry Test

Also called: Breathing Test, Lung Capacity, Pulmonary Function Testing

Spirometry is a pulmonary function test that is used to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions such as asthma or COPD. During this test, you will make maximum breathing efforts several times, and a special machine called spirometer will be used to calculate and graph your results.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
On a spirogram, the breath flow is usually shown on the X axis and expressed in liters per second, while the breath volume is shown on the Y axis and expressed in liters. A normal spirogram reveals a healthy curve that shows a jump right after the start of the expiration, then a steady and quick raise to a sharp peak, and finally a smooth and slow fall.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to order this test to help diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions, such as:
- Asthma
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
- Restrictive lung disease, such as pulmonary fibrosis
- Cystic fibrosis
- Other disorders affecting lung function
Spirometry let doctors diagnose lung diseases at early stages when treatment is most effective. Then, routine spirometry tests can help monitor treatment effectiveness by assessing changes in lung functions.
Spirometry results indicate whether your lungs are functioning normally. It does this through several breathing measurements:
- Forced vital capacity (FVC): this is the total air volume that you can force out of your lungs after you take your biggest breath in.
- Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1): this is the amount of air that you can blow out of your lungs within the first second. It indicates whether or not there is airway obstruction.
- FEV1/FVC ratio: this is the percentage of the FVC exhaled in the first second.
Normal results vary from person to person depending on their gender, age, height, and race.
Abnormal spirometry results could be due to either restrictive lung disease (such as pulmonary fibrosis or sarcoidosis), obstructive lung disease (such as asthma or COPD), or a combination of both restrictive and obstructive lung disease.
Your doctor will take into consideration all spirometry measurements, along with the results of other tests, and your clinical findings to determine which type of lung disease is present.
1. Pulmonary Function Tests | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
2. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_11_12/spirometry_procedures_manual.pdf [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
3. Spirometry and Bronchodilator Test [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
4. Spirometry | the lung association [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
5. Spirometry Testing | Breathing Test | Lung Capacity [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
6. Spirometry: Procedure, Normal Values, and Test Results [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
7. https://www.racgp.org.au/download/documents/AFP/2011/April/201104paraskeva.pdf [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
8. https://cnx.org/contents/bbaedbf4-4d78-4b7c-bc94-2a742f0f2f8c [accessed on Dec 09, 2018]
9. https://covid19.nih.gov/news-and-stories/monitoring-lung-function [accessed on Sep 03, 2021]

Additional Materials (14)

An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.

An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.

Image by BruceBlaus

A medical illustration depicting spirometry

A medical illustration depicting spirometry

Image by BruceBlaus

Testing and Diagnosis

Your doctor will first take your medical history and ask you about your symptoms. He or she will probably listen to your lungs using a stethoscope, although there may be no abnormal chest sounds between asthma attacks. Your doctor may ask about any patterns relating to your symptoms: are they worse during allergy seasons, at work or at home, during exercise? Do you have a family history of asthma?

Image by TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosis

Your doctor will first take your medical history and ask you about your symptoms. He or she will probably listen to your lungs using a stethoscope, although there may be no abnormal chest sounds between asthma attacks. Your doctor may ask about any patterns relating to your symptoms: are they worse during allergy seasons, at work or at home, during exercise? Do you have a family history of asthma?

Image by TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma

Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma

Image by TheVisualMD

Airway during asthma symptoms

Figure A shows the location of the lungs and airways in the body. Figure B shows a cross-section of a normal airway. Figure C shows a cross-section of an airway during asthma symptoms.

Image by National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute

How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?

The image shows how spirometry is done. The patient takes a deep breath and blows as hard as possible into a tube connected to a spirometer. The spirometer measures the amount of air breathed out. It also measures how fast the air was blown out.

Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)

Asthma before-after

During an asthma episode, inflamed airways react to environmental triggers such as smoke, dust, or pollen. The airways narrow and produce excess mucus, making it difficult to breathe.

Image by FDA/Renée Gordon; vectors by Mysid

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

Doing a spirometry

Image by Jmarchn

Asthma in Children

A child using a peak expiratory flow meter in a pediatric clinic.

Image by National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, a division of the National Institute of Health

Types of Lung Function Tests

A man undergoing whole body plethysmography

Image by Finchbook01 (talk)

Asthma Attacks

Constriction of the bronchioles and excess mucous production during an asthma attack.

Image by 7mike5000

Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces

The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide change as blood moves through the body.

Image by CNX Openstax

Spirometry: how to take a lung function test

Video by The European Lung Foundation/YouTube

An illustration depicting an incentive spirometer.

BruceBlaus

A medical illustration depicting spirometry

BruceBlaus

Testing and Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosis

TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosis of Asthma

TheVisualMD

Airway during asthma symptoms

National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute

How Is the Cause of Cough Diagnosed?

National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH)

Asthma before-after

FDA/Renée Gordon; vectors by Mysid

How Is COPD Diagnosed?

Jmarchn

Asthma in Children

National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, a division of the National Institute of Health

Types of Lung Function Tests

Finchbook01 (talk)

Asthma Attacks

7mike5000

Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces

CNX Openstax

4:00

Spirometry: how to take a lung function test

The European Lung Foundation/YouTube

Chest X-Ray Test

Chest X-Ray Test

Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film

A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.

Chest X-Ray Test

Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film

A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
X rays are electromagnetic waves. They use ionizing radiation to create pictures of the inside of your body. A chest x ray takes pictures of the inside of your chest. The different tissues in your chest absorb different amounts of radiation. Your ribs and spine are bony and absorb radiation well. They normally appear light on a chest x ray. Your lungs, which are filled with air, normally appear dark.
Related conditions
1. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-x-ray [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003804.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
3. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/chestrad [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
4. https://www.emedicinehealth.com/chest_x-ray/article_em.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (50)

Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min

Video by Nick Smith/YouTube

How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Tuberculosis X-ray

An anteroposterior X-ray of a patient diagnosed with advanced bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis. This AP X-ray of the chest reveals the presence of bilateral pulmonary infiltrate (white triangles), and caving forma.

Image by CDC / Der Lange

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

This highly-magnified, 1981 transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image, reveals some of the morphologic traits exhibited by a human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The virion is variable in shape, and size, with an average diameter between 120-300nm. RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children, under 1-year of age.

Image by CDC/ E. L. Palmer

Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray

Combination of two x-rays (A) normal chest x-ray (B) x-ray documenting Q fever pneumonia.

Image by US Gov

Chest X Ray

A Lateral Chest X-Ray with the heart shadow outlined.

Image by US Army

Projectional radiography

Image relating focal spot size to geometric unsharpness in projectional radiography.

Image by Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom

Chest Radiograph

Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.

Image by TheVisualMD

X-ray of Healthy Lung

This image shows an x-ray of healthy lungs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cancer screening

Cancer Imaging: X-Rays : Chest X-rays can be used to show the presence of tumors, as for lung cancer, but they may also indicate problems associated with cancer. An X-ray may produce images suggestive of fluid accumulation, masses, or enlarged lymph nodes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Lung Cancer

Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute

Chest X Ray

Mediastinal structures on a chest radiograph.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators

CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion

CT scan of chest showing loculated pleural effusion in left side. Some thickening of pleura is also noted. From my personal collection. Permission obtained from patient.

Image by Drriad

Chest X-ray (Cancer)

This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

This browser does not support the video element.

CT Scans (VIDEO)

This video shows how modern science of scanning can expose the health condition of the patient. The video starts with a patient undergoing CT scanning, an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Visible are the heart, lungs, and arteries of a patient.

Video by TheVisualMD

Chest X-Ray

Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings Arrows indicate costophrenic angles

Image by US Army

Gallstones

Gallstones as seen on plain x-ray.

Image by James Heilman, MD

Hemoptysis x-ray

Hemoptysis can be discovered with the help of radiology.

Image by Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.

X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema

Within the lungs, the main airways (bronchi) branch off into smaller passageways, the smallest of which are called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs (alveoli). Pulmonary edema is a condition caused when excess fluid collects in these air sacs, making it difficult to breathe. Fluid in the lungs can be caused by pneumonia, acute respiratory distress and other conditions, but in most cases, the cause of pulmonary edema is heart problems (when a damaged heart can't pump enough blood and fluid leaks into the lungs).

Image by TheVisualMD

What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery

A normal chest X-ray after placement of an ICD, showing the ICD generator in the upper left chest and the ICD lead in the right ventricle of the heart. Note the 2 opaque coils along the ICD lead.

Image by Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC

This browser does not support the video element.

Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]

NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a Chest X-ray. This video is silent.

Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view

Most aneurysms are detected in the course of an exam, such as a physical exam or a chest X-ray, being performed for a different reason.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pleural Effusion: Tests

Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.

Image by CDC InvictaHOG

Coccidioidomycosis

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed pulmonary changes indicative of pulmonary fibrosis in a case of coccidioidomycosis, caused by fungal organisms of the genus, Coccidioides. Because these changes also resemble those seen in other lung infections including tuberculosis, the findings uncovered with a chest x-ray needs to be coupled with serologic testing, as well as possible tissue biopsy. The degree of fibrotic changes, indicative of scarring found on x-ray, can be directly correlated to the severity of the fungal infection.

Image by CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg

How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?

Chest X-Ray: Acute respiratory distress syndrome on plain Xray

Image by James Heilman, MD

How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?

Early Asbestosis in a Retired Pipe Fitter : Chest X-ray in asbestosis shows plaques above diaphragm

Image by Clinical Cases

Aspergillosis

This was a photomicrograph of a lung tissue specimen, harvested from a caged, sulfur-crested cockatoo, that depicted some of the histopathologic changes that had been caused by the fungal organism, Aspergillus fumigatus, in a case of avian pulmonary aspergillosis. Here, you are able see how the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, revealed A. fumigatus ultrastructural morphology including conidial heads and mycelium.

Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan

Pleural Effusion - Defined

A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray

Image by Drriad

Pleural Effusion: Tests

A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray

Image by James Heilman MD

Breast implants

Chest X-ray showing breast implants

Image by James Heilman

Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

No cure is available for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) yet. Your symptoms may get worse over time. As your symptoms worsen, you may not be able to do many of the things that you did before you had IPF. However, lifestyle changes and ongoing care can help you manage the disease. If you're still smoking, the most important thing you can do is quit. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. Ask family members and friends not to smoke in front of you or in your home, car, or workplace.

Image by Drriad

Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)

A chest x-ray showing increased opacity in both lungs, indicative of pneumonia, in a patient with SARS.

Image by CDC

Chilaiditi syndrome

Chest X-ray showing obvious Chilaiditi's sign, or presence of gas in the right colic angle between the liver and right hemidiaphragm (left side of the image).

Image by Steven Fruitsmaak

Chest X Ray

Medical X-rays.

Image by © Nevit Dilmen

Calcification

Piper's Sign: In days gone by the lateral chest x-ray (demonstrating greater opacity in the aortic arch and descending aorta than the thoracic spine) gave an indication to the degree of calcified plaque burden a patient had. This has been known as Piper's sign and can often be seen in elderly persons particularly those with concomitant osteoporosis.

Image by U4077905

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Image by Stockholm

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Image by Lange123 at German Wikipedia

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza

Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.

Image by Mikael Häggström

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral

Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.

Image by Mikael Häggström

Fungal Parasites and Pathogens

(a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on skin; (b) Trichophyton violaceum, shown in this bright field light micrograph, causes superficial mycoses on the scalp; (c) Histoplasma capsulatum is an ascomycete that infects airways and causes symptoms similar to influenza. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit b: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit c: modification of work by M. Renz, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Image by CNX Openstax

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)

Pneumocystis jirovecii is the causative agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), one of the most frequent and severe opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis organisms represent a large group of species of atypical fungi with universal distribution and pulmonary tropism, and each species has a strong specificity for a given mammalian host species.

Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Image by Stillwaterising

Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child

PA view Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child. Released per permission of mother.

Image by Samir (talk)

Chest X Ray

Structures shown: Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings. Arrows indicate costophrenic angles

Image by US Army

Thoracic diaphragm

X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.

Image by OpenStax College

Chest X Ray

Roentgenogram or Medical X-ray image. May not be to scale.

Image by © Nevit Dilmen

Thoracic cavity

Chest landmarks, for radiography and other chest imaging techniques

Image by Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.

Reading a chest X-ray

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

4:51

Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min

Nick Smith/YouTube

4:42

How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang

TED-Ed/YouTube

What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?

Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Tuberculosis X-ray

CDC / Der Lange

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

CDC/ E. L. Palmer

Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray

US Gov

Chest X Ray

US Army

Projectional radiography

Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom

Chest Radiograph

TheVisualMD

X-ray of Healthy Lung

TheVisualMD

Cancer screening

TheVisualMD

Lung Cancer

National Cancer Institute

Chest X Ray

Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators

CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion

Drriad

Chest X-ray (Cancer)

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

0:40

CT Scans (VIDEO)

TheVisualMD

Chest X-Ray

US Army

Gallstones

James Heilman, MD

Hemoptysis x-ray

Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.

X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema

TheVisualMD

What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery

Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC

1:43

Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view

TheVisualMD

Pleural Effusion: Tests

CDC InvictaHOG

Coccidioidomycosis

CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg

How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?

James Heilman, MD

How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?

Clinical Cases

Aspergillosis

CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan

Pleural Effusion - Defined

Drriad

Pleural Effusion: Tests

James Heilman MD

Breast implants

James Heilman

Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Drriad

Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)

CDC

Chilaiditi syndrome

Steven Fruitsmaak

Chest X Ray

© Nevit Dilmen

Calcification

U4077905

Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.

Stockholm

Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)

Lange123 at German Wikipedia

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza

Mikael Häggström

Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral

Mikael Häggström

Fungal Parasites and Pathogens

CNX Openstax

This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)

CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD

Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced

Stillwaterising

Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child

Samir (talk)

Chest X Ray

US Army

Thoracic diaphragm

OpenStax College

Chest X Ray

© Nevit Dilmen

Thoracic cavity

Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.

7:02

Reading a chest X-ray

Osmosis/YouTube

Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.

Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul

Chest CT Scan

Chest CT Scan

Also called: Chest CT, Thoracic CT, Chest X-Ray Computer Assisted Tomography, Chest CAT scan, CT Chest

A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.

Chest CT Scan

Also called: Chest CT, Thoracic CT, Chest X-Ray Computer Assisted Tomography, Chest CAT scan, CT Chest

A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. A normal chest CT means your chest appears normal.
Related conditions
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. Doctors use this test to:
- Follow up on abnormal results from standard chest x rays.
- Find the cause of lung symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain.
- Find out whether you have a lung problem, such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs, or a pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The test also is used to check for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if you have symptoms of lung problems, such as chest pain or trouble breathing. The scan can help find the cause of the symptoms.
A chest CT scan looks for problems such as tumors, excess fluid around the lungs, and pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The scan also checks for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if a standard chest x ray doesn't help diagnose the problem. The chest CT scan can:
- Provide more detailed pictures of your lungs and other chest structures than a standard chest x ray
- Find the exact location of a tumor or other problem
- Show something that isn't visible on a chest x ray
Chest CT scans have some risks. In rare instances, some people have an allergic reaction to the contrast dye. There is a slight risk of cancer, particularly in growing children, because the test uses radiation. Although the amount of radiation from one test is usually less than the amount of radiation you are naturally exposed to over three years, patients should not receive more CT scans than the number that clinical guidelines recommend. Another risk is that chest CT scans may detect an incidental finding, which is something that doesn’t cause symptoms but now may require more tests after being found.
Talk to your doctor and the technicians performing the test about whether you are or could be pregnant. If the test is not urgent, they may have you wait to do the test until after your pregnancy. If it is urgent, the technicians will take extra steps to protect your baby during this test. Let your doctor know if you are breastfeeding because contrast dye can pass into your breast milk. If you must have contrast dye injected, you may want to pump and save enough breast milk for one to two days after your test or you may bottle-feed your baby for that time.
1. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-ct-scan [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003788.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]

Additional Materials (50)

Pleural empyema

CT chest showing large right sided hydro-pneumothorax from pleural empyema. Arrows A: air, B: fluid

Image by Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga

How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?

CT with the identification of underlying lung lesion: an apical bulla.

Image by Robertolyra

How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?

Right-sided pneumothorax (right side of image) on CT scan of the chest with chest tube in place.

Image by en:User:Clinical Cases

Chest Radiograph

Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.

Image by TheVisualMD

What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan

3D reconstruction of the thin multislice CT, covering human heart and lungs

Image by Semnic

Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery

Open-chest bypass surgery requires the surgeon to make an incision down the center of the chest, along the breastbone. The rib cage is spread open to expose the heart.

Image by TheVisualMD

A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest

Video by The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube

What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK

Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries

Researchers have found that anti-inflammatory biologic therapies used to treat moderate to severe psoriasis can significantly reduce coronary inflammation in patients with the chronic skin condition. Scientists said the findings are particularly notable because of the use of a novel imaging biomarker, the perivascular fat attenuation index (FAI), that was able to measure the effect of the therapy in reducing the inflammation. The study published online in JAMA Cardiology, has implications not just for people with psoriasis, but for those with other chronic inflammatory diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. These conditions are known to increase the risk for heart attacks and strokes. The study was funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health. In this image: Coronary CT angiography image of the coronary arteries depicting the perivascular fat attenuation index before and after biologic therapy at one-year follow-up for patients with excellent response to biologic therapy.

Image by Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI

Coronary CT

Coronary CT

Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức

CT of the blood vessels and heart

CT of the blood vessels and heart

Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức

Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration

chest CT: diagnosis is pulmonary sequestration

Image by RadsWiki

Scimitar syndrome chest CT

Scimitar syndrome chest CT

Image by Matthew Cham, MD /Wikimedia

Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital

Video by Oxford AHSN/YouTube

What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast

Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube

Protocoling chest CTs

Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube

Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)

Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)

Video by MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube

What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai

Video by Cedars-Sinai/YouTube

How I Read a Chest CT

Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube

Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest

Video by Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube

Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan

Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube

How to prepare for a CT scan

Video by Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube

Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer

Video by UConn Health/YouTube

Cardiac CT scan

Video by UHP_NHS/YouTube

Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.

Video by Dumb Old Dad/YouTube

What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?

Video by STRIDE Project/YouTube

Thorax with Healthy Heart

3D visualization based on scanned human data of a healthy heart in the thorax.

Image by TheVisualMD

Heart and Lungs

The heart and lungs are the primary contents of the thorax. They are interconnected with very large blood vessels. The heart sends oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, which oxygenate it and return it to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary arteries arise from one large pulmonary trunk, and then begin branching exponentially once they enter the lungs in order to reach the functional respiratory units and pick up oxygen. The smallest pulmonary veins then take the oxygenated blood backwards through the lungs and empty into the back of the heart through four larger pulmonary veins. The oxygen-rich blood is then pumped by the heart out into the body through the aorta. Deoxygenated blood from body tissues returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava and the cardiac cycle repeats continuously. The pulmonary veins and arteries are the only case where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and veins carry blood that has been oxygenated.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration

3D visualization of an anterior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhale occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration

3D visualization of an inferior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhalation occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thorax with visible Lung and Heart

3D visualization of a posterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.

Image by TheVisualMD

Female Thorax Showing Breast

Visualization based on scanned human data of an anterior view of female breast.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Thorax with Visible Heart

Visualization of male heart. The nerve supply of the heart is emphasized specifically the cardiac plexus. The plexus which rest around the base of the heart, mainly in the epicardium, is formed by cardiac branches from the vagus nerves and the sympathetic trunks and ganglia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thorax with Heart and Lung

3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. The cone-shaped lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity. Each lung is suspended in its own pleural cavity and connected to the mediastinum (which houses the heart) by its root which is made up of vascular and bronchial attachments. The anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the lung are in close contact with the ribs and form a continuously curving surface called the costal surface. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left

Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung

3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.

Image by TheVisualMD

Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta

Aneurysms that occur in the part of the aorta that is higher in the chest are called thoracic aortic aneurysms. Aortic aneurysms often grow slowly and usually without any symptoms therefore making them difficult to detect

Image by TheVisualMD

Ventilation/perfusion scan

subFusion processing applied to a SPECT lung ventilation-perfusion scan.

Image by KieranMaher at English Wikibooks

Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung

3D visualization of an inferior view of a transverse section of the thorax, highlighting the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The trachea, cardiac impression, and transverse sections of the thoracic aorta and esophagus are clearly illustrated. The bronchial tree is also visible. When air is inhaled into the lungs, it flows through large tubes called bronchi, branches into smaller tubes known as bronchioles, and ends up in the thousands of small pouches that are the alveoli. This is where the oxygen is transferred from the air into the bloodstream. Each alveolar sac, or air sac, is surrounded by a bed of capillaries, and the walls between the lung and the capillary are extremely thin. The walls are so delicate, in fact, that the inhaled oxygen can seep from the air sacs to bind to the hemoglobin in the blood, while the carbon dioxide and other waste gasses leave the blood and diffuse into the lungs where they can be exhaled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chest Pain

Angina

Image by TheVisualMD

Chest Pain

Chest Pain

Image by TheVisualMD

Chest Pain or Tightness

Image by TheVisualMD

CT scanner

A view of the CT scanner in the new Fort Belvoir Community Hospital. The hospital, still under construction, is a 2005 Base Realignment and Closure project, and is scheduled to open later this year.

Image by Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps

Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner

Radiation can be dangerous, but it can also save lives. When you’re faced with a medical test that uses radiation, don’t let fear get in your way. Learn about the risks and benefits, and know what questions to ask.

Image by NIH News in Health

Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner

CT scan.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Advanced CT Scanning

An NIH Clinical Center study participant receives a scan in the Photon-Counting CT scanner.

Image by NIH Clinical Center

CAT Scan

A computer-assisted tomographic (CAT) scanner, with a Caucasian female technician working at a screen and behind a glass wall. A patient is on a table and being tested by the CAT scanner. The lighting is very subdued. This new technology revolutionized detection of brain tumors.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)

Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data

Virtual colonoscopy is a new imaging technology that uses computed tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. A computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pleural empyema

Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga

How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?

Robertolyra

How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?

en:User:Clinical Cases

Chest Radiograph

TheVisualMD

What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan

Semnic

Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery

TheVisualMD

4:22

A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest

The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube

1:50

What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries

Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI

Coronary CT

Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức

CT of the blood vessels and heart

Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức

Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration

RadsWiki

Scimitar syndrome chest CT

Matthew Cham, MD /Wikimedia

4:59

Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital

Oxford AHSN/YouTube

2:33

What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast

RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube

7:48

Protocoling chest CTs

Thoracic Radiology/YouTube

1:44

Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer

Lee Health/YouTube

8:27

Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)

Cleveland Clinic/YouTube

5:10

CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)

MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube

3:29

What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai

Cedars-Sinai/YouTube

17:21

How I Read a Chest CT

Thoracic Radiology/YouTube

8:46

Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest

Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube

3:09

Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan

RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube

2:19

How to prepare for a CT scan

Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube

2:07

Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer

UConn Health/YouTube

5:04

Cardiac CT scan

UHP_NHS/YouTube

6:28

Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.

Dumb Old Dad/YouTube

2:52

What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?

STRIDE Project/YouTube

Thorax with Healthy Heart

TheVisualMD

Heart and Lungs

TheVisualMD

Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration

TheVisualMD

Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration

TheVisualMD

Thorax with visible Lung and Heart

TheVisualMD

Female Thorax Showing Breast

TheVisualMD

Male Thorax with Visible Heart

TheVisualMD

Thorax with Heart and Lung

TheVisualMD

Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left

TheVisualMD

Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung

TheVisualMD

Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta

TheVisualMD

Ventilation/perfusion scan

KieranMaher at English Wikibooks

Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung

TheVisualMD

Chest Pain

TheVisualMD

Chest Pain

TheVisualMD

Chest Pain or Tightness

TheVisualMD

CT scanner

Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps

Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner

NIH News in Health

Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner

NIDDK Image Library

Advanced CT Scanning

NIH Clinical Center

CAT Scan

National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)

Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data

TheVisualMD

Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Test

Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Test

Also called: ABG, Arterial Blood Gas Analysis, Blood Gases, Blood Gas Analysis, Blood Oxygen Level

An arterial blood gas (ABG) test measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acidity in a blood sample to see how well your lungs, heart and kidneys are working. Abnormal results can mean there's a problem with your lungs or kidneys.

Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Test

Also called: ABG, Arterial Blood Gas Analysis, Blood Gases, Blood Gas Analysis, Blood Oxygen Level

An arterial blood gas (ABG) test measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acidity in a blood sample to see how well your lungs, heart and kidneys are working. Abnormal results can mean there's a problem with your lungs or kidneys.

{"label":"SaO2 reference range","description":"An oxygen saturation (SaO2) test measures how much oxygen your red blood cells are carrying. For this test, a health care provider will take a sample of blood from an artery. That's because blood from an artery has higher oxygen levels than blood from a vein.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"VL","long":"Very low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":80},"text":"Arterial blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":90},"text":"Arterial blood oxygen levels below 90 percent is called hypoxemia. A saturation level of 90% is usually considered the point where your oxygen saturation is dangerously low and you should get immediate medical attention. ","conditions":["Asthma","COPD","Interstitial lung disease","Pulmonary hypertension","Bronchiectasis","Emphysema","ARDS","Pneumonia","Obstruction of an artery in the lung","Pulmonary fibrosis","Excess fluid in the lungs"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"D","long":"Decreased","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":90,"max":95},"text":"Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 95-100%. Oxygen saturation can be increased with deep or rapid breathing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":95,"max":100},"text":"Your oxygen saturation level is dependent upon a number of factors including your health condition, breathing rate and activity level. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 95-100%.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":97.5}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
80
90
95
Your result is Normal.
Your oxygen saturation level is dependent upon a number of factors including your health condition, breathing rate and activity level. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 95-100%.
Related conditions
{"label":"Partial pressure of oxygen reference range","description":"A partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) test measures the pressure of oxygen that's dissolved in your blood. It helps show how well oxygen moves from your lungs to your bloodstream.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":80},"text":"A lower than normal result indicates decreased levels of oxygen in the inhaled air. Changes in environmental pressure may also cause a change in the available oxygen for diffusion into the body. ","conditions":["Anemia","Heart failure","Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","Restrictive pulmonary disease","Hypoventilation"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":100},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":120},"text":"A higher than normal result indicates increased levels of oxygen in the inhaled air.","conditions":["Polycythemia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"hideunits":false,"value":90}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
80
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
{"label":"Partial pressure of carbon dioxide reference range","description":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the blood. As pCO2 levels rise, blood pH decreases, making the blood more acidic; as pCO2 decreases, pH rises, making the blood more basic (alkaline).","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"hideunits":false,"value":40}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
{"label":"Blood pH reference range","description":"This test measures the acidity of blood. Too much acid is called acidosis. Too much base (alkaline) is called alkalosis. These conditions are symptoms of other problems that upset the acid-base balance in your body.","scale":"log","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low (Acidic)","long":"Low (Acidic)","orientation":"vertical"},"values":{"min":0,"max":7.35},"text":"A blood pH below 7.35 is acidic. Blood acidosis can be a warning sign that a health condition isn\u2019t properly controlled.","conditions":["Acidosis","Diabetic ketoacidosis","Kidney failure","Asthma or an asthma attack","Sleep apnea","Bronchitis","Pneumonia","COPD","Diaphragm disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"vertical"},"values":{"min":7.35,"max":7.45},"text":"Your blood has a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. This means that blood is naturally slightly alkaline or basic.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High (Alkaline)","long":"High (Alkaline)","orientation":"vertical"},"values":{"min":7.45,"max":14},"text":"A blood pH higher than 7.45 is alkaline or basic. An illness can temporarily raise your blood pH. More serious health conditions can also lead to blood alkalosis.","conditions":["Alkalosis","Sweating","Vomiting","Diarrhea","Kidney problems"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"hideunits":false,"value":7.4}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
pH
7.35
7.45
Your result is Normal.
Your blood has a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. This means that blood is naturally slightly alkaline or basic.
Related conditions
An ABG test is used to help:
- Check your acid-base balance
- Diagnose serious problems with your lungs and breathing
- Diagnose kidney disorders
- Find out whether treatment is working for breathing disorders, kidney disease, or other conditions that may affect your acid-base balance
There are many reasons why you may need this test. For example, you may need an ABG test if you:
- Have symptoms of a problem with your acid-base balance, such as:
  Uncontrolled rapid or deep breathing, which may be a sign that your lungs are trying to adjust acids or bases by changing the amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide in your blood
  Nausea and vomiting
  Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
  Confusion
  Fatigue
  Muscle twitching and/or cramps
- Are being treated for a lung disease or a condition that affects your breathing, such as:
  Asthma
  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
  Cystic fibrosis
  Myasthenia gravis
- Have symptoms after you have had:
  Carbon monoxide poisoning
  An inhalation injury (breathing in smoke, hot air, and/or harmful chemicals)
  A recent head or neck injury that could affect your breathing
- Are receiving oxygen therapy in the hospital
ABG test results involve many body systems that affect each other. And there are many health conditions that can cause abnormal results. For these reasons, it's best to have your provider explain what your results mean for your health.
Your ABG test results will list many measurements, including:
- Oxygen saturation (O2Sat). This measures how much oxygen your red blood cells are carrying.
- Partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2). This measures the pressure of oxygen that's dissolved in your blood. It helps show how well oxygen moves from your lungs to your bloodstream.
- Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2). This measures the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. It also shows how easily carbon dioxide can move out of your body.
- Acid-base balance (pH level). This measures the acidity of your blood. Too much acid is called acidosis. Too much base (alkaline) is called alkalosis. These conditions are symptoms of other problems that upset the acid-base balance in your body.
An ABG test alone usually can't provide a final diagnosis. So, if your results are not normal, your provider will likely order more tests to make a diagnosis. In general, abnormal results may mean you have a problem with your lungs or kidneys or a metabolic disorder. Metabolic disorders affect how your body uses food for energy. Certain medicines may also upset your acid-base balance and lead to abnormal ABG test results.
1. Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
2. Blood gases: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 02, 2018]
3. ABG (Arterial Blood Gas) | Lab Tests | GLOWM [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]
4. Blood Gases - Testing.com. Dec 13, 2021 [accessed on Dec 26, 2023]

Additional Materials (8)

How to take an arterial blood gas (ABG) - OSCE guide

Video by Geeky Medics/YouTube

Arterial Puncture for Blood Gas Analysis

Video by SECEI ESCS/YouTube

Measurement Chamber

Cobas b 121 (Roche Diagnostics) - measurement chamber (detail). From the left: Reference electrode Sample's conductivity electrode Na+ electrode Cl- electrode pH (glass) electrode Sample's conductivity electrode Ca2+ electrode K+ electrode pO2 (Clark) electrode pCO2) (Sveringhaus) electrode Hemoglobin/Hematocrit chamber. Emergency Laboratory, Hospital de Niños, Córdoba, Arg.

Image by J3D3/Wikimedia

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung

3D visualization of an inferior view of a transverse section of the thorax, highlighting the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The trachea, cardiac impression, and transverse sections of the thoracic aorta and esophagus are clearly illustrated. The bronchial tree is also visible. When air is inhaled into the lungs, it flows through large tubes called bronchi, branches into smaller tubes known as bronchioles, and ends up in the thousands of small pouches that are the alveoli. This is where the oxygen is transferred from the air into the bloodstream. Each alveolar sac, or air sac, is surrounded by a bed of capillaries, and the walls between the lung and the capillary are extremely thin. The walls are so delicate, in fact, that the inhaled oxygen can seep from the air sacs to bind to the hemoglobin in the blood, while the carbon dioxide and other waste gasses leave the blood and diffuse into the lungs where they can be exhaled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Thorax with Visible Trachea and Lung

3D visualization of an anterior oblique view of the trachea and the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The bifurcation of the trachea and the extensive branching of the right and left bronchi are revealed. The respiratory system consists of branching tubes that work to bring oxygen from the air to the organs and tissues of the body, and to expel carbon dioxide wastes from the body to the air. The bronchial tree is a system of airways in which the \"trunk\" is the windpipe and the \"branches\" are the subdividing passages that permeate the lungs. While the rest of the system works as a kind of accordion pump, the structures of the bronchial network split and split again until they are so numerous and so thin at their membranous tips that gas molecules can cross over to the blood through a network of capillaries that, laid end to end, would measure more than 1,000 miles.

Image by TheVisualMD

Capillary in Alveolus

This is a magnified section of capillaries in an aveolus. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body. The walls of the capillaries are the primary sites for gas and nutrition exchange.

Image by TheVisualMD

Alveolar Type II Cells Secreting Surfactant

The walls of the alveoli, the tiny air sacs within the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place, are lined with three major alveolar cells. These are: Type I (squamous alveolar) cells, Type II (great alveolar) cells, and the third type, magrophages. Type II cells secrete pulmonary surfactant, which lowers the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate, thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases and reducing fluid accumulation in the alveolus. Premature infants sometimes have a developmental insufficiency of surfactant production and structural immaturity in the lungs.This results in infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS).

Image by TheVisualMD

3:20

How to take an arterial blood gas (ABG) - OSCE guide

Geeky Medics/YouTube

9:55

Arterial Puncture for Blood Gas Analysis

SECEI ESCS/YouTube

Measurement Chamber

J3D3/Wikimedia

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung

TheVisualMD

Male Thorax with Visible Trachea and Lung

TheVisualMD

Capillary in Alveolus

TheVisualMD

Alveolar Type II Cells Secreting Surfactant

TheVisualMD

Pulse Oximetry Test

Pulse Oximetry Test

Also called: Pulse Ox, Oxygen Saturation Monitor, Oxygen Saturation by Pulse Oximetry, Peripheral Oxygen Saturation, SpO2, Finger Pulse Oximeter, Oxygen Saturation

Pulse oximetry is a quick and painless test that measures blood oxygen levels. Your organs need a steady supply of blood oxygen to work properly. This test can help people with serious or chronic lung disease get quick treatment if their oxygen level gets too low.

Pulse Oximetry Test

Also called: Pulse Ox, Oxygen Saturation Monitor, Oxygen Saturation by Pulse Oximetry, Peripheral Oxygen Saturation, SpO2, Finger Pulse Oximeter, Oxygen Saturation

Pulse oximetry is a quick and painless test that measures blood oxygen levels. Your organs need a steady supply of blood oxygen to work properly. This test can help people with serious or chronic lung disease get quick treatment if their oxygen level gets too low.

{"label":"Oxygen saturation reference range","description":"Peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) measured by pulse oximetry is a non-invasive method for monitoring a person's blood oxygen saturation. This test can help people with serious or chronic lung disease get quick treatment if their oxygen level gets too low.","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":92},"text":"Oxygen levels below the normal values indicate hypoxemia. The lower the oxygen level, the more severe the hypoxemia. At this level your oxygen saturation is dangerously low and you should get immediate medical attention. ","conditions":["Asthma","Heart disease","High altitude","Anemia","Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)","Interstitial lung disease","Emphysema","Acute respiratory distress syndrome","Pneumonia","Obstruction of an artery in the lung","Pulmonary fibrosis","Lung scarring","Presence of air or gas in the chest","Excess fluid in the lungs","Sleep apnea","Certain medications"]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Insufficient","long":"Insufficient","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":92,"max":95},"text":"At rest, blood oxygen should be at least 92% or higher. These levels are concerning, close monitoring is recommended.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":95,"max":100},"text":"In healthy people, the oxygen level runs between 95-100%.","conditions":[]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":97.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"borderline":0},{"normal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
92
95
Your result is Normal.
In healthy people, the oxygen level runs between 95-100%.
Related conditions
Your provider may give you a pulse-oximetry test as part of a routine checkup. You may also get the test if you:
- Have a condition that affects your lung function. These can include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, heart failure, asthma, and COVID-19.
- Are taking medicine to treat lung disease. The test can show how well the medicine is working.
- Are having surgery. Your blood oxygen level may be checked before, during, and after your procedure.
- Have sleep apnea. This is a disorder that causes you to repeatedly stop breathing during sleep.
- Use extra oxygen (oxygen therapy). This may help your provider determine if you are getting the right oxygen flow rate from your oxygen device.
- Have shortness of breath (feeling like you can't get enough air).
During pulse oximetry:
- A small electronic device called a pulse oximeter will be clipped to a part of your body, usually your fingertip.
- The oximeter uses a special type of light that passes through your skin and into your blood. The light may make your fingertip look red, but you won't feel any pain.
- A sensor on the oximeter measures the amount of light. That measurement is used to figure out your blood oxygen level.
- After a few seconds, the oximeter will provide a readout of your heart rate (pulse) and oxygen level.
If you have a condition that affects your lung function, your provider may recommend you use an at-home finger pulse oximeter or other oximeter to monitor your condition. Your provider will guide you on how to purchase and use your at-home device.
Dark nail polish on the finger being tested can block the light emitted from the oximeter. Other things that may cause inaccurate results can include:
- Artificial nails
- A darker skin pigmentation (color)
- Poor circulation
- Cold skin
- Tobacco use
Results are often given as oxygen saturation levels. A normal oxygen saturation level ranges between 95% and 100%. Saturation levels may be somewhat lower and considered acceptable if you have a lung disease such as COPD or pneumonia. Your levels may also be lower if you live in an area with a higher elevation, where there is less oxygen in the air.
If you are using an at-home oximeter, watch for signs or symptoms that you have low oxygen levels, such as:
- Lips, nails, or face that look bluish (cyanosis)
- Trouble breathing or shortness of breath
- Chest pain or tightness
- Fast heart rate
Contact your provider if your oxygen saturation level is 92% or lower. If it falls to 88% or lower, seek immediate medical attention.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your provider.
1. Pulse Oximetry: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Sep 14, 2024]
2. Pulse Oximetry. American Thoracic Society. [accessed on Dec 18, 2018]
3. Pulse Oximetry - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 18, 2018]
4. He pushed for pulse ox screening. Then his grandson’s pulse ox level was dangerously low. | American Heart Association [accessed on Dec 18, 2018]
5. Pulse Oximetry & O2 Saturation: What Do You Need to Know? | Inogen [accessed on Dec 18, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

Pulse, Hand, Health Care Providers

Image by backy3723/Pixabay

Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)

Oximetry - Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)

Image by User:Sansculotte

Evolution of the Pulse Oximeter

Video by NHLBI/Vimeo

How To: Check Your Pulse

Video by Baylor College of Medicine/YouTube

The Fitness Model Without a Pulse

Video by Great Big Story/YouTube

Vital Signs- For Beginners

Video by Stephanie Rodriguez/YouTube

"Pulse Oximetry" by Traci Wolbrink, MD, MPH for OPENPediatrics

Video by OPENPediatrics/YouTube

Pulse Oximeter | How to Use It? How does Pulse Oximetry Work?

Video by Respiratory Therapy Zone/YouTube

Clinical Skills: Pulse oximetry

Video by Osmosis/YouTube

Pulse Oximetry NEJM

Video by បូ សុធា/YouTube

Oxygen Content and Oxygen Saturation

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Measuring oxygenation in poorly perfused patients

Video by Philips Healthcare/YouTube

Pulse Oximetry for Newborns

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

OxyWatch C20 Pulse Oximeter

A finger mounted pulse oximeter with pulse bar taking measurement through the fingernail.

Image by Thinkpaul/Wikimedia

Pulse oximetry spectrum

Hemoglobin absorbance spectrum in pulse oximetry

Image by Paweł Ziemian/Wikimedia

Pulse Ox, Oximetry, Oxygenation

Image by kkirkemtp/Pixabay

Pulse, Hand, Health Care Providers

backy3723/Pixabay

Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated (arteries), Blue = deoxygenated (veins)

User:Sansculotte

6:42

Evolution of the Pulse Oximeter

NHLBI/Vimeo

2:48

How To: Check Your Pulse

Baylor College of Medicine/YouTube

2:24

The Fitness Model Without a Pulse

Great Big Story/YouTube

3:20

Vital Signs- For Beginners

Stephanie Rodriguez/YouTube

16:07

"Pulse Oximetry" by Traci Wolbrink, MD, MPH for OPENPediatrics

OPENPediatrics/YouTube

10:25

Pulse Oximeter | How to Use It? How does Pulse Oximetry Work?

Respiratory Therapy Zone/YouTube

4:12

Clinical Skills: Pulse oximetry

Osmosis/YouTube

16:06

Pulse Oximetry NEJM

បូ សុធា/YouTube

13:30

Oxygen Content and Oxygen Saturation

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

6:46

Measuring oxygenation in poorly perfused patients

Philips Healthcare/YouTube

1:53

Pulse Oximetry for Newborns

Lee Health/YouTube

OxyWatch C20 Pulse Oximeter

Thinkpaul/Wikimedia

Pulse oximetry spectrum

Paweł Ziemian/Wikimedia

Pulse Ox, Oximetry, Oxygenation

kkirkemtp/Pixabay

How Is COPD Treated?

Mask for inhalation on the girl's face. Respiratory disease treatment concept

Image by Marco Verch Professional

Mask for inhalation on the girl's face. Respiratory disease treatment concept

Mask for inhalation on the girl's face. Respiratory disease treatment concept

Image by Marco Verch Professional

How Is COPD Treated?

Quitting smoking is the only proven way to slow down COPD. Get free help to quit smoking at 1-800-QUIT-NOW (1-800-784-8669) or at the Smokefree Women website. Medicines and other treatments can relieve some of your symptoms for some time. But treatments will not fix any lung damage you already have.

Your doctor will work with you on a treatment plan that may include:

Steps to take at home, such as stopping smoking, to prevent further damage to your lungs
Medicines to open airways and lessen inflammation. Common medicines for COPD include inhaled corticosteroids, other anti-inflammatory drugs, and bronchodilators. Since people with COPD are at risk for developing lung infections, you may also need antibiotics.
Pulmonary rehabilitation to help you cope physically and mentally with COPD. Rehabilitation can include exercise, training to manage the disease, and counseling about nutrition and exercise.
Oxygen therapy through a tube or mask, if you have severe COPD
Surgery to remove the damaged parts of your lungs or to replace your lungs (lung transplant)

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (10)

What is the Single Best Thing You Can Do to Quit Smoking?

Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube

It's Harder for Women to Quit Smoking

Video by YaleUniversity/YouTube

The Importance of Pulmonary Rehabilitation

Video by West Park Healthcare Centre/YouTube

Pulmonary rehabilitation | NHS

Video by NHS/YouTube

How To Quit Smoking (Health Guru)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

Learn About Pulmonary Rehabilitation

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

What is Pulmonary Rehabilitation?

Video by Ascension Via Christi/YouTube

Why is Smoking addictive and How to quit smoking?

Video by Tiny Medicine/YouTube

CDC: Tips From Former Smokers - Tiffany R.: How I Quit Smoking

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

This Is The Best Way To Quit Smoking

Video by Seeker/YouTube

12:48

What is the Single Best Thing You Can Do to Quit Smoking?

DocMikeEvans/YouTube

6:44

It's Harder for Women to Quit Smoking

YaleUniversity/YouTube

5:13

The Importance of Pulmonary Rehabilitation

West Park Healthcare Centre/YouTube

2:59

Pulmonary rehabilitation | NHS

NHS/YouTube

3:26

How To Quit Smoking (Health Guru)

Healthguru/YouTube

1:36

Learn About Pulmonary Rehabilitation

NHLBI/YouTube

2:50

What is Pulmonary Rehabilitation?

Ascension Via Christi/YouTube

3:18

Why is Smoking addictive and How to quit smoking?

Tiny Medicine/YouTube

2:33

CDC: Tips From Former Smokers - Tiffany R.: How I Quit Smoking

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

4:09

This Is The Best Way To Quit Smoking

Seeker/YouTube

Will I Need a Lung Transplant?

Lung transplantation, pulmonary transplantation

Image by NHLBI, NIH

Lung transplantation, pulmonary transplantation

The illustration shows the process of a lung transplant. In figure A, the airway and blood vessels between a recipient's diseased right lung and heart are cut. The inset image shows the location of the lungs and heart in the body. In figure B, a healthy donor lung is stitched to the recipient's blood vessels and airway.

Image by NHLBI, NIH

If I Have COPD, Will I Need a Lung Transplant?

Maybe. If your symptoms from COPD are very severe and medicines no longer work for you, your doctor may talk to you about a lung transplant. Lung transplants are used only as a last resort and may not help with your COPD. A lung transplant can have serious side effects, including rejection (the new lung does not work) and death.

Researchers are still studying how useful lung transplants are for people with COPD. A transplant may or may not make you live longer than if you did not get the transplant. Also, not everyone with COPD is eligible for a lung transplant; it depends on your age and if you have other health problems. About 1 in 3 lung transplants is for people who have COPD.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (6)

Lung Transplant Process

Video by Perioperative Interactive Education/YouTube

FAQs | Lung Transplant

Video by Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

Updated Video Link Below: Lung Transplant Education

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

Updated Video Link Below: Medications After Lung Transplant at the University of Michigan (13 of 17)

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

Breathing In all the Possibilities After a Double-Lung Transplant

Video by UCSFMedicalCenter/YouTube

Emily Receives a Double Lung Transplant

Video by NationwideChildrens/YouTube

11:34

Lung Transplant Process

Perioperative Interactive Education/YouTube

3:01

FAQs | Lung Transplant

Johns Hopkins Medicine/YouTube

59:17

Updated Video Link Below: Lung Transplant Education

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

5:41

Updated Video Link Below: Medications After Lung Transplant at the University of Michigan (13 of 17)

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

4:01

Breathing In all the Possibilities After a Double-Lung Transplant

UCSFMedicalCenter/YouTube

5:17

Emily Receives a Double Lung Transplant

NationwideChildrens/YouTube

How Should I Manage It?

Living Better with COPD

Document by NHLBI

Living Better with COPD

By getting ahead of your Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) symptoms and talking about them with your health care provider regularly, you can put yourself on the path to a better quality of life.

Document by NHLBI

What Steps Can I Take to Help Relieve My COPD Symptoms?

If you have COPD, you can take steps to relieve your symptoms and prevent further damage to your lungs:

Stop smoking if you smoke. Get help to quit. Researchers found that women benefit even more from quitting than men do. Women showed twice as much improvement in breathing one year after quitting smoking. Also, quitting smoking can slow down how quickly your lungs age. One year after quitting, the rate of aging is almost back to normal. Quitting smoking can improve your COPD symptoms, but it cannot make COPD go away.
Talk to your doctor about the flu and pneumonia shots. The flu and pneumonia can cause serious problems for people with COPD because these illnesses make it difficult to breathe. People with COPD already have trouble breathing, so getting the flu or pneumonia can cause very serious health problems, including death. Find a clinic near you where you can get the vaccines you need.
Limit your exposure to smoke, dust, fumes, and chemicals at home and work.
Limit outdoor activities during air pollution alerts.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (7)

You Should Get a Flu Shot

Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube

Why do you need to get a flu shot every year? - Melvin Sanicas

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Questioning whether you should get the seasonal flu shot?

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

Why is air pollution a problem?

Video by British Heart Foundation/YouTube

Air Pollution 101 | National Geographic

Video by National Geographic/YouTube

Long-term effects of air pollution

Video by UW Medicine/YouTube

Air Pollution

Video by Bozeman Science/YouTube

6:48

You Should Get a Flu Shot

Healthcare Triage/YouTube

5:12

Why do you need to get a flu shot every year? - Melvin Sanicas

TED-Ed/YouTube

2:05

Questioning whether you should get the seasonal flu shot?

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

2:53

Why is air pollution a problem?

British Heart Foundation/YouTube

3:53

Air Pollution 101 | National Geographic

National Geographic/YouTube

4:59

Long-term effects of air pollution

UW Medicine/YouTube

9:25

Air Pollution

Bozeman Science/YouTube

Can I Prevent COPD?

Stop Smoking and drinking

Image by TheVisualMD

Stop Smoking and drinking

Stop Smoking and drinking

Image by TheVisualMD

How Can I Prevent COPD?

You can help prevent COPD with the following steps:

Stop smoking and avoid secondhand smoke. Lungs continue to develop into a person’s early 20s. Smoking at a young age increases the chance of having COPD later in life because it can damage growing lungs. Smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes is the number one cause of lung disease.
Quitting smoking greatly reduces the risk of developing COPD. Among people with COPD, research shows that those who quit smoking have fewer symptoms and less lung damage over time than those who kept smoking. Women who quit smoking also say they have better health-related quality of life than women who continue to smoke.
If you smoke now, quit. Get help to quit. If you live, drive, or work with people who smoke, ask them to smoke outside and only when they are away from you.
Protect yourself from dust and chemical fumes. Exposure over time to dust, pollution, and chemicals raises the risk for COPD, especially for women who work in places where they are exposed to chemicals, such as textile mills, hair and nail salons, or drycleaners. Read labels and carefully follow instructions for use on any chemical product you use (like cleaning products). If possible, do not use products that cause eye, nose, or throat irritation. If you have to use them, use them as little as possible and only in a well-ventilated area. Wear protective equipment, such as a ventilator mask.
Talk to your doctor if you have a cough that won’t go away, trouble breathing, or pain or discomfort in your chest.

Source: Office on Women's Health (OWH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Additional Materials (6)

How Smoking Impacts Your Lung Health

Video by American Lung Association/YouTube

Secondhand Tobacco Smoke Exposure Risks

Video by Paul Cochrane/YouTube

Smoking and its effects on Health - Stop today!

Video by iheed/YouTube

Secondhand Smoke Sensor

Video by Dartmouth/YouTube

Adult Smoking Prevalence and Secondhand Smoke Exposure

Video by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

The Dangers of Secondhand Smoke

Video by Siteman Cancer Center/YouTube

6:47

How Smoking Impacts Your Lung Health

American Lung Association/YouTube

3:59

Secondhand Tobacco Smoke Exposure Risks

Paul Cochrane/YouTube

2:46

Smoking and its effects on Health - Stop today!

iheed/YouTube

1:48

Secondhand Smoke Sensor

Dartmouth/YouTube

19:27

Adult Smoking Prevalence and Secondhand Smoke Exposure

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/YouTube

2:03

The Dangers of Secondhand Smoke

Siteman Cancer Center/YouTube

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COPD in Women

COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is a progressive, chronic lung disease that makes it difficult to breathe. COPD impacts men and women differently. More women than men have COPD. Women also tend to develop COPD at a younger age. Learn how COPD affects women and how it can be prevented.

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