X-linked sideroblastic anemia is an inherited disorder that prevents developing red blood cells (erythroblasts) from making enough hemoglobin, which is the protein that carries oxygen in the blood. People with X-linked sideroblastic anemia have mature red blood cells that are smaller than normal (microcytic) and appear pale (hypochromic) because of the shortage of hemoglobin. This disorder also leads to an abnormal accumulation of iron in red blood cells. The iron-loaded erythroblasts, which are present in bone marrow, are called ring sideroblasts. These abnormal cells give the condition its name.

The signs and symptoms of X-linked sideroblastic anemia result from a combination of reduced hemoglobin and an overload of iron. They range from mild to severe and most often appear in young adulthood. Common features include fatigue, dizziness, a rapid heartbeat, pale skin, and an enlarged liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly). Over time, severe medical problems such as heart disease and liver damage (cirrhosis) can result from the buildup of excess iron in these organs.

Mutations in the ALAS2 gene cause X-linked sideroblastic anemia. The ALAS2 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called erythroid ALA-synthase, which plays a critical role in the production of heme (a component of the hemoglobin protein) in bone marrow.

ALAS2 mutations impair the activity of erythroid ALA-synthase, which disrupts normal heme production and prevents erythroblasts from making enough hemoglobin. Because almost all of the iron transported into erythroblasts is normally incorporated into heme, the reduced production of heme leads to a buildup of excess iron in these cells. Additionally, the body attempts to compensate for the hemoglobin shortage by absorbing more iron from the diet. This buildup of excess iron damages the body's organs. Low hemoglobin levels and the resulting accumulation of iron in the body's organs lead to the characteristic features of X-linked sideroblastic anemia.

People who have a mutation in another gene, HFE, along with a mutation in the ALAS2 gene may experience a more severe form of X-linked sideroblastic anemia. In this uncommon situation, the combined effect of these two mutations can lead to a more serious iron overload. Mutations in the HFE gene alone can increase the absorption of iron from the diet and result in hemochromatosis, which is another type of iron overload disorder.

Normal Function

The ALAS2 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 or erythroid ALA-synthase. This version of the enzyme is found only in developing red blood cells called erythroblasts.

ALA-synthase plays an important role in the production of heme. Heme is a component of iron-containing proteins called hemoproteins, including hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood). Heme is vital for all of the body's organs, although it is most abundant in the blood, bone marrow, and liver.

The production of heme is a multi-step process that requires eight different enzymes. ALA-synthase is responsible for the first step in this process, the formation of a compound called delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). In subsequent steps, seven other enzymes produce and modify compounds that ultimately lead to heme.

Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes

Porphyria

At least two ALAS2 gene mutations have been found in people with a form of porphyria known as X-linked dominant erythropoietic protoporphyria. Each of these mutations deletes a small amount of genetic material near the end of the ALAS2 gene. These changes overactivate erythroid ALA-synthase, which increases the production of ALA within red blood cells. The excess ALA is converted by other enzymes to compounds called porphyrins. If these compounds build up in erythroblasts, they can leak out and be transported through the bloodstream to the skin and other tissues. High levels of porphyrins in the skin cause the oversensitivity to sunlight that is characteristic of this condition.

X-linked sideroblastic anemia

At least 50 mutations that cause X-linked sideroblastic anemia have been identified in the ALAS2 gene. Almost all of these mutations change single protein building blocks (amino acids) in erythroid ALA-synthase. These changes impair the activity of the enzyme, which disrupts the normal production of heme in developing red blood cells. A reduction in the amount of heme prevents these cells from making enough hemoglobin. Because almost all of the iron transported into erythroblasts is normally incorporated into heme, the reduced production of heme leads to a buildup of excess iron in these cells. Additionally, the body attempts to compensate for the hemoglobin shortage by absorbing more iron from the diet. This buildup of excess iron can damage the body's organs. Low hemoglobin levels and the resulting accumulation of iron in the body's organs lead to the characteristic features of X-linked sideroblastic anemia.

Other Names for This Gene

• 5-aminolevulinate synthase, erythroid-specific, mitochondrial
• ALAS, erythroid
• ALAS-E
• aminolevulinate, delta-, synthase 2
• ANH1
• ASB
• HEM0_HUMAN

Genomic Location

Normal Function

The HFE gene provides instructions for producing a protein that is located on the surface of cells, primarily liver and intestinal cells. The HFE protein is also found on some immune system cells.

The HFE protein interacts with other proteins on the cell surface to detect the amount of iron in the body. When the HFE protein is attached (bound) to a protein called transferrin receptor 1, the receptor cannot bind to a protein called transferrin. When transferrin receptor 1 is bound to transferrin, iron enters liver cells. So, it is likely that the HFE protein regulates iron levels in liver cells by preventing transferrin from binding to transferrin receptor 1.

The HFE protein regulates the production of a protein called hepcidin. Hepcidin is produced by the liver, and it determines how much iron is absorbed from the diet and released from storage sites in the body. When the HFE protein is not bound to transferrin receptor 1, it binds to a group of other proteins that includes hepcidin. The formation of this protein complex triggers the production of hepcidin. So when the HFE protein is bound to transferrin receptor 1, hepcidin production is turned off and when the HFE protein is not bound to transferrin receptor 1, hepcidin production is turned on.

When the proteins involved in iron sensing and absorption are functioning properly, iron absorption is tightly regulated. On average, the body absorbs about 10 percent of the iron obtained from the diet.

Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes

Porphyria

Mutations in the HFE gene can increase the risk of developing a condition called porphyria. Porphyria is a group of disorders caused by abnormalities in the chemical steps that lead to heme production. Heme is a vital molecule for all of the body's organs, although it is most abundant in the blood, bone marrow, and liver. Heme is a component of several iron-containing proteins called hemoproteins, including hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood). HFE gene mutations are found more frequently in people with the most common form of porphyria, known as porphyria cutanea tarda, than in unaffected people.

Researchers suspect that HFE gene mutations may trigger this type of porphyria by increasing the absorption of iron. A buildup of excess iron, in combination with other genetic and nongenetic factors, interferes with the production of a molecule called heme. Heme is a component of iron-containing proteins called hemoproteins, including hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood). A blockage in heme production allows other compounds called porphyrins to build up to toxic levels in the liver and other organs. These compounds are formed during the normal process of heme production, but excess iron and other factors allow them to accumulate to toxic levels. The abnormal buildup of porphyrins leads to the characteristic features of porphyria cutanea tarda.

Hereditary hemochromatosis

Researchers have identified more than 100 mutations in the HFE gene that cause type 1 hemochromatosis, a form of hereditary hemochromatosis that begins during adulthood. Hereditary hemochromatosis is a disorder that causes the body to absorb too much iron from the diet. The excess iron accumulates in, and eventually damages, the body's tissues and organs.

Two particular mutations are responsible for most cases of type 1 hemochromatosis. Each of these mutations changes one of the protein building blocks (amino acids) in the HFE protein. One mutation replaces the amino acid cysteine with the amino acid tyrosine at position 282 in the protein's chain of amino acids (written as Cys282Tyr or C282Y). The other mutation replaces the amino acid histidine with the amino acid aspartic acid at position 63 (written as His63Asp or H63D).

The Cys282Tyr mutation prevents the altered HFE protein from reaching the cell surface. The His63Asp mutation likely alters the three-dimensional shape of the protein. These mutations prevent the HFE protein from interacting with transferrin receptor 1 and other proteins. As a result, iron regulation is disrupted, and too much iron is absorbed from the diet. This increase in the absorption of dietary iron leads to the iron overload characteristic of type 1 hemochromatosis.

X-linked sideroblastic anemia

The Cys282Tyr mutation, which is a common cause of type 1 hereditary hemochromatosis (described above), may also increase the severity of the iron overload in X-linked sideroblastic anemia when it is inherited along with a mutation in the ALAS2 gene. The combination of HFE and ALAS2 gene mutations leads to more severe signs and symptoms of X-linked sideroblastic anemia by further increasing the absorption of dietary iron, leading to an even greater iron overload.

Other Names for This Gene

• hemochromatosis
• hemochromatosis, genetic; GH
• Hemochromatosis, Hereditary; HH
• Hereditary hemochromatosis protein
• HFE_HUMAN
• HLA-H antigen

Genomic Location

This condition is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. The gene associated with this condition is located on the X chromosome, which is one of the two sex chromosomes. In males (who have only one X chromosome), one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. In females (who have two X chromosomes), a mutation would have to occur in both copies of the gene to cause the disorder. Because it is unlikely that females will have two altered copies of this gene, males are affected by X-linked recessive disorders much more frequently than females. A characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons.

In X-linked recessive inheritance, a female with one altered copy of the gene in each cell is called a carrier. Carriers of an ALAS2 mutation can pass on the mutated gene, but most do not develop any symptoms associated with X-linked sideroblastic anemia. However, carriers may have abnormally small, pale red blood cells and related changes that can be detected with a blood test.

This form of anemia is uncommon. However, researchers believe that it may not be as rare as they once thought. Increased awareness of the disease has led to more frequent diagnoses.