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Angelman Syndrome

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Angelman Syndrome

The painting that inspired the initial description of Angelman Syndrome

Image by CAROTO, Giovanni Francesco (b. 1480, Verona, d. ca. 1555, Verona)

About

5-year-old Mexican girl with Angelman syndrome

Image by Yokoyama-Rebollar E, Ruiz-Herrera A, Lieberman-Hernández E, Del Castillo-Ruiz V, Sánchez-Sandoval S, Ávila-Flores SM, Castrillo JL - Mol Cytogenet (2015)

What Is Angelman Syndrome?

Angelman syndrome is a genetic disorder that primarily affects the nervous system. The disorder is named after Dr. Harry Angelman who first reported the syndrome in 1965.

Features that help define the disorder include:

Developmental delay
Intellectual disability
Severe speech impairment
Problems with movement and balance (ataxia)
Recurrent seizures (epilepsy)
Very happy demeanor with frequent laughter
A small head size (microcephaly)

Often, there are also gastrointestinal, orthopedic, and eye problems. Hyperactivity and a short attention span are common.

Infants with AS appear normal at birth but often have feeding problems in the first months of life. They also show developmental delays between the ages of 6 and 12 months. Seizures often begin between ages 2 and 3.

The disorder results from the loss of function of a gene called UBE3A, which provides instructions for making a protein (ubiquitin protein ligase E3A) that plays an important role in the development and function of the nervous system.

There is no specific therapy for AS. The focus of treatment is to reduce seizures, anxiety, and gastrointestinal issues and improve sleep. Seizures may be treated with medications and dietary therapies. Sleep issues may be treated with medications and sleep training. Physical, occupational, and speech therapies should begin early and continue as long as they are needed. Many people also may benefit from applied behavior analysis and/or behavior therapy.

Most people with AS will have significant developmental delays, speech limitations, and motor problems. They still will understand much of what is said. They also often learn to communicate non-verbally and with communication devices. People with AS appear to have normal life spans.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)

Additional Materials (7)

2:29

Video Explanation of Angelman Syndrome presented by FAST

FAST/YouTube

3:47

What does Angelman Syndrome look like?

FASTAustralia/YouTube

5:09

Angelman Syndrome, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment.

Medical Centric/YouTube

The painting that inspired the initial description of Angelman Syndrome

CAROTO, Giovanni Francesco (b. 1480, Verona, d. ca. 1555, Verona)

2:20

Angelman Syndrome in one word - Angelman UK

AngelmanUK/YouTube

3:41

Angelman Syndrome - What is it? - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

3:51

Behaviour in Angelman Syndrome - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

What Is Angelman Syndrome?

The painting that inspired the initial description of Angelman Syndrome

Image by CAROTO, Giovanni Francesco (b. 1480, Verona, d. ca. 1555, Verona)

What Is Angelman Syndrome?

Angelman syndrome is a complex genetic disorder that primarily affects the nervous system. Characteristic features of this condition include delayed development, intellectual disability, severe speech impairment, and problems with movement and balance (ataxia). Most affected children also have recurrent seizures (epilepsy) and a small head size (microcephaly). Delayed development becomes noticeable by the age of 6 to 12 months, and other common signs and symptoms usually appear in early childhood.

Children with Angelman syndrome typically have a happy, excitable demeanor with frequent smiling, laughter, and hand-flapping movements. Hyperactivity and a short attention span are common. Most affected children also have difficulty sleeping and need less sleep than usual.

With age, people with Angelman syndrome become less excitable, and the sleeping problems tend to improve. However, affected individuals continue to have intellectual disability, severe speech impairment, and seizures throughout their lives. Adults with Angelman syndrome have distinctive facial features that may be described as "coarse." Other common features include unusually fair skin with light-colored hair and an abnormal side-to-side curvature of the spine (scoliosis). The life expectancy of people with this condition appears to be nearly normal.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Additional Materials (2)

2:27

What is Angelman Syndrome? (Happy Puppet Syndrome)

healthery/YouTube

3:47

What does Angelman Syndrome look like?

FASTAustralia/YouTube

Causes

Protein UBE3A PDB 1c4z

Image by Emw/Wikimedia

What Causes Angelman Syndrome?

Many of the characteristic features of Angelman syndrome result from the loss of function of a gene called UBE3A. People normally inherit one copy of the UBE3A gene from each parent. Both copies of this gene are turned on (active) in most of the body's tissues. However, in nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system), only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. This parent-specific gene activation is caused by a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. If the maternal copy of the UBE3A gene is lost because of a chromosomal change or a gene variant (also known as a mutation), a person will have no active copies of the gene in most parts of the brain.

Several different genetic mechanisms can inactivate or delete the maternal copy of the UBE3A gene. Most cases of Angelman syndrome (about 70 percent) occur when a segment of the maternal chromosome 15 containing this gene is deleted. In other cases (about 10 to 20 percent), Angelman syndrome is caused by a variant in the maternal copy of the UBE3A gene.

In a small percentage of cases, Angelman syndrome results when a person inherits two copies of chromosome 15 from his or her father (paternal copies) instead of one copy from each parent. This phenomenon is called paternal uniparental disomy. Rarely, Angelman syndrome can also be caused by a chromosomal rearrangement called a translocation, or by a variant or other defect in the region of DNA that controls activation of the UBE3A gene. These genetic changes can abnormally turn off (inactivate) UBE3A or other genes on the maternal copy of chromosome 15.

The causes of Angelman syndrome are unknown in 10 to 15 percent of affected individuals. Changes involving other genes or chromosomes may be responsible for the disorder in these cases.

In some people who have Angelman syndrome, the loss of a gene called OCA2 is associated with light-colored hair and fair skin. The OCA2 gene is located on the segment of chromosome 15 that is often deleted in people with this disorder. However, loss of the OCA2 gene does not cause the other signs and symptoms of Angelman syndrome. The protein produced from this gene helps determine the coloring (pigmentation) of the skin, hair, and eyes.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Additional Materials (1)

2:29

Video Explanation of Angelman Syndrome presented by FAST

FAST/YouTube

OCA2 Gene

Ideogram of human chromosome 15

Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

OCA2 Gene: OCA2 Melanosomal Transmembrane Protein

Normal Function

The OCA2 gene (formerly called the P gene) provides instructions for making a protein called the P protein. This protein is located in melanocytes, which are specialized cells that produce a pigment called melanin. Melanin is the substance that gives skin, hair, and eyes their color. Melanin is also found in the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye (the retina), where it plays a role in normal vision.

Although the exact function of the P protein is unknown, it is essential for normal pigmentation and is likely involved in the production of melanin. Within melanocytes, the P protein may transport molecules into and out of structures called melanosomes (where melanin is produced). Researchers believe that this protein may also help regulate the relative acidity (pH) of melanosomes. Tight control of pH is necessary for most biological processes.

Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes

Angelman syndrome

The OCA2 gene is located in a region of chromosome 15 that is often deleted in individuals with Angelman syndrome. A loss of this gene does not cause the characteristic neurologic features of Angelman syndrome; however, people with this condition who are missing one copy of the OCA2 gene tend to have unusually light-colored hair and fair skin. Cells with only one copy of the OCA2 gene make a reduced amount of P protein compared with cells with two functional copies of this gene, which affects the coloring of the hair and skin.

A small percentage of people with Angelman syndrome also have oculocutaneous albinism type 2. This condition occurs when people have two nonfunctional copies of the OCA2 gene in each cell. In addition to a deletion in chromosome 15 that removes one copy of the OCA2 gene, these individuals have a variant (also known as a mutation) in the OCA2 gene on the other copy of chromosome 15. As a result, cells make little or no functional P protein. A lack of P protein disrupts the production of melanin, leading to the characteristic features of albinism.

Oculocutaneous albinism

More than 80 variants in the OCA2 gene have been identified in people with oculocutaneous albinism type 2. People with this form of albinism often have light yellow, blond, or light brown hair; creamy white skin; light-colored eyes; and problems with vision. The most common OCA2 variant is a large deletion in the gene, which is found in many affected individuals of sub-Saharan African heritage. Other OCA2 gene variants, including changes in single DNA building blocks (base pairs) and small deletions, are more common in other populations. Variants in the OCA2 gene disrupt the normal production of melanin, which reduces coloring of the hair, skin, and eyes and affects vision.

Prader-Willi syndrome

The region of chromosome 15 containing the OCA2 gene is often deleted in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome. A loss of this gene does not cause intellectual disability and the other characteristic features of Prader-Willi syndrome; however, people with this condition who are missing one copy of the OCA2 gene tend to have unusually light-colored hair and fair skin. Cells missing a copy of the OCA2 gene make less P protein than cells with two functional copies of the gene, which affects the coloring of the hair and skin.

Oculocutaneous albinism type 2 also occurs in a small number of people with Prader-Willi syndrome. This condition occurs when people have two nonfunctional copies of the OCA2 gene in each cell. In addition to a deletion in chromosome 15 that removes one copy of the OCA2 gene, these individuals have a variant in the OCA2 gene on the other copy of chromosome 15. As a result, cells make little or no functional P protein. A lack of P protein disrupts the production of melanin, leading to the characteristic features of albinism.

Melanoma

MedlinePlus Genetics provides information about Melanoma

Other Names for This Gene

BOCA
Melanocyte-specific transporter protein
oculocutaneous albinism II
oculocutaneous albinism II (pink-eye dilution homolog, mouse)
P gene
P_HUMAN
PED
Pink-eyed dilution protein homolog

Genomic Location

The OCA2 gene is found on chromosome 15.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

UBE3A Gene

Ideogram of human chromosome 15

Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

UBE3A Gene: Ubiquitin Protein Ligase E3A

Normal Function

The UBE3A gene provides instructions for making a protein called ubiquitin protein ligase E3A. Ubiquitin protein ligases are enzymes that target other proteins to be broken down (degraded) within cells. These enzymes attach a small molecule called ubiquitin to proteins that should be degraded. Cellular structures called proteasomes recognize and digest these ubiquitin-tagged proteins. Protein degradation is a normal process that removes damaged or unnecessary proteins and helps maintain the normal functions of cells.

Studies suggest that ubiquitin protein ligase E3A plays a critical role in the normal development and function of the nervous system. Studies suggest that it helps control (regulate) the balance of protein synthesis and degradation (proteostasis) at the junctions between nerve cells (synapses) where cell-to-cell communication takes place. Regulation of proteostasis is important for the synapses to change and adapt over time in response to experience, a characteristic called synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is critical for learning and memory.

People normally inherit two copies of the UBE3A gene, one from each parent. Both copies of the gene are turned on (active) in most of the body's tissues. However, in nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system), only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. This parent-specific gene activation results from a phenomenon known as genomic imprinting.

Health Conditions Related to Genetic Changes

Angelman syndrome

A loss of UBE3A gene function in the brain likely causes many of the characteristic features of Angelman syndrome, a complex genetic disorder that primarily affects the nervous system. This loss of function results from a chromosomal change or gene variant (also known as a mutation) that affects the maternal copy of the gene.

Several different genetic mechanisms can turn off (inactivate) or delete the UBE3A gene. Most cases of Angelman syndrome (about 70 percent) occur when a segment of the maternal chromosome 15 containing this gene is deleted. In another 10 to 20 percent of cases, Angelman syndrome results from variants within the UBE3A gene itself. Most of these variants lead to the production of an abnormally short, nonfunctional version of ubiquitin protein ligase E3A. Because the copy of the gene inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is normally inactive in most areas of the brain, loss of the maternal copy prevents any of the enzyme from being produced in these brain regions. This lack of enzyme function likely causes the major signs and symptoms of Angelman syndrome.

Other abnormalities involving the region of chromosome 15 that contains the UBE3A gene can also cause Angelman syndrome. These chromosomal changes include rearrangements (translocations) of genetic material or a defect in the region of DNA that controls activation of the UBE3A gene. Like variants within the gene, these chromosomal changes prevent any functional ubiquitin protein ligase E3A from being produced in certain parts of the brain.

Other disorders

Variants in the UBE3A gene have been found in a small number of individuals with a variety of neurological problems, including intellectual disability, seizures, and autism spectrum disorder. Unlike variants involved in Angelman syndrome, which reduce the function of ubiquitin protein ligase E3A in cells, these rare variants increase the function of the protein. It is not clear how excess ubiquitin protein ligase E3A activity affects development and contributes to the neurological features in people with these variants.

Other Names for This Gene

ANCR
CTCL tumor antigen se37-2
E6-AP
E6AP ubiquitin-protein ligase
EPVE6AP
HPVE6A
human papilloma virus E6-associated protein
oncogenic protein-associated protein E6-AP
UBE3A_HUMAN
ubiquitin protein ligase E3A (human papilloma virus E6-associated protein, Angelman syndrome)

Genomic Location

The UBE3A gene is found on chromosome 15.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Additional Materials (4)

2:20

Angelman Syndrome in one word - Angelman UK

AngelmanUK/YouTube

3:41

Angelman Syndrome - What is it? - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

3:03

Understanding the Autism Spectrum | Autism

Howcast/YouTube

2:50

What is Autism?

Fixers UK/YouTube

Chromosome 15

Ideogram of human chromosome 15

Image by Office of Biological and Environmental Research of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, the Biological and Environmental Research Information System, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

How Are Changes in the Chromosome 15 Related to Health Conditions?

Chromosome 15 spans more than 102 million DNA building blocks (base pairs) and represents more than 3 percent of the total DNA in cells. Chromosome 15 likely contains 600 to 700 genes that provide instructions for making proteins. These proteins perform a variety of different roles in the body.

The following chromosomal conditions are associated with changes in the structure or number of copies of chromosome 15.

15q11-q13 duplication syndrome

Duplication of a region of the long (q) arm of chromosome 15 can result in 15q11-q13 duplication syndrome (dup15q syndrome), a condition whose features can include weak muscle tone (hypotonia), intellectual disability, recurrent seizures (epilepsy), characteristics of autism spectrum disorder affecting communication and social interaction, and other behavioral problems.

Dup15q syndrome is caused by the presence of at least one extra copy of a region of chromosome 15 called 15q11.2-q13.1. This region is also called the Prader-Willi/Angelman critical region (PWACR) because genetic changes in it are also involved in conditions called Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome (described below). Dup15q syndrome arises only if the chromosome abnormality occurs on the copy of the chromosome inherited from the mother (the maternal copy). People normally inherit one copy of chromosome 15 from each parent. However, some genes on this chromosome, including some of those in the 15q11.2-q13.1 region, are turned on (active) only on the maternal copy. This parent-specific gene activation results from a phenomenon called genomic imprinting.

The most common chromosome abnormality that leads to 15q11.2-q13.1 duplication, occurring in about 80 percent of people with dup15q syndrome, is called an isodicentric chromosome 15. An isodicentric chromosome contains mirror-image segments of genetic material and has two constriction points (centromeres), rather than one centromere as in normal chromosomes. In people with an isodicentric chromosome 15, cells have the usual two copies of chromosome 15 plus the two duplicated copies of the segment of genetic material in the isodicentric chromosome, for a total of four copies of the duplicated segment.

In about 20 percent of cases of dup15q syndrome, the duplication occurs on the long (q) arm of one of the two copies of chromosome 15 in each cell; this situation is called an interstitial duplication. In these cases, cells have two copies of chromosome 15, one of which has an extra copy of the segment of genetic material, for a total of three copies of the duplicated segment.

In all cases of dup15q syndrome, the duplicated genetic material results in extra copies of certain genes involved in development. This extra genetic material disrupts normal development, causing the characteristic features of this disorder. People with dup15q syndrome resulting from an interstitial duplication often have milder signs and symptoms than those in whom the disorder results from an isodicentric chromosome 15.

15q13.3 microdeletion

15q13.3 microdeletion is a chromosomal change in which a small piece of chromosome 15 is deleted in each cell. The deletion occurs on the q arm of the chromosome at a position designated q13.3. Most people with a 15q13.3 microdeletion are missing a sequence of about 2 million DNA base pairs, also written as 2 megabases (Mb). The exact size of the deleted region varies, but it typically contains at least six genes. It is unclear how a loss of these genes increases the risk of intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and psychiatric disorders in some individuals with a 15q13.3 microdeletion.

Other people with a 15q13.3 microdeletion have no obvious signs or symptoms related to the chromosomal change. In these individuals, the microdeletion is often detected when they undergo genetic testing because they have an affected relative. It is unknown why 15q13.3 microdeletion causes cognitive and behavioral problems in some individuals but few or no health problems in others. Researchers believe that additional genetic or environmental factors may be involved.

15q24 microdeletion

15q24 microdeletion is a chromosomal change in which a small piece of chromosome 15 is deleted in each cell. Specifically, affected individuals are missing between 1.7 Mb and 6.1 Mb of DNA at position q24 on chromosome 15. The exact size of the deletion varies, but all individuals are missing the same 1.2 Mb region. This region contains several genes that are thought to be important for normal development. It is unclear how a loss of these genes leads to intellectual disability, distinctive facial features, and other abnormalities often seen in people with a 15q24 microdeletion.

Acute promyelocytic leukemia

A type of blood cancer known as acute promyelocytic leukemia is caused by a rearrangement (translocation) of genetic material between chromosomes 15 and 17. This translocation, written as t(15;17), fuses part of the PML gene from chromosome 15 with part of the RARA gene from chromosome 17. This mutation is acquired during a person's lifetime and is present only in certain cells. This type of genetic change, called a somatic mutation, is not inherited. The t(15;17) translocation is called a balanced reciprocal translocation because the pieces of chromosome are exchanged with each other (reciprocal) and no genetic material is gained or lost (balanced). The protein produced from this fused gene is known as PML-RARα.

The PML-RARα protein functions differently than the protein products from the normal PML and RARA genes. The PML gene on chromosome 15 provides instructions for a protein that acts as a tumor suppressor, which means it prevents cells from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an uncontrolled way. The PML protein blocks cell growth and division (proliferation) and induces self-destruction (apoptosis) in combination with other proteins. The RARA gene on chromosome 17 provides instructions for making a transcription factor called the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARα). A transcription factor is a protein that attaches (binds) to specific regions of DNA and helps control the activity of particular genes. Normally, the RARα protein controls the activity (transcription) of genes important for the maturation (differentiation) of immature white blood cells beyond a particular stage called the promyelocyte. The PML-RARα protein interferes with the normal function of both the PML and the RARα proteins. As a result, blood cells are stuck at the promyelocyte stage, and they proliferate abnormally. Excess promyelocytes accumulate in the bone marrow and normal white blood cells cannot form, leading to acute promyelocytic leukemia.

Angelman syndrome

Angelman syndrome results from a loss of gene activity (expression) in a specific part of chromosome 15 in each cell. This region is located on the q arm of the chromosome and is designated 15q11-q13. This region contains a gene called UBE3A that, when mutated or absent, likely causes the characteristic neurologic features of Angelman syndrome.

People normally inherit one copy of the UBE3A gene from each parent, and both copies of this gene are active in many of the body's tissues. In certain areas of the brain, however, only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. This parent-specific gene activation results from a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. If the maternal copy is lost because of a chromosomal change or a gene mutation, a person will have no working copies of the UBE3A gene in some parts of the brain.

In most cases (about 70 percent), Angelman syndrome results from a deletion in the maternal copy of chromosome 15. This chromosomal change deletes the region of chromosome 15 that includes the UBE3A gene. Because the copy of the UBE3A gene inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is normally inactive in certain parts of the brain, a deletion in the maternal chromosome 15 leaves no active copies of the UBE3A gene in these brain regions.

In 3 percent to 7 percent of cases of Angelman syndrome, the condition results when a person inherits two copies of chromosome 15 from his or her father instead of one copy from each parent. This phenomenon is called paternal uniparental disomy (UPD). People with paternal UPD for chromosome 15 have two copies of the UBE3A gene, but they are both inherited from the father and are therefore inactive in the brain.

About 10 percent of cases of Angelman syndrome are caused by a mutation in the UBE3A gene, and another 3 percent results from a defect in the DNA region that controls the activation of the UBE3A gene and other genes on the maternal copy of chromosome 15. In a small percentage of cases, Angelman syndrome is caused by a chromosomal rearrangement (translocation) or by a mutation in a gene other than UBE3A. These genetic changes abnormally inactivate the UBE3A gene.

Prader-Willi syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a loss of active genes in a region of chromosome 15. This region is located on the q arm of the chromosome and is designated 15q11-q13. It is the same part of chromosome 15 that is usually affected in people with Angelman syndrome, although different genes are associated with the two disorders. People can have either Prader-Willi syndrome or Angelman syndrome, but they typically cannot have both.

People normally inherit one copy of chromosome 15 from each parent. Some genes on this chromosome are turned on (active) only on the copy inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy). This parent-specific gene activation results from a phenomenon called genomic imprinting.

In about 70 percent of cases, Prader-Willi syndrome occurs when the 15q11-q13 region of the paternal chromosome 15 is deleted in each cell. A person with this chromosomal change will be missing certain critical genes in this region because the genes on the paternal copy have been deleted, and the genes on the maternal copy are turned off (inactive). Researchers are working to identify which missing genes are associated with the characteristic features of Prader-Willi syndrome.

In about 25 percent of cases, people with Prader-Willi syndrome inherit two copies of chromosome 15 from their mother instead of one copy from each parent. This phenomenon is called maternal UPD. A person with two maternal copies of chromosome 15 will have no active copies of certain genes in the 15q11-q13 region.

In a small percentage of cases, Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a chromosomal rearrangement called a translocation. Rarely, the condition results from a mutation or other defect that abnormally inactivates genes on the paternal copy of chromosome 15.

Sensorineural deafness and male infertility

Sensorineural deafness and male infertility is caused by a deletion of genetic material on the q arm of chromosome 15. The symptoms of sensorineural deafness and male infertility are related to the loss of multiple genes in this region. The size of the deletion varies among affected individuals. Researchers have determined that the loss of a particular gene on chromosome 15, STRC, is responsible for hearing loss in affected individuals. The loss of another gene, CATSPER2, in the same region of chromosome 15 is responsible for sperm abnormalities, which lead to an inability to father children (infertility) in affected males. Researchers are working to determine how the loss of additional genes in the deleted region affects people with sensorineural deafness and male infertility.

Other chromosomal conditions

Other changes in the number or structure of chromosome 15 can cause intellectual disability, delayed growth and development, hypotonia, and characteristic facial features. These changes include an extra copy of part of chromosome 15 in each cell (partial trisomy 15), a missing segment of the chromosome in each cell (partial monosomy 15), and a circular structure called ring chromosome 15. A ring chromosome occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the ends of the chromosome arms fuse together to form a circular structure.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Additional Materials (12)

Chromosomal deletion

Deletions occur when a chromosome breaks and some genetic material is lost. Deletions can be large or small, and can occur anywhere along a chromosome.

Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine

Duplication mutation

A duplication consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally copied one or more times. This type of mutation may alter the function of the resulting protein.

Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine

Duplication

Duplication is a type of mutation that involves the production of one or more copies of a gene or region of a chromosome.

Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Types of chromosomal mutations

Types of chromosomal mutations

Image by YassineMrabetTalk

Chromosomal Deletion

Deletion of chromosome section

Image by National Human Genome Research (USA)

Duplication mutation

Image by NIH, National Library of Medicine, Genetics Home Reference

Chromosomes mutations

Ultraviolet (UV) photons harm the DNA molecules of living organisms in different ways. In one common damage event, adjacent bases bond with each other, instead of across the "ladder." This makes a bulge, and the distorted DNA molecule does not function properly

Image by YassineMrabetTalk/Wikicommons

Deletion

Deletion is a type of mutation involving the loss of genetic material.

Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Deletion mutation

A deletion changes the number of DNA bases by removing a piece of DNA. Small deletions may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene, while larger deletions can remove an entire gene or several neighboring genes. The deleted DNA may alter the function of the resulting protein(s).

Image by U.S. National Library of Medicine

Chromosome 15 - Eye colour

Video by The Royal Institution/YouTube

15q11.2: Chromosome 15 Deletion

Video by Chromed Out Neela 15q11.2/YouTube

Chromosomal deletion

U.S. National Library of Medicine

Duplication mutation

U.S. National Library of Medicine

Duplication

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Types of chromosomal mutations

YassineMrabetTalk

Chromosomal Deletion

National Human Genome Research (USA)

Duplication mutation

NIH, National Library of Medicine, Genetics Home Reference

Chromosomes mutations

YassineMrabetTalk/Wikicommons

Deletion

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)

Deletion mutation

U.S. National Library of Medicine

2:42

Chromosome 15 - Eye colour

The Royal Institution/YouTube

2:43

15q11.2: Chromosome 15 Deletion

Chromed Out Neela 15q11.2/YouTube

Screening

Amniocentesis

Image by BruceBlaus

Is There Any Way to Avoid Having a Child with Angelman Syndrome in a Future Pregnancy?

There are a number of genetic tests that can be used to inform a couple about the possible outcomes of a current or future pregnancy. Examples of two such tests are prenatal diagnosis and preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). Prenatal diagnosis can be used to diagnose a condition in a developing fetus. If the underlying genetic cause of a disorder in a family is known, testing can be completed to analyze the genetic material of the fetus. This is typically completed around 10-13 weeks' gestation via chorionic villus sampling or around 15+ weeks' gestation via amniocentesis. Prenatal diagnosis may help parents prepare emotionally for the birth and to plan the delivery with their health care providers. Parents can also use this information to make decisions regarding whether or not to continue the pregnancy.

PGD is an alternative to prenatal diagnosis. It is used following in vitro fertilization to diagnose a genetic disease or condition in embryos. Only embryos that do not carry the disease-causing mutation are implanted in the mother's womb. PGD allows testing to occur before a pregnancy begins. In many cases, the disease-causing mutation must be identified in an affected parent before PGD or prenatal diagnosis can be performed.

Source: Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Additional Materials (2)

4:34

Prenatal Diagnostic Testing

TheVisualMD

Process of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis

Bananapancake212

Prenatal Panel

Prenatal Panel

Also called: First Trimester Prenatal Tests, Obstetric Panel, OB Panel

A prenatal panel is a group of blood tests done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for conditions that can affect the health of a mother and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications.

Prenatal Panel

Also called: First Trimester Prenatal Tests, Obstetric Panel, OB Panel

A prenatal panel is a group of blood tests done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for conditions that can affect the health of a mother and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications.

A prenatal panel is group of blood tests that are done early in pregnancy. The tests are used to check for diseases and infections that can affect the health of a pregnant woman and her unborn baby. The results can guide treatments, which may help prevent serious complications. A prenatal panel usually includes the following tests:
- Complete blood count (CBC). This test measures the different parts and features of your blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. A CBC can help diagnose a variety of health problems, such as anemia, clotting disorders, and infections.
- Blood type and Rh factor. This test finds out your blood type (A, B, AB, or O) and checks your Rh factor. Rh factor is a type of protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood cells have this protein, you are Rh positive. If they don't, you are Rh negative. If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood.
- Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection. This test shows if you have immunity to rubella. This means you have been vaccinated against rubella or have been infected with it in the past. If a woman gets infected with rubella during pregnancy, it can put her baby at risk for serious birth defects.
- Hepatitis B and C are viruses that infect the liver. The hepatitis virus can be passed from a pregnant woman to her unborn baby. Most pregnant women are tested for hepatitis B. Hepatitis C is not routinely tested, because is not common. But you may be tested if you have certain risk factors.
- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Most pregnant women are tested for chlamydia and syphilis early in pregnancy. You may also be tested for gonorrhea if you have certain risk factors. An STD can lead to miscarriage or infect your baby during delivery. An STD can be dangerous to a newborn. It may cause blindness, breathing problems, or other health issues.
- HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system and can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). If you have HIV, you may pass along the virus to your unborn baby. Many pregnant women are tested for HIV, and some states require testing.
If your results were not normal, you and/or your baby may get treatment to prevent serious health problems. Examples of some abnormal results and treatment include:
- Rh incompatibility. You will receive medicine that prevents your body from making antibodies against your baby's red blood cells.
- Infections (hepatitis, STDs, HIV). You will receive medicine to treat the infection. If you have a hepatitis B infection, your baby will get a vaccine within a few hours of birth.
- No immunity to rubella. You'll need to avoid anyone who has rubella while you are pregnant. After your baby is born, you should get vaccinated.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
In addition to a prenatal panel, you may also get a urine test during your first trimester. Pregnancy urine tests are used to:
- Diagnose a urinary tract infection
- Check glucose levels. High levels of glucose in urine may be a sign of gestational diabetes, a type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy. If your urine glucose was high, your provider may order a blood glucose test to confirm the diagnosis.
- Check protein levels. High levels of protein in urine can be a sign of a number of health problems, including kidney disease, infection, or stress. If your urine protein was high, your provider will probably order more tests.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/prenatal-panel/ [accessed on Sep 27, 2021]
2. https://www.babycenter.com/0_common-first-trimester-blood-tests_9273.bc [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
3. https://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/first-trimester-tests#1 [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
4. https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/essential-blood-tests-during-first-trimester-of-pregnancy/ [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
5. https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/blood-tests-during-pregnancy [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
6. https://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/first-trimester-tests#1 [accessed on Jan 25, 2019]
7. https://labtestsonline.org/conditions/pregnancy-first-trimester-12-weeks [accessed on Jan 25, 2019]

Additional Materials (4)

Pregnancy

Haggstrom, Mikael \"Medical gallery of Mikael Haggstrom 2014\" Wikiversity Journal of Medicine

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy

Ernst Bumm and Albrecht Mayer

Weight Gain During Pregnancy

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

Pregnancy

Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436

Pregnancy Test

Pregnancy Test

Also called: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Test, HCG Test, HCG total OB

A pregnancy test can tell whether you're pregnant by checking a urine or blood sample for hCG, a hormone made during pregnancy. HCG levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 14 days after conception by a urine test.

Pregnancy Test

Also called: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Test, HCG Test, HCG total OB

A pregnancy test can tell whether you're pregnant by checking a urine or blood sample for hCG, a hormone made during pregnancy. HCG levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 14 days after conception by a urine test.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(mi.U.)/mL
5
25
Your result is Negative.
Normal levels of the hCG hormone in women who are not pregnant.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
If you have a negative result, you should consider these results to be uncertain, as they may indicate a false negative. Until you can be sure that you’re not pregnant, you should be cautious and avoid doing anything that could hurt a developing fetus.
Related conditions
You may need this test if you think you're pregnant. Symptoms of pregnancy vary from person to person. The most common sign of early pregnancy is a missed period. Other common signs of early pregnancy may include:
- Swollen, tender breasts
- Fatigue
- Frequent need to urinate (pee)
- Nausea and vomiting (also called morning sickness)
- Feeling bloated or swollen in your abdomen (belly) or body
If you need to have medical treatment that could harm an unborn baby, you may also need a pregnancy test to make sure that you aren't pregnant.
Home pregnancy tests are quick and easy to use. You can buy a home pregnancy test kit without a prescription. The kits include test sticks or strips that react to hCG in your urine. The steps for doing a test depend on the brand, so it's very important to follow the instructions that come with your test. For most test kits, you'll either:
- Hold the test stick or strip in your urine stream
- Collect your urine in a cup and dip the test stick or strip into the cup
After waiting a certain number of minutes, you'll check your results on the test stick or strip. The instructions will tell you what to look for. In general, to get the most accurate results with any home pregnancy test, you'll need to:
- Check the expiration date before you use the test.
- Test your first morning urine. Morning urine usually has more hCG than urine later in the day.
- Use a timer. If you guess the timing, your results may not be accurate.
Blood tests are done at your provider's office or a lab. A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This process usually takes less than five minutes.
Most pregnancy tests simply measure whether or not you have hCG in your sample. But certain pregnancy tests also measure how much hCG you have. These tests are called quantitative hCG tests, and they're usually done on blood samples.
The amount of hCG in your body can give your provider important information about your pregnancy and the health of your unborn baby. Quantitative hCG tests are sometimes used to help:
- Find out the age of the fetus if you're very early in your pregnancy
- Monitor your pregnancy if you have a high risk of miscarriage
- Check for certain problems, such as:
  Ectopic pregnancy, which is a fertilized egg that tries to grow outside of the uterus. The egg cannot grow into a baby when it's in the wrong place. It must be removed to avoid damage to your organs. This can be a medical emergency.
  Molar pregnancy (hydatidiform mole), which is an abnormal growth of tissue in the uterus. It's caused by a fertilized egg with such severe genetic problems that it cannot become a baby. The growth can turn into cancer and must be removed.
  Problems in the unborn baby, including Down syndrome, other chromosome problems, and certain birth defects (hCG testing is usually part of a group of prenatal screening tests called a "triple" or "quadruple" screen test.)
Your provider may also order a quantitative hCG blood test to help diagnose or monitor health conditions that aren't related to pregnancy. These include ovarian and testicular cancer along with other conditions that can increase hCG levels.
1. Pregnancy Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 29, 2024]
2. Quest Diagnostics: hCG, Total, Quantitative [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]
3. Possible Meanings of a High hCG Level in Pregnancy [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]
4. American Pregnancy: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): The Pregnancy Hormone [accessed on Sep 12, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (41)

hCG testing for pregnancy

Diagram of typical immunoassay home pregnancy test which detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (A) A urine sample is applied to the stick. If pregnant, this should contain hCG. (B) As the sample is absorbed into the stick it goes through free dye-labeled antibodies that recognize and stick to hCG. (C) An anchored set of antibodies stick to and capture hCG molecules (and the attached dye-labeled antibodies), creating the first line. In the "not pregnant" sample no hCG is attached to the dye-labeled antibodies, so they wash past this point and no line appears. (D) A second anchored set of antibodies captures the dye-labeled antibodies, providing a positive control to indicate that the test is working properly.

Image by Madprime

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time

hCG testing for pregnancy is available to women of child-bearing age. The \"quad\" screen, of which hCG is a component, is especially recommended for women with higher-risk pregnancies as indicated by factors such as maternal age, family history, and disease history. Levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 12-14 days after conception by a urine test. In general the hCG levels will double every 72 hours. The level will reach its peak in the first 8-11 weeks of pregnancy and then will decline and level off for the remainder of the pregnancy.

Image by TheVisualMD

PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests

The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

In the very earliest stages of pregnancy, a developing placenta begins to secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The hormone enters maternal circulation once an embryo is implanted in the endometrium, shown in this image. hCG testing is used widely to detect pregnancy. Because hCG levels begin to rise immediately after conception, the test enables accurate, early detection.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hormonal Regulation of Growth

Image by OpenStax College

How do pregnancy tests work? - Tien Nguyen

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

How to Take a Clear Blue Pregnancy Test | Parents

Video by Parents/YouTube

How Accurate are Pregnancy Tests? | Pregnancy Questions | Parents

Video by Parents/YouTube

Focus on Health: Quad Screen

Video by Virginia Women's Center/YouTube

Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy

Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy

Image by osmosis

Fallopian Tube and Ovary - Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.

Fallopian Tube and Ovary: Medical visualization of a cross-section of the ovary, as well as the associated fallopian tube; seen inside the cross-section are a developing follicle, corpus luteum, and corpus albicans. The ovaries are the site of egg production and maturation within the human female. Each month, an oocyte is ejected from a mature follicle to the surface of one of the two ovaries. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube (fimbriae) sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. The remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum. Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is essentially scar tissue and is mostly comprised of collagen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Ooctye Erupting from Ovary

Visualization of an oocyte erupting from the surface of the ovary. The ovary, which is suspended by the ovarian ligament, is seen in cross section. Revealed are the ovarian follicles which are oocytes in various stages of maturation. Each month, one of the mature follicles ejects it's oocyte through the surface of the ovary. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. Meanwhile, the remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum which eventually degenerates if fertilization does not occur. If fertilized, however, the egg secretes the a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A

PAPP-A Screening Tests : The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.

Image by TheVisualMD

Ectopic pregnancy

Human Embryo (7th week of pregnancy, 5th week p.o.) This photo of an opened oviduct with an ectopic pregnancy features a spectacularly well preserved 10-millimeter embryo. It is uncommon to see any embryo at all in an ectopic, and for one to be this well preserved (and undisturbed by the prosector's knife) is quite unusual. Even an embryo this tiny shows very distinct anatomic features, including tail, limb buds, heart (which actually protrudes from the chest), eye cups, cornea/lens, brain, and prominent segmentation into somites. The gestational sac is surrounded by myriad chorionic villi resembling elongated party balloons. This embryo is about five weeks old (or seven weeks in the biologically misleading but eminently practical dating system used in obstetrics). The photo was taken on Kodak Elite 200 slide film, with a Minolta X-370 camera and 100mm f/4 Rokkor bellows lens at near-full extension. The formalin-fixed specimen was immersed in tap-water and pinned to a tray lined with black velvet. The exposure was 1/4 second at f/8.

Image by Ed Uthman, MD

Ectopic pregnancy

Schematic drawing of various types of ectopic pregnancy. N=normal nidation a=peritoneal (abdominal) pregnancy b=cornual pregnancy c=isthmic tubal pregnancy d=ampullar tubal pregnancy e=fimbric tubal pregnancy f=ovarial pregnancy g=cervical pregnancy h=intramural pregnancy

Image by Hic et nunc

Ectopic pregnancy

Transvaginal ultrasonography of an ectopic pregnancy, showing the field of view in the following image.

Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from original by BruceBlaus

Pre-Embryonic Cleavages

Pre-embryonic cleavages make use of the abundant cytoplasm of the conceptus as the cells rapidly divide without changing the total volume.

Image by CNX Openstax

Pre-Embryonic Development

Ovulation, fertilization, pre-embryonic development, and implantation occur at specific locations within the female reproductive system in a time span of approximately 1 week.

Image by CNX Openstax

Development of the Embryonic Disc

Formation of the embryonic disc leaves spaces on either side that develop into the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac.

Image by CNX Openstax

Germ Layers

Formation of the three primary germ layers occurs during the first 2 weeks of development. The embryo at this stage is only a few millimeters in length.

Image by CNX Openstax

Fates of Germ Layers in Embryo

Following gastrulation of the embryo in the third week, embryonic cells of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm begin to migrate and differentiate into the cell lineages that will give rise to mature organs and organ systems in the infant.

Image by CNX Openstax

Cross-Section of the Placenta

In the placenta, maternal and fetal blood components are conducted through the surface of the chorionic villi, but maternal and fetal bloodstreams never mix directly.

Image by CNX Openstax

Newborn

A single fertilized egg develops over the span of nine months into an infant consisting of trillions of cells and capable of surviving outside the womb. (credit: “Seattleye”/flickr.com)

Image by CNX Openstax (credit: “Seattleye”/flickr.com)

Placenta Previa

An embryo that implants too close to the opening of the cervix can lead to placenta previa, a condition in which the placenta partially or completely covers the cervix.

Image by CNX Openstax

Fallopian Tube and Ovary

Medical visualization of a cross-section of the ovary, as well as the associated fallopian tube; seen inside the cross-section are a developing follicle, corpus luteum, and corpus albicans. The ovaries are the site of egg production and maturation within the human female. Each month, an oocyte is ejected from a mature follicle to the surface of one of the two ovaries. This event is called ovulation. The finger-like projections of the fallopian tube (fimbriae) sweep up the oocyte into the duct where it awaits fertilization. The remains of the ruptured follicle in the ovary are transformed into a structure called the corpus luteum. Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is essentially scar tissue and is mostly comprised of collagen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Choragon (HCG) 5000 IUs

Image by Ferring Pharmaceuticals Inc.

Prepregnancy - Stages of Pregnancy Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 1

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2

3

4

5

Prepregnancy / 12 Weeks / 16 Weeks / 24 Weeks / 40 Weeks

Prepregnancy - Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth 12 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_2 16 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_3 24 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_4 40 Weeks Stages of Pregnancy _ Uterus, amniotic sac and Fetal Growth_5

Interactive by TheVisualMD

How To Inject Low-Dose hCG | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

Video by CVS Health/YouTube

How To Inject Pregnyl® (hCG) Subcutaneously | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

Video by CVS Health/YouTube

How To Inject Pregnyl® (hCG) Intramuscularly | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

Video by CVS Health/YouTube

How high should my HCG levels be at the beginning of pregnancy?

Video by IntermountainMoms/YouTube

What level of blood Beta HCG confirms pregnancy? - Dr. Phani Madhuri

Video by Doctors' Circle - World's Largest Health Platform/YouTube

I've had positive, faint positive, and negative pregnancy tests. Do HCG levels fluctuate?

Video by IntermountainMoms/YouTube

hCG in Early Pregnancy, Explained - How Much Is Normal? - Pregnancy Q&A

Video by What To Expect/YouTube

Embryo and Fetus Development

Embryo and Fetus Development, placenta and amniotic sac

Image by TheVisualMD

Embryos at 4 to 8 Weeks

Rapid differentiation of cells and an astounding rate of growth characterize the first weeks of embryonic development. At 4 weeks, the embryo is the size of a grain of rice. Its heart has already begun to beat, and the early divisions of what will be the heart's four chambers are apparent. At 6 weeks, the embryo may be half an inch (10-14 mm) long and is starting to acquire a human face, although it is impossible to differentiate male from female embryos at this stage. An 8-week-old embryo may measure over an inch (28-30 mm) in length, and all of the body's parts-cells, tissues, organs, systems-have been differentiated.

Image by TheVisualMD

Embryo at 6 Weeks

At 6 weeks, the embryo is only about half an inch (10-14 mm) long and weighs less than a paper clip. It's possible to see the tiny embryonic heart beating. The embryo is starting to acquire a human face. The folds of the eyelids and the jaws form, and the tip of the nose can be clearly seen. Ears are developing inside and out: internally, the semicircular canals are laid down, while externally mounds of tissue erupt where the whorls of the ears will grow. The eyes become pigmented and continue their extremely complex development, as delicate eye muscles begin to form and nerve cells appear in the retina. At this point male and female fetuses look identical both internally and externally. External genital development consists of an indifferent penis, which will either form into a penis and scrotum or clitoris and labia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Positive Pregnancy Test Result

The urine is placed on the tip of the pregnancy test where it will travel up to the test region. The HCG hormone first binds to, cultured and placed, anti-HCG monoclonal antibodies with attached enzymes that will trigger a color change. Then the bonded HCG and anti-HCG antibodies will encounter another set of monoclonal anti-HCG antibodies and bind. This will cause the first color change of the test that will indicate the user is pregnant. Finally, any remaining anti-HCG monoclonal antibodies will bind to monoclonal HCG antibodies and trigger the second color change. This second color change is the control test that indicates the pregnancy test is working correctly.

Image by Melo20179

HCG and Pregnancy

HCG and Pregnancy

Image by TheVisualMD

Pregnant Woman with Fetus after Conception 0 Months three quarter view

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Pregnant Woman with Fetus - 0 Months, 3 Month, 4 Month 5 Month, 9 Month

0 Months three quarter view 3 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus 4 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus 5 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus 9 Month Pregnant Woman with Fetus

Interactive by TheVisualMD

hCG testing for pregnancy

Madprime

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time

TheVisualMD

PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests

TheVisualMD

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

TheVisualMD

Hormonal Regulation of Growth

OpenStax College

4:34

How do pregnancy tests work? - Tien Nguyen

TED-Ed/YouTube

2:42

How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)

Healthguru/YouTube

1:49

How to Take a Clear Blue Pregnancy Test | Parents

Parents/YouTube

1:48

How Accurate are Pregnancy Tests? | Pregnancy Questions | Parents

Parents/YouTube

3:08

Focus on Health: Quad Screen

Virginia Women's Center/YouTube

Graph of the levels of estrogen, progesterone, beta-hcg throughout pregnancy

osmosis

Fallopian Tube and Ovary - Upon fertilization, the egg secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick uterine lining of the womb.

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Ooctye Erupting from Ovary

TheVisualMD

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A

TheVisualMD

Ectopic pregnancy

Ed Uthman, MD

Ectopic pregnancy

Hic et nunc

Ectopic pregnancy

Mikael Haggstrom, from original by BruceBlaus

Pre-Embryonic Cleavages

CNX Openstax

Pre-Embryonic Development

CNX Openstax

Development of the Embryonic Disc

CNX Openstax

Germ Layers

CNX Openstax

Fates of Germ Layers in Embryo

CNX Openstax

Cross-Section of the Placenta

CNX Openstax

Newborn

CNX Openstax (credit: “Seattleye”/flickr.com)

Placenta Previa

CNX Openstax

Fallopian Tube and Ovary

TheVisualMD

Choragon (HCG) 5000 IUs

Ferring Pharmaceuticals Inc.

Prepregnancy / 12 Weeks / 16 Weeks / 24 Weeks / 40 Weeks

TheVisualMD

5:46

How To Inject Low-Dose hCG | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

CVS Health/YouTube

6:06

How To Inject Pregnyl® (hCG) Subcutaneously | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

CVS Health/YouTube

6:22

How To Inject Pregnyl® (hCG) Intramuscularly | Fertility Treatment | CVS Specialty®

CVS Health/YouTube

1:40

How high should my HCG levels be at the beginning of pregnancy?

IntermountainMoms/YouTube

3:54

What level of blood Beta HCG confirms pregnancy? - Dr. Phani Madhuri

Doctors' Circle - World's Largest Health Platform/YouTube

4:07

I've had positive, faint positive, and negative pregnancy tests. Do HCG levels fluctuate?

IntermountainMoms/YouTube

1:27

hCG in Early Pregnancy, Explained - How Much Is Normal? - Pregnancy Q&A

What To Expect/YouTube

Embryo and Fetus Development

TheVisualMD

Embryos at 4 to 8 Weeks

TheVisualMD

Embryo at 6 Weeks

TheVisualMD

Positive Pregnancy Test Result

Melo20179

HCG and Pregnancy

TheVisualMD

Pregnant Woman with Fetus - 0 Months, 3 Month, 4 Month 5 Month, 9 Month

TheVisualMD

Blood Typing Test

Blood Typing Test

Also called: ABO Group and Rh Type, Blood type

A blood typing test is used to determine what type of blood you have according to what antigens you have on the surface of your red blood cells, and whether or not you have a protein called Rh factor. These variables give a total of 8 types of blood types. Usually, this test is done before a blood transfusion, or during a woman's pregnancy.

Blood Typing Test

Also called: ABO Group and Rh Type, Blood type

A blood typing test is used to determine what type of blood you have according to what antigens you have on the surface of your red blood cells, and whether or not you have a protein called Rh factor. These variables give a total of 8 types of blood types. Usually, this test is done before a blood transfusion, or during a woman's pregnancy.

{"label":"Blood Typing Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"O\u207a","long":"O\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"O positive is the most common blood type (38% of the population). An individual with an O blood group can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB). Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"O\u207b","long":"O\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"O negative blood type is the universal red cell (blood) donor. An individual with group O negative can receive blood only from an O negative individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB) regardless of the positive or negative. Only 7% of the population have O negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"B\u207a","long":"B\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"About 9% of the population have B positive blood. An individual with a B blood group can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"B\u207b","long":"B\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":4},"text":"Less than 2% of the population have B negative blood. An individual with a group B blood type can only receive blood from individuals with groups B or O (with B being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB. Rh-negative people can receive only Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"AB\u207a","long":"AB\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":5},"text":"AB positive blood type is known as the universal recipient. An individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood. Donors with AB can provide plasma to all blood types. Less than 4% of the population have AB positive blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"AB\u207b","long":"AB\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":6},"text":"AB negative blood type is the least common (less than 1% of population). An individual with AB negative blood type can receive blood from all negative blood types (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. Donors with AB can provide plasma to all blood types.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"A\u207a","long":"A\u207a","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":7},"text":"1 in 3 people are A positive, which is why it is one of the most common blood types. An individual with an A blood group can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable) and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB. Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"A\u207b","long":"A\u207b","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":7,"max":8},"text":"Only 1 in 16 people have A negative blood. An individual with a group A blood type can only receive blood from individuals with groups A or O (with A being the preferred one) and can donate blood to individuals with either A or AB blood types. Rh-negative people can receive only Rh-negative blood.","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"normal":2},{"normal":3},{"normal":0},{"normal":1},{"normal":2},{"normal":3}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is O⁺.
O positive is the most common blood type (38% of the population). An individual with an O blood group can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (A, B, O or AB). Rh-positive people can receive either Rh-positive blood or Rh-negative blood.
Related conditions
This test has 2 steps; first it will determine the type of blood according to the ABO typing and secondly, it will determine whether the red blood cells have the antigen Rh attached to its surface or not.
There are four types of blood according to the ABO typing system:
- Type A
- Type B
- Type AB
- Type O (or zero blood group in some countries)
The Rh typing is the second step to the blood typing. After determining your blood group, a test is performed to see whether your red blood cells have the Rh antigen attached to their surface or not.
Rh+ (positive) means that the red blood cells have this antigen attached on its surface.
Rh- (negative) means that the red blood cells do not have this antigen attached on its surface.

Depending on your blood type you can know what type of blood you can receive in a transfusion.

People	Compatible Red Blood Cells	Compatible Plasma
A	Receive from A and O	Receive from A and AB
B	Receive from B and O	Receive from B and AB
AB	Receive from A, B, AB, O (universal recipient)	Receive from AB
O	Receive from O only	Receive from O, A, B, AB

Rh compatibility only applies to red blood cells and platelets.

Rh+	You can receive from Rh+/-
Rh-	You can receive from Rh - only

1. Blood typing: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
2. Quraishy N, Sapatnekar S. Advances in Blood Typing. Adv Clin Chem. 2016;77:221-269. doi: 10.1016/bs.acc.2016.06.006. Epub 2016 Jul 25. PMID: 27717418. [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
3. Blood Typing | Lab Tests Online [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
4. Blood Types Explained - A, B, AB and O | Red Cross Blood Services [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
5. Quest Diagnostics: ABO Group and Rh Type [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
6. LOINC 882-1 — ABO and Rh group [Type] in Blood [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.

In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.

Image by OpenStax College

What are Blood Types?

Video by SciShow/YouTube

Blood Types: ABO and Rh (with donuts and sprinkles!)

Video by ThePenguinProf/YouTube

Blood Types

Video by Bozeman Science/YouTube

Big Idea: Blood Transfusions

Video by SciShow/YouTube

BLOOD TYPES - ABO and Rh Blood Group Systems

Video by Neural Academy/YouTube

Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

How Blood Type Affects Pregnancy Medical Course

Video by Abihail Abihu/YouTube

Human Blood Types

Video by educreations/YouTube

Red Blood Cells

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.

Image by Egelberg (talk)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Blood fractionation

Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.

Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation

Image by Whoisjohngalt

Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

There Are Millions of Blood Types

Video by SciShow/YouTube

How Your Blood Type Protects and Hurts You

Video by SciShow/YouTube

In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.

OpenStax College

3:05

What are Blood Types?

SciShow/YouTube

15:29

Blood Types: ABO and Rh (with donuts and sprinkles!)

ThePenguinProf/YouTube

10:46

Blood Types

Bozeman Science/YouTube

4:37

Big Idea: Blood Transfusions

SciShow/YouTube

4:46

BLOOD TYPES - ABO and Rh Blood Group Systems

Neural Academy/YouTube

4:42

Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge

TED-Ed/YouTube

2:49

How Blood Type Affects Pregnancy Medical Course

Abihail Abihu/YouTube

19:10

Human Blood Types

educreations/YouTube

Red Blood Cells

Egelberg (talk)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Blood fractionation

Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

Whoisjohngalt

8:53

Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

5:44

There Are Millions of Blood Types

SciShow/YouTube

4:58

How Your Blood Type Protects and Hurts You

SciShow/YouTube

Rhesus Factor Test

Rhesus Factor Test

Also called: Rh factors, Rh type, Rh typing

Rhesus factor, also known as Rh factor, is a protein that can be found on the surface of red blood cells. The presence of this protein means that you are Rh+ while its absence indicates you are Rh-. This result serves to detect your blood subtype.

Rhesus Factor Test

Also called: Rh factors, Rh type, Rh typing

Rhesus factor, also known as Rh factor, is a protein that can be found on the surface of red blood cells. The presence of this protein means that you are Rh+ while its absence indicates you are Rh-. This result serves to detect your blood subtype.

{"label":"Rhesus Factor Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Rh Negative (Rh-)","long":"Rh Negative (Rh-)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"There is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health. However, if you are a pregnant woman, having an Rh- blood type can affect your pregnancy if your baby happens to be Rh+.","conditions":["Rh incompatibility during pregnancy"]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Rh Positive (Rh+)","long":"Rh Positive (Rh+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Rh+ is the most common blood type worldwide. However, there is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health.","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Rh Negative (Rh-).
There is no right or wrong result as being positive or negative will not affect your health. However, if you are a pregnant woman, having an Rh- blood type can affect your pregnancy if your baby happens to be Rh+.
Related conditions
Rh incompatibility during pregnancy
An Rh factor test is needed in certain circumstances, such as:
- During a pregnant woman’s first prenatal visit, to determine the risk of Rh factor incompatibility between mother and baby.
- Before receiving a blood transfusion or organ transplant, to adequately select compatible blood products.
- When you donate blood, an organ, or bone marrow for transplantation.
1. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/rh-factor/about/pac-20394960?p=1 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
2. https://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/113490 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
3. https://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/113498 [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
4. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/blood-typing [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]
5. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/34456/rh-typing [accessed on Jan 21, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (3)

ABO Blood Group

CNX Openstax

8:53

Blood types | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

2:21

How Rh factor affects a pregnancy

Toronto Star/YouTube

Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen

Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen

Also called: Indirect Coombs Test, Indirect Antiglobulin Test, IAT, RBC Antibody Screen, Erythrocyte Ab

This test looks for antibodies that target red blood cells in your bloodstream. An RBC antibody screen is used to determine blood compatibility between a pregnant woman and her baby, and for compatibility in blood donations.

Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen

Also called: Indirect Coombs Test, Indirect Antiglobulin Test, IAT, RBC Antibody Screen, Erythrocyte Ab

This test looks for antibodies that target red blood cells in your bloodstream. An RBC antibody screen is used to determine blood compatibility between a pregnant woman and her baby, and for compatibility in blood donations.

{"label":"Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A negative test result means you do not have antibodies to donor red blood cells, and the blood is not clumping.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"A positive test result could mean your blood and the donor's blood are not compatible. A positive test result during pregnancy could mean your baby has hemolytic disease.","conditions":["Donor blood is incompatible with recipient blood","Rh Incompatibility"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative test result means you do not have antibodies to donor red blood cells, and the blood is not clumping.
Related conditions
RBC screen is used to:
- Check your blood before a blood transfusion. The test can show whether your blood is compatible with the donor's blood. If your blood is not compatible, your immune system will attack the transfused blood as if it is a foreign substance. This will be harmful to your health.
- Check your blood during pregnancy. The test can show whether a mother's blood is compatible with the blood of her unborn baby. A mother and her baby may have different types of antigens on their red blood cells. Antigens are substances that produce an immune response. Red blood cell antigens include the Kell antigen and the Rh antigen.
  If you have the Rh antigen, you are considered Rh positive. If you don't have the Rh antigen, you are considered Rh negative.
  If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood. This condition is called Rh incompatibility.
  Both Kell antigens and Rh incompatibility may cause a mother to make antibodies against her baby's blood. The antibodies can destroy the baby's red blood cells, causing a severe form of anemia. But you can get a treatment that will prevent you from making antibodies that could harm your baby.
- Check the blood of your unborn baby's father.
  If you are Rh negative, your baby's father may be tested to find out his Rh type. If he is Rh positive, your baby will be at risk for Rh incompatibility. Your health care provider will probably perform more tests to find out whether or not there is incompatibility.
If you are getting a blood transfusion: The RBC screen will show whether your blood is compatible with the donor's blood. If it is not compatible, another donor will need to be found.
If you are pregnant: The RBC screen will show whether your blood has any antigens that could harm your baby, including whether or not you have Rh incompatibility.
- If you have Rh incompatibility, your body may begin to make antibodies against your baby's blood.
- These antibodies are not a risk in your first pregnancy, because the baby is usually born before any antibodies are made. But these antibodies could harm your unborn baby in future pregnancies.
- Rh incompatibility can be treated with an injection that prevents your body from making antibodies against your baby's red blood cells.
- If you are Rh positive, there is no risk of Rh incompatibility.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
1. Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
2. 006015: Antibody Screen | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
3. Indirect Antiglobulin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
4. Indirect Antiglobulin Blood Test [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

6:20

Coombs Test Made Simple

MEDSimplified/YouTube

3:05

What are Blood Types?

SciShow/YouTube

Coombs test

A. Rad

In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi.

OpenStax College

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Blood fractionation

Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Iron Test

Iron Test

Also called: Serum Iron, Fe Test

Iron is an essential mineral for your organism. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. Less frequently, an iron excess can also occur.

Iron Test

Also called: Serum Iron, Fe Test

Iron is an essential mineral for your organism. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. Less frequently, an iron excess can also occur.

{"label":"Iron Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\u03bcg\/dL","code":"ug\/dL","name":"microgram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":60},"text":"Iron deficiency may indicate you are not consuming enough iron or your body isn\u2019t absorbing the iron properly. An iron deficiency will usually cause anemia, which is a condition where oxygen cannot be properly carried throughout your body. ","conditions":["Iron deficiency anemia","Heavy menstrual bleeding","Chronic bleeding caused by ulcers or parasites","Sickle-cell disease","Gastrointestinal disorders","Celiac disease","Crohn's disease","Gastric bypass surgery","Gastrointestinal cancer","Aspirin use","Long-term bleeding"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":170},"text":"Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":170,"max":400},"text":"Iron overload may indicate you\u2019ve consumed too much iron or vitamins B6\/B12 supplements, or that your body retains too much iron.","conditions":["Hemochromatosis,","Iron poisoning","Hemolytic anemia","Recent blood transfusion","Hepatitis",""]}],"value":115}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
μg/dL
60
170
Your result is Normal.
Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age.
Related conditions
A test for iron will usually be indicated when results from your routine complete blood count (CBC) test show that you have low hemoglobin levels and that your red blood cells are smaller and paler than normal, this is called microcytic and hypochromic anemia, which is highly suggestive of iron deficiency.
People at high risk of not getting enough iron are:
- Women with heavy periods.
- Pregnant women.
- Young children.
- People with gastrointestinal disorders (because either they do not absorb enough iron, or they excrete it through the feces).
- People with cancer.
Less commonly, this test can also be used to help determine if a person has an iron overload.
Normal values can vary depending on your gender and age, but generally iron can range from 60 to 170 micrograms per deciliter (mcg/dL).
Low iron levels can be the result of:
- Not enough iron intake from your diet
- Heavy menstrual bleeding
- Gastrointestinal disorders that cause impaired iron absorption
- Long-term bleeding, usually from the digestive tract
Heightened iron levels can be the result of:
- Hemochromatosis (a condition in which there is excessive iron in the body)
- Hemolytic anemia (a condition where your red blood cells are destroyed, therefore releasing the iron they carry freely into the bloodstream)
- Having a recent blood transfusion
- Hepatitis (liver inflammation)
- Liver tissue death
- Iron poisoning (more common in children who mistakenly take large quantities of iron tablets thinking they are candies)
You should visit your doctor if you experience:
- Unexplained fatigue
- Pallor
- Heart palpitations
- Chest pain
- Abdominal pain
- Dizziness
- Shortness of breath
- Exercise intolerance
- Weakness
- Headaches
- Black stools
1. https://medlineplus.gov/iron.html [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
2. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/ [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
3. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003488.htm [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
4. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/iron-tests [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
5. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/iron [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
6. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/29881/iron# [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]
7. https://www.healthline.com/health/serum-iron#followup [accessed on Jan 31, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

Iron Physiology

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Haemochromatosis - animation

Video by HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Haemochromatosis Explained

Video by HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube

5 facts about Hemochromatosis

Video by Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

9 SIGNS OF TOO MUCH IRON // DERMATOLOGIST @DrDrayzday

Video by Dr Dray/YouTube

Iron Overload Educational Videos, Resources Events.flv

Video by pkthalassaemia/YouTube

Iron Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Iron Deficiency Anemia, Ferritin and Fatigue - Testing and Diagnosis

Video by IBS Treatment Center/YouTube

Iron, Hemochromatosis, Hepatomegaly

Hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb too much iron. Because the body can't use or eliminate this extra iron, it's stored in organs, especially the liver, but also the heart and pancreas. Eventually, up to 20 times as much iron as normal can accumulate, which can lead to organ failure. Symptoms can include irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis, chronic fatigue, confusion, and hepatomegaly, the enlargement of the liver.

Image by TheVisualMD

Iron Ion

Iron is a trace mineral found in every cell of the body. It is essential for carrying oxygen from the lungs to tissues in the body and for transporting and storing oxygen for muscles. There are two forms of dietary iron: heme and nonheme. Heme is found in animal food sources, while nonheme is derived from plants. Most bodily iron is found in the proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin. Heme iron, found in red meats, fish and poultry, is more easily absorbed by the body than the non-heme iron found in plants. The absorption of non-heme iron increases when eaten alongside meat, poultry, or fish. Consuming iron-rich foods with foods high in Vitamin C can more than double the amount of iron absorbed by the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

How Is Iron-Deficiency Anemia Diagnosed?

Blood smear of a patient with Iron deficiency anemia at 40x enhancement

Image by Roberto J. Galindo

Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells

Anemia occurs when there are too few red blood cells in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, but iron deficiency is the most common. Different tests can determine the amount of iron in the blood, the capacity of the blood to transport iron, and the amount of iron in storage. Iron is transported throughout the body with the help of proteins. The total iron binding capacity test (TIBC) measures the blood's ability to bind and transport iron

Image by TheVisualMD

Heme Group

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells (RBCs) that enables RBCs to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carry carbon dioxide from these cells back to the lungs. It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red color; a single RBC can contain 250 million hemoglobin molecules. Hemoglobin is one of several tests used to detect anemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vitamins, Minerals, & Development

Image by TheVisualMD

Nourishing Baby in the Womb

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemia & Chronic Kidney Disease

Explore the inner workings of the body to understand the relationship between chronic kidney disease(CKD) and anemia, a debilitating condition that affects people with CKD. Learn how the kidney is responsible for starting the elaborate process of creating red blood cells and how the delicate balance of these cells affects your vitality.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemia Blood Flow

Shows anemic blood flow through a capillary embedded in tissue (type of tissue/cells? Part of body?)

Video by TheVisualMD

14:07

Iron Physiology

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

2:15

Haemochromatosis - animation

HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube

9:54

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

10:00

Haemochromatosis Explained

HaemochromatosisAust/YouTube

2:17

5 facts about Hemochromatosis

Comprehensive Bleeding Disorders Center/YouTube

3:56

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

NHLBI/YouTube

13:05

9 SIGNS OF TOO MUCH IRON // DERMATOLOGIST @DrDrayzday

Dr Dray/YouTube

2:01

Iron Overload Educational Videos, Resources Events.flv

pkthalassaemia/YouTube

2:39

Iron Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

3:38

Iron Deficiency Anemia, Ferritin and Fatigue - Testing and Diagnosis

IBS Treatment Center/YouTube

Iron, Hemochromatosis, Hepatomegaly

TheVisualMD

Iron Ion

TheVisualMD

How Is Iron-Deficiency Anemia Diagnosed?

Roberto J. Galindo

Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Heme Group

TheVisualMD

Vitamins, Minerals, & Development

TheVisualMD

Nourishing Baby in the Womb

TheVisualMD

1:54

Anemia & Chronic Kidney Disease

TheVisualMD

0:12

Anemia Blood Flow

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin

A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.

Hemoglobin A1C Test

Also called: A1C test, HbA1c, Glycohemoglobin, Glycated hemoglobin, Glycosylated hemoglobin

A hemoglobin A1C test is a blood test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) attached to hemoglobin. An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months. Doctors may use the A1C alone or in combination with other diabetes tests to make a diagnosis. They also use the A1C to see how well you are managing your diabetes.

{"label":"Hemoglobin A1C Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"%{Hb}","code":"%{Hb}","name":"percent hemoglobin"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":5.7},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Borderline","long":"Borderline","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.7,"max":6.5},"text":"Prediabetes is between 5.7 to 6.4 percent. Having prediabetes is a risk factor for getting type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. People with prediabetes may need retests every year.","conditions":["Increased risk for type 2 diabetes","Increased risk for cardiovascular disease","Sickle cell disease","Pregnancy","Hemodialysis","Recent blood loss"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6.5,"max":20},"text":"Type 2 diabetes is above 6.5 percent. If you have diabetes, you should have the A1C test at least twice a year. The A1C goal for many people with diabetes is below 7. It may be different for you. Ask what your goal should be. If your A1C result is too high, you may need to change your diabetes care plan.","conditions":["Diabetes mellitus","Increased risk for cardiovascular disease"]}],"value":4.4}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{Hb}
5.7
6.5
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) test is a blood test that shows what your average blood sugar (glucose) level was over the past two to three months.
Glucose is a type of sugar in your blood that comes from the foods you eat. Your cells use glucose for energy. A hormone called insulin helps glucose get into your cells. If you have diabetes your body doesn't make enough insulin, or your cells don't use it well. As a result, glucose can't get into your cells, so your blood sugar levels increase.
Glucose in your blood sticks to hemoglobin, a protein in your red blood cells. As your blood glucose levels increase, more of your hemoglobin will be coated with glucose. An A1C test measures the percentage of your red blood cells that have glucose-coated hemoglobin.
An A1C test can show your average glucose level for the past three months because:
- Glucose sticks to hemoglobin for as long as the red blood cells are alive.
- Red blood cells live about three months.
High A1C levels are a sign of high blood glucose from diabetes. Diabetes can cause serious health problems, including heart disease, kidney disease, and nerve damage. But with treatment and lifestyle changes, you can control your blood glucose levels.
An A1C test may be used to screen for or diagnose:
- Type 2 diabetes. With type 2 diabetes your blood glucose gets too high because your body doesn't make enough insulin to move blood sugar from your bloodstream into your cells, or because your cells stop responding to insulin.
- Prediabetes. Prediabetes means that your blood glucose levels are higher than normal, but not high enough to diagnosed as diabetes. Lifestyle changes, such as healthy eating and exercise, may help delay or prevent prediabetes from becoming type 2 diabetes.
If you have diabetes or prediabetes, an A1C test can help monitor your condition and check how well you've been able to control your blood sugar levels.
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends A1C testing for diabetes and prediabetes if:
- You are over age 45.
  If your results are normal, you should repeat the test every 3 years.
  If your results show you have prediabetes, you will usually need to be tested every 1 to 2 years. Ask your provider how often to get tested and what you can do to reduce your risk of developing diabetes.
  If your results show you have diabetes, you should get an A1C test at least twice a year to monitor your condition and treatment.
- You are under 45 and are more likely to develop diabetes because you:
  Have prediabetes.
  Are overweight or have obesity.
  Have a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes.
  Have high blood pressure or high cholesterol levels.
  Have heart disease or have had a stroke.
  Are physically active less than 3 times a week.
  Have had gestational diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy) or given birth to a baby over 9 pounds.
  Are African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian, or an Alaska Native person. Some Pacific Islander and Asian American people also have a higher risk of developing diabetes.
  Have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).
You may also need an A1C test if you have symptoms of diabetes, such as:
- Feeling very thirsty
- Urinating (peeing) a lot
- Losing weight without trying
- Feeling very hungry
- Blurred vision
- Numb or tingling hands or feet
- Fatigue
- Dry skin
- Sores that heal slowly
- Having more infections than usual
A1C results tell you what percentage of your hemoglobin is coated with glucose. The percent ranges are just a guide to what is normal. What's normal for you depends on your health, age, and other factors. Ask your provider what A1C percentage is healthy for you.
To diagnose diabetes or prediabetes, the percentages commonly used are:
- Normal: A1C below 5.7%
- Prediabetes: A1C between 5.7% and 6.4%
- Diabetes: A1C of 6.5% or higher
Providers often use more than one test to diagnose diabetes. So, if your test result was higher than normal, you may have another A1C test or a different type of diabetes test, usually either a fasting blood glucose test or an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).
If your A1C test was done to monitor your diabetes, talk with your provider about what your test results mean.
1. Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Oct 05, 2022]
2. https://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2018-ADA-Standards-of-Care.pdf [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
3. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/hemoglobin-a1c [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]
4. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/tests-diagnosis/a1c-test [accessed on Apr 19, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (24)

Hemoglobin A1C molecule

Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

Several tests are used to diagnose prediabetes and diabetes. In June 2009, the ADA, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and the International Diabetes Federation made a joint recommendation that type 2 diabetes testing include the glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This test measures average blood glucose level during the past 2-3 months by measuring the percentage of glucose attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein pigment in red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C molecule

The A1C test is a common blood test used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes and then to gauge how well you're managing your diabetes. The A1C test goes by many other names, including glycated hemoglobin, glycosylated hemoglobin, hemoglobin A1C and HbA1c. The A1C test result reflects your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months. Specifically, the A1C test measures what percentage of your hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen, is coated with sugar (glycated). The higher your A1C level, the poorer your blood sugar control. And if you have previously diagnosed diabetes, the higher the A1C level, the higher your risk of diabetes complications.

Image by TheVisualMD

α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex

A model of α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex. There are 2 α,β-hemoglobin dimers depicted: one space filling model (yellow/orange), and one ribbon model (purple/blue). Each is bound by a haptoglobin molecule (both haptoglobin molecules are shown in pink, with one as a space filling model and one as a ribbon model).

Image by Ayacop

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen

Image by TheVisualMD

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Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Video by TheVisualMD

Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

Haemoglobin

Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube

A1c - What You Need To Know

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

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Type 2 Diabetes Testing

An estimated 79 million Americans, just over 25 percent of the population aged 20 years or older, have prediabetes. Prediabetes is a state where blood sugars may be a little bit elevated, but are not yet elevated to a dangerous range. It is typically asymptomatic, and if undiagnosed and untreated, prediabetes may lead to a potentially life-threatening condition called type 2 diabetes. Complications of type 2 diabetes include blindness, heart attack, and stroke. Prediabetes is readily detectable through simple blood testing with a goal of detecting abnormal glucose levels. Two common and complementary tests include fasting blood sugar and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) tests. With early detection and diagnosis, appropriate and immediate action can be made by the patient to reduce complications and to ensure a long and healthy life.

Video by TheVisualMD

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Video by Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

Video by DiabeTV/YouTube

Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim

Video by nabil ebraheim/YouTube

What Is An A1C?

Video by dLife/YouTube

A1C Levels

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

Type 1 diabetes can be diagnosed with blood tests that measure how much sugar is in your blood. They include: hemoglobin A1C, fasting blood glucose, and oral glucose tolerance. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. About 5% of adults with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. Early diagnosis is crucial for early treatment. Type 1 diabetics need to take insulin, either through a pump or injections. Regular exercise as well as a diet low in refined carbohydrates will also help control blood sugar levels. By maintaining appropriate blood sugar levels, type 1 diabetics can lead normal lives free of serious complications.

Video by TheVisualMD

The 411 On Your A1c

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

Is Your A1C AOK?

Video by Lee Health/YouTube

What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?

Video by TEDMED/YouTube

Lactate Threshold Test

Video by Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube

How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

A Critical Balance

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Diabetes in the US

Interactive by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Testing and Diagnosing Diabetes

TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C molecule

TheVisualMD

α,β-hemoglobin/haptoglobin hexamer complex

Ayacop

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

1:10

Understanding Your A1C (Conditions A-Z)

Healthguru/YouTube

5:31

Haemoglobin

Wellcome Trust/YouTube

1:28

A1c - What You Need To Know

Rehealthify/YouTube

5:52

Type 2 Diabetes Testing

TheVisualMD

4:31

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Animated Diabetes Patient/YouTube

1:43

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

DiabeTV/YouTube

4:41

Diabetic HbA1c - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim

nabil ebraheim/YouTube

3:03

What Is An A1C?

dLife/YouTube

6:09

A1C Levels

Khan Academy/YouTube

1:12

Type 1 Diabetes Diagnosis & Treatment

TheVisualMD

1:56

The 411 On Your A1c

Lee Health/YouTube

1:41

Is Your A1C AOK?

Lee Health/YouTube

3:21

What if the root cause of type 2 diabetes is found in the gut rather than the pancreas?

TEDMED/YouTube

1:06

Lactate Threshold Test

Mount Sinai Health System/YouTube

2:28

How HbA1c testing detects glucose in your body for diabetes type 2

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Diabetes in the US

TheVisualMD

ToRCH Test

ToRCH Test

Also called: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies

This test is used to determine the infectious status of a person for toxoplasma, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes virus (ToRCH). Pregnant women are at high risk of developing fetal malformation when infected by any of these viruses. Screening for these diseases is essential during pregnancy.

ToRCH Test

Also called: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies

This test is used to determine the infectious status of a person for toxoplasma, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes virus (ToRCH). Pregnant women are at high risk of developing fetal malformation when infected by any of these viruses. Screening for these diseases is essential during pregnancy.

ToRCH is an acronym for the infections that this test screens for: Toxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes simplex virus.
- Toxoplasmosis: Caused by a parasite found on cat stools and raw meat. It can get transmitted through infection of contaminated water, soil, and foods. In pregnant women, it passes through the placenta, causing severe neurological damage in the fetus that can result in deafness, blindness, and intellectual disability.
- Rubella: Also known as German measles, it's a virus transmitted through contaminated droplets in the air. Infections can cause generalized rash, fever, and inflammation of the lymph nodes. In pregnant women, Rubella can cause severe damage to the fetal development and risk of miscarriage or premature birth.
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV): This is a virus that usually goes undetected because it generally doesn't cause any symptoms. Some people show fever, malaise, and inflammation of the lymph nodes. It gets spread through sexual contact and body fluids. This virus can be fatal for immunocompromised individuals, such as people with AIDS or cancer; a fetus can develop congenital disabilities if the mother is infected during pregnancy.
- Herpes simplex virus (HSV): HSV has to types; type 1 is associated with oro-labial infections and type 2 with genitourinary infections. HSV in pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, premature birth, and impairment of fetal development.
Your doctor may order this test in the following situations:
- As a routine pregnancy test
- When a newborn has a high risk of having been infected
- If a newborn has seizures, heart defects, jaundice, or development delays
1. TRCHG - Clinical: ToRCH Profile IgG, Serum [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
2. TORCH Panel - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
3. TORCH [accessed on Aug 12, 2018]
4. LabCorp: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies, Quantitative, IgM [accessed on Aug 28, 2018]
5. LabCorp: Prenatal Infectious Disease Antibodies, Qualitative, IgG With Reflex to Supplemental HSV-2 Testing [accessed on Aug 28, 2018]

Toxoplasmosis Testing

Toxoplasmosis Testing

Also called: Toxoplasmosis Antibodies, Toxoplasma gondii Ab, T. gondii Ab

Toxoplasma gondii. In healthy people the infection usually passes unnoticed; however, in people with a weakened immune system and pregnant women, it can lead to serious complications.

Toxoplasmosis Testing

Also called: Toxoplasmosis Antibodies, Toxoplasma gondii Ab, T. gondii Ab

Toxoplasma gondii. In healthy people the infection usually passes unnoticed; however, in people with a weakened immune system and pregnant women, it can lead to serious complications.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
This indicates that is unlikely that you have toxoplasmosis but it does not completely rule out the infection; therefore, in some cases, the test should be repeated if the suspicion remains.
Related conditions
Your doctor may want to order this test to diagnose a current or past toxoplasmosis infection in the following cases:
- In pregnant women
- In individuals with a compromised immune system
- When a person has flu-like symptoms, severe eye problems, or a brain infection that could be due to toxoplasmosis.
You should visit your doctor if you are pregnant and have been exposed to raw meat or cat feces, or if experience signs or symptoms of toxoplasmosis, such as:
- Swollen lymph nodes
- Fever
- Weakness, fatigue
- Persistent headache
- Body aches
- Eye pain
- Visual disturbances
- Behavioral changes
- Confusion
- Seizures
1. URMC / Encyclopedia / Toxoplasma Gondii Antibody [accessed on Aug 27, 2018]
2. Toxoplasmosis Testing [accessed on Aug 27, 2018]
3. CDC - Toxoplasmosis - Disease [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
4. Toxoplasma blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]
5. https://www.labcorp.com/tests/related-documents/L5828 [accessed on Nov 14, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

Toxoplasmosis - Plain and Simple

Video by Else-Vet/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis and Mind Control - Plain and Simple

Video by Else-Vet/YouTube

Are cats making you crazy? Toxoplasmosis can change you

Video by News Direct/YouTube

Robert Sapolsky Interview: Toxoplasmosis

Video by Christian G/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasma gondii Infection

Video by How To Gastro/YouTube

How common is toxoplasmosis infection?

Video by International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis: Truth, Fiction, and Crazy Cat Ladies? - full video - conference recording

Video by Maddie's Fund Education/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis: How Parasites in Your Cat Can Infect Your Brain

Video by SciShow Psych/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis

Video by VetMedAcademy/YouTube

Toxoplasmosis research shows implications of how Zika may pass through blood brain barrier

Video by University of Pennsylvania/YouTube

Brain Parasite Makes Mice Fearless - by Scientific American

Video by Scientific American/YouTube

How the parasite Toxoplasma tricks rats into becoming cat food

Video by News Direct/YouTube

Mind-controlling Parasites!

Video by SciShow/YouTube

Bad Bug Book: Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook

The Bad Bug Book 2nd Edition, released in 2012, provides current information about the major known agents that cause foodborne illness.

Document by FDA

Toxoplasmosis life cycle

Toxoplasmosis life cycle: 1.Cat eats prey with toxoplasmosis becoming the primary host of Toxoplasma gondii. 2. Toxoplasma gondii disrupts the wall of the cat’s small intestine, forming oocysts, as well as tissue cysts in the brain and muscles. 3.When the cat excretes waste, the feces is contaminated with the oocysts. 4. The feces contaminates the surrounding plants. 5. Organisms eat the plants consuming the oocysts, and become infected by the parasite. When consumed by another organism, the parasite invades the new host, causing the cycle to begin again.

Image by Ilovericexoxo

Pregnant Women at Risk for Toxoplasma Infection

In this 2005 photograph, a pregnant woman was looking on while her husband was in the process of changing the kitty litter, in order to avoid contact with possible pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii, the etiologic agent responsible for the disease, toxoplasmosis. Of those who are infected, very few have symptoms because a healthy person's immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing illness. However, pregnant women, and individuals who have compromised immune systems should be cautious; for them, a Toxoplasma infection could cause serious health problems.

Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Maternal Age

The pregnant woman depicted in this 2005 image, was about to pet her cat, while her husband was in the process of changing the cat’s litter, in order for the woman to avoid contact with possible pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii, the etiologic agent responsible for the disease, toxoplasmosis. Of those who are infected, very few have symptoms because a healthy person's immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing illness. However, pregnant women and individuals who have compromised immune systems should be cautious; for them, a Toxoplasma infection could cause serious health problems.

Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Food Contamination

This photograph depicted a pregnant woman in the process of peeling an apple using a peeling implement after having washed a batch of apples in the kitchen sink. In order to avoid acquiring possible foodborne illness from eating a peeled food, one should wash such a food in warm soapy water prior to peeling, which will greatly reduce the chances of introducing a foodborne pathogen to the fruit's clean interior.

Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Toxoplasmosis from food

Toxoplasmosis from food

Image by CDC

Illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis

This is an illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis.

Image by CDC/Alexander J. da Silva, PhD/Melanie Moser ID 3421

Food Contamination

This 2005 photograph showed a pregnant woman using a kitchen knife to cut raw meat before cooking. Pregnant women, or immunosuppressed patients can be at greater risk in acquiring foodborne illnesses, and need to take additional precautions when handling raw food products.

Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis

Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis

Image by wilkernet

Indoor cat

Image by Anete Lūsiņa / Unsplash

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Schistosome Parasite

Scanning electron micrograph of a schistosome parasite, which enters the body through the skin of persons coming in contact with infested waters. The adult worm lives in the veins of its host. This parasite has been associated with some cancers. The parasite is magnified x256 in this photograph.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer (Photographers)

Brain tissue with neurotoxoplasmosis

This photomicrograph of a brain tissue sample reveals some of the cytoarchitectural details associated with a case of neurotoxoplasmosis. The cause of this illness is the parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, and some cystic-stage T. gondii organisms are visible in the field of view. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Asssit. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)

Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, M.D.

Maternal Age

This photograph showed a pregnant woman feeding her cat canned cat food, in order to prevent it from becoming infected with the parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. An infected cat can cause harm to individuals with a weakened immune system, and a pregnant woman’s unborn child. Though feeding her cat canned food is a good practice, the cat should also be kept off of any countertops on which food preparation could take place, such as in a kitchen setting.

Image by CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Toxoplasma LifeCycle CDC

toxoplasma gondii life cycle CDC

Image by CDC/Wikimedia

Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria

Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria

Image by Muhammad Mahdi Karim

Foodborne illness symptoms

If you have been experiencing these symptoms for longer than 24 hours please seek medical attention immediately.

Image by USDA

Catch up on checkups and routine vaccines

As opportunities for in-person learning and play grow, it’s important for your child to catch up on checkups and recommended vaccines to protect their health now and in the future.

Document by CDC

12:42

Toxoplasmosis - Plain and Simple

Else-Vet/YouTube

11:03

Toxoplasmosis and Mind Control - Plain and Simple

Else-Vet/YouTube

0:35

Are cats making you crazy? Toxoplasmosis can change you

News Direct/YouTube

24:27

Robert Sapolsky Interview: Toxoplasmosis

Christian G/YouTube

7:18

Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasma gondii Infection

How To Gastro/YouTube

4:36

How common is toxoplasmosis infection?

International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube

57:18

Toxoplasmosis: Truth, Fiction, and Crazy Cat Ladies? - full video - conference recording

Maddie's Fund Education/YouTube

5:28

Toxoplasmosis: How Parasites in Your Cat Can Infect Your Brain

SciShow Psych/YouTube

9:02

Toxoplasmosis

VetMedAcademy/YouTube

2:21

Toxoplasmosis research shows implications of how Zika may pass through blood brain barrier

University of Pennsylvania/YouTube

1:26

Brain Parasite Makes Mice Fearless - by Scientific American

Scientific American/YouTube

0:37

How the parasite Toxoplasma tricks rats into becoming cat food

News Direct/YouTube

4:23

Mind-controlling Parasites!

SciShow/YouTube

Bad Bug Book: Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook

FDA

Toxoplasmosis life cycle

Ilovericexoxo

Pregnant Women at Risk for Toxoplasma Infection

CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Maternal Age

CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Food Contamination

CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Toxoplasmosis from food

CDC

Illustration of the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of Toxoplasmosis

CDC/Alexander J. da Silva, PhD/Melanie Moser ID 3421

Food Contamination

CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Cats are a potential carrier of Toxoplasmosis

wilkernet

Indoor cat

Anete Lūsiņa / Unsplash

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Schistosome Parasite

National Cancer Institute / Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer (Photographers)

Brain tissue with neurotoxoplasmosis

CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, M.D.

Maternal Age

CDC; Photo credit: James Gathany

Toxoplasma LifeCycle CDC

CDC/Wikimedia

Adult Chrysomya megacephala blowfly, known as bazaar fly, feeding by sponging at organic waste from where it may transmit harmful bacteria

Muhammad Mahdi Karim

Foodborne illness symptoms

USDA

Catch up on checkups and routine vaccines

CDC

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests

Also called: CMV Tests

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common type of virus. CMV tests look for signs of the virus in blood, sputum, or other body fluids. CMV doesn't cause health problems for most people. But it can be dangerous to newborns and people with immune system disorders.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Tests

Also called: CMV Tests

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common type of virus. CMV tests look for signs of the virus in blood, sputum, or other body fluids. CMV doesn't cause health problems for most people. But it can be dangerous to newborns and people with immune system disorders.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Cytomegalovirus IgG: A negative result indicates that you have never been exposed to the virus.
Related conditions
CMV tests are used to help diagnose a current, reactivated, or past CMV infection in people at risk for health complications. Risk groups include:
- People with weakened immune systems due to certain infections or diseases
- People who have recently received an organ transplant
- Pregnant women with symptoms of a CMV infection
- Newborns with symptoms of infection
You may need testing if you have a weakened immune system or are pregnant and have the following symptoms:
- Swollen lymph nodes
- Sore throat
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Weakness
- Muscle aches
- Headache
Your baby may need this test if he or she has the following symptoms:
- Jaundice, a condition that causes the skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Low birth weight
- Small head
- Hearing and/or vision problems
- Seizures
There are several types of CMV tests, including:
Blood tests
- This is the most common way to test adults for CMV.
- During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial.
CSF test
- A sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) will be collected through a procedure called a spinal tap, also known as a lumbar puncture.
- During the test, a provider will inject a numbing medicine (anesthetic) into your back and insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small bones that make up your spine.
- Your provider will then withdraw a small amount of fluid for testing.
Sputum test
- Sputum is a thick mucus that settles in your lungs when you have an infection or chronic illness.
- During the test, your health care provider will ask you to breathe deeply and then cough deeply into a special cup.
- Your provider may tap you on the chest to help loosen sputum from your lungs.
Biopsy
- During the test, your provider will remove a small sample of tissue for testing.
- Biopsies can be done with a needle or a special type of surgical instrument.
Amniocentesis
- This procedure is done on pregnant women to see if an unborn baby has been infected with CMV.
- During the procedure, you'll lie on your back on an exam table.
- Your provider will move an ultrasound device over your abdomen. Ultrasound uses sound waves to check the position of your uterus, placenta, and baby.
- Your provider will insert a thin needle into your abdomen and withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid.
Newborns are usually given a saliva or urine test.
During an infant saliva test:
- A provider will insert a sterile swab into your baby's cheek and swirl for several seconds.
- The swab will be placed in a special solution for testing.
During an infant urine test:
- You will be given a special plastic bag that will fit over your baby's genital area.
- You will place a diaper over the bag.
- After your baby has urinated, you will remove the bag from the diaper and empty the urine into a container given to you by your provider.
CMV tests are included as part of a TORCH panel, a group of blood tests used to screen newborns and sometimes pregnant woman for the following infections:
- TOxoplasmosis
- Rubella
- Cytomegalovirus
- Herpes simplex virus
These infections can cause birth defects if a mother gets infected during pregnancy. Early diagnosis and treatment may help prevent a baby from getting a serious health problem.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Herpes Testing

Herpes Testing

Also called: Herpes Test, HSV Test, Herpes Culture, Herpes Simplex Viral Culture, HSV-1 Antibodies, HSV-2 Antibodies, HSV DNA

A herpes (HSV) test checks a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore for a herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Different types of HSV cause cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes (HSV-2).

Herpes Testing

Also called: Herpes Test, HSV Test, Herpes Culture, Herpes Simplex Viral Culture, HSV-1 Antibodies, HSV-2 Antibodies, HSV DNA

A herpes (HSV) test checks a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore for a herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Different types of HSV cause cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes (HSV-2).

{"label":"Herpes Testing Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Negative or normal test results mean that signs of the herpes virus were not found in your sample and you are unlikely to have an HSV infection. If you had a blood test for HSV antibodies, it's important to know that you can have a negative result when you really do have a herpes infection.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Positive or abnormal test results mean that signs of HSV were found in your sample. If you had a blood test that showed you have HSV antibodies, the antibodies could be from an active infection now or a past infection.","conditions":["Herpes (HSV)"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Negative or normal test results mean that signs of the herpes virus were not found in your sample and you are unlikely to have an HSV infection. If you had a blood test for HSV antibodies, it's important to know that you can have a negative result when you really do have a herpes infection.
Related conditions
Herpes is a common viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Most people with HSV don't have any symptoms. But HSV can cause painful blisters or sores on the affected parts of the body. HSV mostly affects the mouth (oral herpes) and the vagina or penis (genital herpes), but it can also affect the eyes and other parts of the skin.
HSV tests look for signs of the herpes simplex virus usually in a sample of your blood or fluid from a sore. There are two main types of HSV, and testing can tell which type you have:
- HSV-1 usually causes oral herpes, which can result in cold sores ("fever blisters") on or around your mouth. Most people get oral herpes by the time they're young adults. It's usually spread by non-sexual contact with saliva (spit) from a person who has an HSV-1 infection. That may happen if you share forks, cups, or towels. HSV-1 can also cause genital herpes. This may happen if you receive oral sex from a partner with a cold sore.
- HSV-2 is the most common cause of genital herpes. Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). That means you get it through sexual contact with a person who has a herpes infection. You can catch genital herpes from someone even if they don't have symptoms. HSV-2 can also spread to the mouth, causing oral herpes. This may happen if you give oral sex to a person who has genital herpes from HSV-2.
HSV infections are likely to clear up and come back in the future, but outbreaks tend to be milder and less frequent over time. Repeat outbreaks happen more often with HSV-2 than with HSV-1. So, testing to find out which type you have helps you know what to expect.
There are a few types of HSV tests:
- A swab test takes a sample of fluid from a sore, which may be used to do:
  A viral culture. For this test, cells from your sample are grown in a lab and then checked for HSV.
  A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. This test looks for genetic material from HSV in your sample.
- A blood test looks for HSV antibodies in a blood sample. HSV antibodies are proteins that your immune system makes fight the virus. Your body makes different antibodies for HSV-1 and HSV-2. This test can be done when you don't have sores.
There is no cure for HSV, but medicines can help manage outbreaks. HSV usually doesn't cause any major health problems. But if you're pregnant and have genital herpes, you can pass the virus to your child. This can lead to a life-threatening HSV infection for your baby. In rare cases, HSV can infect your brain and spinal cord, causing serious illness.
An HSV test may be used to:
- Find out whether sores on your mouth or genitals are caused by HSV and, if so, which type
- Check for an HSV infection if you've had a high risk of exposure to the virus
- Check for an HSV infection in a baby born to a person who has HSV
You may need an HSV test if:
- You have symptoms of herpes. Symptoms of a first HSV infection may include:
  Blisters or sores on the mouth, genitals, anus, buttocks, or other areas of skin. The sores develop a crust as they begin to heal.
  Fever and flu-like symptoms.
  Swollen glands.
  Pain or tingling in the affected area.
- Your partner has genital herpes or symptoms that might be genital herpes
In general, medical experts don't recommend HSV testing for people without symptoms of HSV. If you are being tested for other STDs, your health care provider may choose to include an HSV test based on your risk of exposure. Ask your provider if you should be tested.
In rare cases, HSV can infect the brain and spinal cord, leading to encephalitis or meningitis. You may need an HSV test if you have one of these serious conditions.
There are several different types of tests for HSV that use different samples:
- For a swab test, a health care professional will use a swab to collect fluid and cells from a herpes sore that has not begun to heal yet.
- For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
At-home tests are available for HSV. These tests usually use a sample of blood that you collect at home and send to a lab. Talk with your provider to find out if at-home testing is right for you.
If your provider thinks you have an HSV infection in your spinal cord or brain, you may have a test of your cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to look for signs of the virus. CSF is a fluid that flows in and around your brain and spinal cord. A thin needle is inserted into your spine to remove a small amount of CSF. This procedure is called a lumbar puncture or spinal tap.
The meaning of your test results depends on the type of HSV test you had. To understand your results, your provider will consider your health history and any symptoms you have.
In general:
- Negative/Normal test results mean that signs of the herpes virus were not found in your sample and you are unlikely to have an HSV infection. If you had a blood test for HSV antibodies, it's important to know that you can have a negative result when you really do have a herpes infection. That's because your body takes up to three months to make HSV antibodies. If you had a blood test too soon after an infection began, your test result may not show any antibodies.
- Positive/Abnormal test results mean that signs of HSV were found in your sample. If you had a blood test that showed you have HSV antibodies, the antibodies could be from an active infection now or a past infection.
If you have HSV, treatment can help reduce the number of outbreaks and control your symptoms. It's important to know that having an HSV infection may increase your risk of getting HIV and other STDs. So, talk with your provider about HIV testing along with other STDs.
It's also important to take steps to avoid spreading HSV to others. Using condoms can help. Since outbreaks come and go, ask your provider how to know when your risk for spreading the herpes virus may be high.
The best way to prevent genital herpes or another STD is not to have sex. If you are sexually active, you can reduce your risk of infection by:
- Having sex with only one person who has sex only with you (mutual monogamy) after both of you are tested for STDs.
- Using condoms correctly every time you have sex.
1. Herpes (HSV) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 09, 2023]
2. CDC – Genital Herpes Screening [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test

Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test

Also called: HBsAg, HBV surface antigen, Hepatitis-associated Antigen, Hepatitis B surface Ag

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) produces a disease known as Hepatitis B which is characterized by liver inflammation. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a protein on the surface of the hepatitis B virus and it can be used to help diagnose the status of HBV infection and to determine whether vaccination is necessary.

Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test

Also called: HBsAg, HBV surface antigen, Hepatitis-associated Antigen, Hepatitis B surface Ag

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) produces a disease known as Hepatitis B which is characterized by liver inflammation. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a protein on the surface of the hepatitis B virus and it can be used to help diagnose the status of HBV infection and to determine whether vaccination is necessary.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
The Hepatitis B surface antigen test is used to:
- Diagnose either acute, recent, or chronic hepatitis B infection.
- Determine the status of chronic hepatitis B infection.
Your doctor may want to order this test in the following situations:
- If you have ever used injected drugs, even if it was only one time.
- If you are suffering from chronic liver disease, HIV or AIDS.
- If you have acute liver disease or abnormal liver tests.
- If you are on hemodialysis.
- Anyone born to a mother who was diagnosed with HBV.
- Health care providers or lab technicians who were exposed to blood through accidental needle sticks or injuries with sharp objects.
If the hepatitis B surface antigen result is:
- Negative: this means that no antigens for HBV were found in your blood, which indicates that you are not immune against the virus.
- Positive: this indicates infection by hepatitis B virus, either acute, chronic, or past.
Even though some infected people can stay asymptomatic, some of the more common signs and symptoms of HBV infection may include:
- Nausea
- Fatigue
- Hyporexia (appetite loss)
- Joint pain
- Itching
- Abdominal pain
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
- Dark-colored urine
- Light-colored stools
1. Hepatitis B | HBV | MedlinePlus [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
2. Hepatitis B | NIDDK [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
3. HBAB - Clinical: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Qualitative/Quantitative, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
4. HBAG - Clinical: Hepatitis B Surface Antigen, Serum [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
5. Hepatitis B Surface Antigen - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
6. Hepatitis B Testing [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
7. 006510: Hepatitis B Surface Antigen | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
8. 006530: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Quantitative | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
9. 006395: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody, Qualitative | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]
10. 037215: Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Evaluation Profile | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 03, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Hepatitis B Vaccines

CDC/ Betty Partin

Interpretation of Hepatitis B Serologic Test Results

CDC

12:36

The Liver Story (all about Hepatitis B)

Thinkonisms/YouTube

3:51

Living with Hepatitis B

Health Science Channel/YouTube

1:20

Screening for Hepatitis A, B, and C

RWJBarnabas Health/YouTube

8:13

Hepatatis B Awareness

campaign4hiv/YouTube

Syphilis Tests

Syphilis Tests

Also called: Treponema pallidum Ab

Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis, a bacterial infection spread by sexual contact. Syphilis is easily treatable if found in the early stages of infection.

Syphilis Tests

Also called: Treponema pallidum Ab

Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis, a bacterial infection spread by sexual contact. Syphilis is easily treatable if found in the early stages of infection.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative or nonreactive result means you don't have syphilis. If you have a history of syphilis and your RPR test is negative or nonreactive, it is likely that you no longer have syphilis.
Related conditions
Syphilis tests are used to screen for and diagnose syphilis.
Screening tests for syphilis include:
- Rapid plasma reagin (RPR), a syphilis blood test that looks for antibodies to the syphilis bacteria. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system to fight foreign substances, such as bacteria.
- Venereal disease research laboratory (VDRL) test, which also checks for syphilis antibodies. A VDRL test can be done on blood or spinal fluid.
If a screening test comes back positive, you will need more testing to rule out or confirm a syphilis diagnosis. Most of these follow up tests will also look for syphilis antibodies. Sometimes, a healthcare provider will use a test that looks for actual syphilis bacteria, instead of the antibodies. Tests that look for the actual bacteria are used less often because they can only be done in specialized labs by specially trained health care professionals.
You may need a syphilis test if your sexual partner has been diagnosed with syphilis and/or you have symptoms of the disease. Symptoms usually appear about two to three weeks after infection and include:
- Small, painless sore (chancre) on the genitals, anus, or mouth
- Rough, red rash, usually on the palms of the hands or the bottom of the feet
- Fever
- Headache
- Swollen glands
- Fatigue
- Weight loss
- Hair loss
Even if you don't have symptoms, you may need a test if you are at a higher risk of infection. Risk factors include having:
- Multiple sex partners
- A partner with multiple sex partners
- Unprotected sex (sex without using a condom)
- An HIV/AIDS infection
- Another sexually transmitted disease, such as gonorrhea
You may also need this test if you are pregnant. Syphilis can be passed from a mother to her unborn baby. A syphilis infection can cause serious, and sometimes deadly, complications to infants. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that all pregnant women get tested early in pregnancy. Women who have risk factors for syphilis should be tested again in the third trimester of pregnancy (28–32 weeks) and again at delivery.
A syphilis test is usually in the form of a blood test. During a syphilis blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
More advanced stages of syphilis can affect the brain and spinal cord. If your symptoms show your disease might be in a more advanced stage, your health care provider may order a syphilis test on your cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is a clear liquid found in your brain and spinal cord.
For this test, your CSF will be collected through a procedure called a lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap. During the procedure:
- You will lie on your side or sit on an exam table.
- A health care provider will clean your back and inject an anesthetic into your skin, so you won't feel pain during the procedure. Your provider may put a numbing cream on your back before this injection.
- Once the area on your back is completely numb, your provider will insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small backbones that make up your spine.
- Your provider will withdraw a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. This will take about five minutes.
- You'll need to stay very still while the fluid is being withdrawn.
- Your provider may ask you to lie on your back for an hour or two after the procedure. This may prevent you from getting a headache afterward.
1. Syphilis Tests / University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) [accessed on Feb 04, 2022]
2. 082370: Treponema pallidum Antibodies | LabCorp [accessed on Sep 27, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (22)

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Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis

Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis.Syphilis is a complex sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It has often been called "the great imitator" because so many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from those of other diseases.

Image by CDC / ID 3489

Treponema pallidum Bacteria (Syphilis)

This highly-magnified scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image depicts a number of spiral-shaped, Treponema pallidum bacteria, atop a culture of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells, also known as Sf1Ep-cells. T. pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis.

Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox

Syphilis

This illustration depicts a photomicrograph of a culture specimen processed using the Levaditi staining method, and reveals the presence of corkscrew shaped, Treponema pallidum bacteria, also known as spirochetes. T. pallidum is the cause of the sexually transmitted disease (STD) syphilis.

Image by CDC

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Syphilis

A photograph of condylomata lata lesions involving the vulva and anal region. : A patient with condylomata lata, which can develop during secondary syphilis, and presents as gray, raised papules appearing on the vulva and near the anus, or in any other warm intertriginous region.

Image by CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2372

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Secondary syphilis

This patient presented with several infrascrotal condylomatous lesions, which is one of the manifestations of secondary syphilis.

Image by CDC / Susan Lindsley ID 6761

Treponema pallidum

This photomicrograph depicts a Treponema pallidum bacterium, a spirochete 5 - 15 micrometers in length, which is the causative agent of syphilis. Syphilis is passed from person to person through direct contact with a syphilis sore. Sores occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus, or in the rectum. Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth. Transmission of the organism occurs during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Pregnant women with the disease can pass it to the babies they are carrying. Syphilis cannot be spread through contact with toilet seats, doorknobs, swimming pools, hot tubs, bathtubs, shared clothing, or eating utensils.

Image by CDC/ Susan Lindsley ID 14969

Syphilis Bacteria

Treponema pallidum, the bacteria that cause syphilis.

Image by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health

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Syphilis

Keratotic lesions : This photograph shows a close-up view of keratotic lesions on the palms of this patient's hands due to a secondary syphilitic infection.

Image by CDC / Robert Sumpter ID 6809

Syphilis

Primary Stage of Syphilis : This patient presented with a shoulder lesion during the primary stage of syphilis, which was diagnosed after performing a "darkfield" examination.

Image by CDC/ Dr. Dancewicz ID 6734

Treponema pallidum

Spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum bacteria. An electron photomicrograph of two spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum bacteria. Here we see two Treponema pallidum bacteria scanned by an electron microscope, magnified 36,000X. T. pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis. It contains one of the smallest prokaryotic genomes consisting of about 1000 kilobase pairs.

Image by CDC/ Joyce Ayers ID 2392

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Secondary syphilis

A photograph of a secondary syphilitic papulosquamous rash seen on the torso and upper body.This patient had an extensive papulosquamous rash that developed during secondary syphilis. The rash often appears as rough, red or reddish brown spots that can appear on palms of hands, soles of feet, the chest and back, or other parts of the body.

Image by CDC /Susan Lindsley ID 2364

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Syphilis

Primary Syphilitic Chancre : Photograph of primary syphilitic chancre of the glans penis. This patient has a primary syphilitic chancre of the glans penis. A chancre is a primary skin lesion of syphilis, which begins at the site of inoculation after an interval of 10-30 days, and appears as a papule or red ulcerated skin lesion.

Image by CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2359

Treponema pallidum

A photomicrograph of a virulent Treponema pallidum bacterium, ruptured at 6,000 psi. Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis. It contains one of the smallest prokaryotic genomes consisting of about 1000 kilobase pairs.

Image by CDC, VDRL Dept. ID 2324

Treponema pallidum

A photomicrograph of a whole mount of virulent Treponema pallidum. This microscopic bacterium (spirochete) is a worm-like spiral-shaped organism that wiggles vigorously when viewed under a microscope.

Image by CDC / VDRL Department ID 2323

Treponema pallidum

Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).

Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1976

Treponema pallidum

Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).

Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1975

Treponema pallidum

Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep).

Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1972

Treponema pallidum

Electron micrograph of Treponema pallidum on cultures of cotton-tail rabbit epithelium cells (Sf1Ep). Treponema pallidum is a spiral-shaped, Gram-negative, highly mobile bacterium.

Image by CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1971

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Secondary syphilis Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue

Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue : This image depicts the dorsal surface of the tongue in the case of an elderly African-American male, due to what was determined to be a secondary syphilitic infection. Note the furrowed appearance, and the papillae-free, i.e., desquamated, smooth lingual surface.

Image by CDC / Robert E. Sumpter ID 12627

Syphilis Health Byte

Video by LIVESTRONG.COM/YouTube

Syphilis ¦ Treatment and Symptoms

Video by MainMD/YouTube

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Illustration of syphilis bacteria

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium <em>Treponema pallidum</em>. The disease is communicated through direct contact with syphilitic chancre sores, the first of which develops at the site (genitals, vagina, anus, rectum, lips, mouth) where syphilis entered the body. The disease advances in stages that, left untreated, can eventually cause paralysis, blindness, dementia, and life-threatening damage to internal organs. Syphilis is usually transmitted through sexual contact but can also be spread from mother to developing baby, with serious risk to the fetus' survival, and to a newborn during childbirth.

Image by CDC

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Secondary syphilis keratotic lesions : These keratotic lesions on the palms are due to secondary syphilis

CDC / ID 3489

Treponema pallidum Bacteria (Syphilis)

CDC/ Dr. David Cox

Syphilis

CDC

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Syphilis

CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2372

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Secondary syphilis

CDC / Susan Lindsley ID 6761

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Susan Lindsley ID 14969

Syphilis Bacteria

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health

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Syphilis

CDC / Robert Sumpter ID 6809

Syphilis

CDC/ Dr. Dancewicz ID 6734

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Joyce Ayers ID 2392

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Secondary syphilis

CDC /Susan Lindsley ID 2364

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Syphilis

CDC/Susan Lindsley ID 2359

Treponema pallidum

CDC, VDRL Dept. ID 2324

Treponema pallidum

CDC / VDRL Department ID 2323

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1976

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1975

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1972

Treponema pallidum

CDC/ Dr. David Cox ID 1971

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Secondary syphilis Secondary syphilitic infection on tongue

CDC / Robert E. Sumpter ID 12627

4:52

Syphilis Health Byte

LIVESTRONG.COM/YouTube

1:52

Syphilis ¦ Treatment and Symptoms

MainMD/YouTube

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Illustration of syphilis bacteria

CDC

HIV Antibody Test

HIV Antibody Test

Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab

This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.

HIV Antibody Test

Also called: HIV 1+O+2 Ab

This test is used to screen and confirm HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the white blood cells in your blood, making you more susceptible to diseases and infections. There is no cure for this virus; however, early diagnosis is important to prevent complications.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
It can take weeks for the immune system to produce the telltale antibodies that indicate HIV infection. If a person is tested too early, the result may be misleadingly negative.
Related conditions
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) debilitates your immune system by harming your white blood cells (leukocytes), making you prone to catch any virus, bacteria, or fungi, including those that usually don’t make people sick.
If left untreated, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is the final stage of the infection.
HIV is transmitted through:
- Unprotected sexual intercourse
- From an infected mother to her fetus
- Lactation from an infected mother
- Having direct contact with the blood of an infected person through an open wound
- From an injury with a blood-covered object (such as a needle)
There are two types of HIV, which are type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2).The only difference between them is that HIV type 2 is found only in West Africa and an individual can become infected with HIV-2 only by having sexual intercourse or entering in contact with the blood of an infected person from that geographic region.
An HIV 1+O+2 AB test refers to the detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 antibodies in a sample of your blood.
Usually, screening is done with a combination HIV antigen/antibody test. If that test result comes back positive, an HIV test that differentiates between HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies is performed.
HIV screening is the only way to know if you are infected. Is recommended that any person between the ages of 13 to 64 years and every pregnant woman gets tested for HIV at least once.
There are other situations in which you should also be tested, even if you were already screened or if you don’t belong to the group of people who are between 13 to 64 years of age. These situations include:
- If you were diagnosed with tuberculosis, hepatitis B or C, or another sexually transmitted disease.
- If you had a sexual partner who has been recently diagnosed with HIV.
- If you suspect or know that your partner had sex with another person.
- If you are a healthcare worker and had direct contact with blood while doing your job.
- If you think you may have been exposed to the virus.
Annual screening for HIV is recommended if you are at high-risk of contracting the virus. You have a higher risk if you:
- Have had unprotected sex with multiple partners since your last HIV screening.
- Are a man and had sex with another man
- Have used illegal injected drugs, especially if you have shared needles
- Have a sexual partner who is HIV positive.
- Are a sex-worker
Normally this test is indicated when a previous screening HIV test has been performed, and the result has come back positive.
Therefore, if this test comes back negative for HIV-1and HIV-2, it means that a disparity has occurred, and then a third test (HIV RNA) must be performed to get to a firm diagnosis.
If the HIV 1+O+2 Ab test has come back positive, the possibilities include:
- HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody negative: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 1 infection.
- HIV-1 antibody negative + HIV-2 antibody positive: is confirmed that you have an HIV type 2 infection.
- HIV-1 antibody positive + HIV-2 antibody positive: you have a co-infection with both types of HIV.

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (11)

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

HIV. See a full animation of this medical topic

Image by BruceBlaus

HIV Drug Classes

Schematic description of the mechanism of the four classes of currently available antiviral drugs against HIV: fusion inhibitors ( interfere with the binding, fusion or entry of an HIV virion), reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (interfere with the translation of viral RNA into DNA), integrase inhibitors (block the viral enzyme integrase, that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell), protease inhibitors (block proteolytic cleavage of protein precursors that are necessary for the production of infectious viral particles).

Image by Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

HIV-infected H9 T cell

Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

HIV Virus

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (red) budding and replicating from a segment of a chronically infected H9 cell (blue). Particles are in various stages of maturity; arc/semi-circles are immature particles that have started to form but are still part of the cell. Immature particles slowly change morphology into mature forms and exhibit the classic “conical or spherical-shaped core.” Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

Model of HIV-1 Neurotropism

Image by J Roberto Trujillo

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another person. The immune system responds to the presence of HIV by producing antibodies specifically directed against the virus (antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus they attack). HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus Description : Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus from hugging to telephones; one of a series of fact sheets about AIDS and HIV.

Image by Wellcome Trust

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AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-I) enters the T-lymphocyte where the virus loses its outer envelop, releasing its RNA and its reverse transcriptase. The reverse transcriptase builds a complimentary DNA strand from the viral RNA template. The DNA helix is inserted into the host genome. When this is transcribed by the infected cell, the new viral RNA and proteins are produced to form new viruses that then bud from the cell membrane, thus completing the life cycle of the virus. See artwork: GR-32.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS

Video by Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube

When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

HIV Rotation

The most common test for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detects antibodies produced by the immune system that attack foreign particles like HIV. These antibodies are identifiable because they are tailor-made to match specific features of the virus. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enters the body through sexual transmission, blood transfusion with infected blood, or, in the case of drug addicts, a shared needle contaminated by the blood of another user. HIV antibodies can be detected between 3-8 weeks after exposure to the virus.

Image by TheVisualMD

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

BruceBlaus

HIV Drug Classes

Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com)

HIV-infected H9 T cell

NIAID

HIV Virus

NIAID

HIV-1 Neurotropism

J Roberto Trujillo

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

TheVisualMD

(HIV) Ways in which you cannot catch the HIV virus

Wellcome Trust

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

AIDS Life Cycle Illustration

National Cancer Institute / Trudy Nicholson (Illustrator)

6:52

Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS

Nucleus Medical Media/YouTube

3:52

When HIV Becomes AIDS (HIV #2)

Healthguru/YouTube

HIV Rotation

TheVisualMD

Chorionic Villus Sampling

Chorionic Villus Sampling

Also called: CVS, Chorionic Villus Biopsy, Placental Biopsy

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a test for pregnant women that checks cells from the placenta. It is used in the first trimester of pregnancy to diagnose certain chromosome and genetic disorders in an unborn baby.

Chorionic Villus Sampling

Also called: CVS, Chorionic Villus Biopsy, Placental Biopsy

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a test for pregnant women that checks cells from the placenta. It is used in the first trimester of pregnancy to diagnose certain chromosome and genetic disorders in an unborn baby.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means that no signs of chromosomal or genetic defects were detected in your developing baby.
Related conditions
CVS testing is used to diagnose chromosome problems or other genetic diseases in an unborn baby. These include:
- Down syndrome, a disorder that causes intellectual disabilities, certain physical features, and various health problems.
- Cystic fibrosis, a disease that causes mucus buildup in the lungs and other organs, making it hard to breathe.
- Sickle cell disease, a disorder of the red blood cells. It can cause pain, infections, organ damage, and strokes.
- Tay-Sachs disease, a disorder that causes fatty proteins to build up in the brain. It affects sight, hearing, and mental development. Most children with Tay-Sachs die by the age of 5.
CVS testing is very accurate and can be done early in pregnancy, between the 10th and 13th week. But it can only diagnose certain genetic diseases. A CVS test does not diagnose or screen for birth defects such as neural tube defects, conditions that cause abnormal development of a developing baby's brain and/or spine. Different tests, including an alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) blood test, are used to screen for or diagnose these and other birth defects.
You may need CVS testing if you are at higher risk for having a baby with a chromosome disorder. Risk factors include:
- Age. Women age 35 and older have a higher risk of having a baby with Down syndrome or another genetic disorder.
- Family history of a genetic disorder
- Having another child with a genetic disorder
You may also need CVS testing if you had abnormal results on a prenatal screening test.
There are two types of CVS tests:
- Transabdominal The sample is taken through the abdomen.
- Transcervical. The sample is taken through the cervix. The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus that opens into the vagina.
Your provider will use an ultrasound to check your baby's position and guide the procedure (transabdominal or transcervical). Ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create pictures.
During a transabdominal CVS, your provider will:
- Clean your abdomen with an antiseptic.
- Apply a numbing medicine to your abdomen.
- Insert a long, thin needle through your abdomen and uterus and into the placenta. You may feel a cramping or stinging sensation as the needle enters the uterus.
- Use the needle to withdraw a sample of tissue from the placenta.
- Remove the needle.
During a transcervical CVS, your provider will:
- Clean your vagina and cervix with an antiseptic
- Use an instrument called a speculum to gently spread apart the sides of your vagina.
- Insert a thin tube through your vagina and cervix and up to the placenta. You may feel a slight twinge or cramping as this is done.
- Use the tube to gently suck in a sample of tissue from the placenta.
- Remove the tube.
CVS is generally considered to be a safe procedure, but it does have some risks. These include:
- Miscarriage, which happens in about one in every hundred procedures
- Infection
- Bleeding
- Rh sensitization. This is a condition in which your body makes antibodies (proteins made by the immune system) that attack your baby's red blood cells. If diagnosed during pregnancy, it is easily treatable.
- Limb defects in the baby (this is very rare)
1. http://americanpregnancy.org/prenatal-testing/chorionic-villus-sampling/ [accessed on Jan 26, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003406.htm [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
3. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/down-syndrome-tests/ [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
4. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/diagnosis.html [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]
5. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/chorionic-villus-sampling-cvs [accessed on Sep 18, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (14)

Chorionic Villus Sampling

Video by manny1976/YouTube

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

Prenatal screening, fetal testing, and other tests during pregnancy

Video by MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Prenatal Diagnostic Testing

If a pregnant woman has an abnormal genetic screening test result, a doctor may suggest a prenatal diagnostic test be done to determine with more certainly whether or not a fetus has a particular disorder. There are two main diagnostic testing procedures, chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis. Both of these tests involve collecting a sample from inside the womb, which is then examined to detect diseases such as Down Syndrome, Edwards Syndrome, neural tube defects, cystic fibrosis, fragile-x, and spinal muscular atrophy. Prenatal diagnostic tests provide valuable information on the health of the fetus and can help alleviate the stress of expectant parents.

Video by TheVisualMD

Diagnostic Testing in Pregnancy

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

Prenatal Testing - What You Need To Know

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

Amniocentesis: Pre-Baby Care (Pregnancy Health Guru)

Video by Healthguru/YouTube

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) Mnemonic

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

First Trimester of Pregnancy -- CVS Prenatal Test | Parents

Video by Parents/YouTube

Genetic Testing During Pregnancy

Video by University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

Prenatal Screening Options: Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Video by UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube

Embryo 26 Day Old (Week 5 for Gestational Age) Suspended in Chorionic Cavity

Computer Generated Image from Micro-MRI, actual size of embryo = 4.0 mm - This image presents a right-sided view of the embryo during its fourth week of embryonic development. The age is calculated from the day of fertilization. At the beginning of the 4th week, the heart begins to beat and the embryonic circulation sets in. At the end of 4 weeks over 30 somites are present . Somites are paired blocks of cells which in the later stages of development give rise to connective tissue, bone, muscle and the spine. The embryo is suspended in the protective chorionic cavity by the body stalk (the amniotic cavity and yolk sac have been removed to demonstrate the C-shaped curvature of the embryo). The red spot in the head region indicates the developing eye.

Image by TheVisualMD

Chorionic villi

Chorionic villus

Image by BruceBlaus

Chorionic villi

Schematic view of the placenta and chorion.

Image by Swils6

4:42

Chorionic Villus Sampling

manny1976/YouTube

4:16

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

18:42

Prenatal screening, fetal testing, and other tests during pregnancy

MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube

4:34

Prenatal Diagnostic Testing

TheVisualMD

2:10

Diagnostic Testing in Pregnancy

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

1:45

Prenatal Testing - What You Need To Know

Rehealthify/YouTube

2:01

Amniocentesis: Pre-Baby Care (Pregnancy Health Guru)

Healthguru/YouTube

2:13

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) Mnemonic

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

2:44

First Trimester of Pregnancy -- CVS Prenatal Test | Parents

Parents/YouTube

4:38

Genetic Testing During Pregnancy

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

5:18

Prenatal Screening Options: Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube

Embryo 26 Day Old (Week 5 for Gestational Age) Suspended in Chorionic Cavity

TheVisualMD

Chorionic villi

BruceBlaus

Chorionic villi

Swils6

Pap Smear

Pap Smear

Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test

A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.

Pap Smear

Also called: Papanicolaou Smear, Cervical Smear, Cervical Cytology, Vaginal Cytology, Cervical Screening, Gynecologic Pap Test

A Pap smear is a routine test that looks for abnormal cells in the cervix (the uppermost portion of the vagina). Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cervical cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative or normal test result is reported as "Negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy". However, a negative report may also note benign findings such as infections or inflammation.
Related conditions
In general, if you're between age 21 and 65, you should have regular Pap smears:
- If you're between ages 21 and 29 and your last Pap test result was normal, your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
- If you're between ages 30 and 65 and your last Pap smear result was normal:
  Your provider may say you can wait three years until your next test.
  If you also had a normal HPV test result, your provider may say that you can wait five years until your next test.
- If you're over age 65, your provider may tell you that you don't need Pap smears anymore if you:
  Have had normal Pap smears for several years.
  Have had surgery to remove your uterus and cervix because you had a condition that was not cancer, such as fibroids.
If you have a higher risk for developing cervical cancer, your provider may recommend screening more often or after age 65. You may have a higher risk if you:
- Had an abnormal Pap smear in the past
- Have HIV
- Have a weakened immune system
- Were exposed to a drug called DES (Diethylstilbestrol) before you were born. Between the years 1940–1971, DES was prescribed during pregnancy to prevent miscarriages. It was later linked to an increased risk of certain cancers in the female children exposed to it during the pregnancy.
If you're under age 21, cervical cancer screening is not recommended. Your risk of cervical cancer is very low. Also, any changes in cervical cells are likely to go away on their own.
If you are unsure whether you need a Pap smear, talk with your provider.
You should not have a Pap smear while you are having your period. A good time to have the test is about five days after the last day of your period. For two to three days before your test, you should not:
- Use tampons
- Use birth control foam, jelly, or cream
- Use other creams or medicines in the vagina
- Douche (rinse the vagina with water or other fluid)
- Have vaginal sex
A Pap smear test has three possible results:
- Normal Pap smear or "negative" result. No abnormal changes were found in the cells of your cervix. Your provider may tell you that you can wait three years for your next test. If you also had a normal HPV test result, you may be able to wait five years for your next test, depending on your age and medical history.
- Unclear or unsatisfactory results. The lab sample may not have had enough cells, or the cells may have been clumped together or hidden by mucus. Your provider will usually ask you to come in for another test in 2 to 4 months.
- Abnormal Pap smear or "positive" result. Abnormal changes were found in your cervical cells. Most of the time, abnormal results do not mean you have cervical cancer. Minor changes in the cells usually go back to normal on their own. But your provider may recommend a follow-up test to check. More serious cell changes may turn into cancer if they are not removed. Finding and treating these cells early can help prevent cancer from developing.
Talk with your health care provider to learn what your Pap smear results mean.
1. Pap Smear: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
2. Definition of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms - National Cancer Institute [accessed on Dec 20, 2018]
3. 192005: Gynecologic Pap Test, Liquid-based Preparation | LabCorp [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
4. https://www.acog.org/Patients/FAQs/Abnormal-Cervical-Cancer-Screening-Test-Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]
5. Understanding Abnormal Cervical Cancer Screening Results [accessed on Dec 28, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Video by Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)

Video by Med Twice/YouTube

Sensitive content

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Pap Smear showing Chlamydia

Human pap smear showing Chlamydia in the vacuoles at 500x and stained with H&E.

Image by Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer as well as a number of different types of infections. The test involves collecting cells from the cervix. A speculum is inserted into the vagina, and samples of cervical cells are collected and examined under a microscope for abnormalities. Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives women a greater chance of being cured. A Pap smear can also detect changes in cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women over 30, the Pap smear may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV), a common sexually transmitted infection that may cause cervical cancer in some women.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact. It may cause genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually. However, only a small subset of these strains are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. HPV vaccines are available for both men and women to prevent infection by some of the more dangerous virus strains associated with the development of cervical cancer.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests

HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests: Pap tests (ie, cervical cytology) are the most common way to screen for cervical cancer and routine Pap testing is credited with widely reducing the incidence of cervical cancer since the tests implementation. Pap tests are, however, limited by their relatively low sensitivity and specificity.Studies suggest that testing for high-risk HPV DNA is a more sensitive method of determining a woman`s risk of developing cervical cancer. Though current high-risk HPV DNA testing methods provide adequate sensitivity, specificity is lacking, which can lead to false-positive results and unnecessary invasive procedures such as colposcopy and biopsy. Its important for every woman to talk to her doctor about what tests are right for her.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Risk Factors for Cancer: Virus : Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid the virus responsible for genital HPV infection one of the most common sexually transmitted infections. Often asymptomatic genital HPV infection is spread through genital skin-to-skin contact causes genital warts and can lead to cervical cancer as well as some cases of anal rectal and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV and more than 40 of these are transmitted sexually; however only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. Consistent condom use has been shown to reduce the risk of HPV infection by as much as 70% but condoms do not protect all anatomy vulnerable to the virus. Vaccines that can prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains are widely available.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pap Smear

A female Caucasian scientist examining pap smears under the microscope.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

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Pap Smear Laser

One of the many uses for the laser in medical research is as a light source to detect premalignant and malignant cells in a Pap smear. Gynecologic cells passing in a stream through the laser beam where each cell is analyzed. Abnormal-appearing cells can be sorted from the rest of the cells and later examined by a pathologist for evidence of cancer.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial cancer is the most commonly diagnosed gynecological cancer. Women with clear cell endometrial cancer, a rare type of endometrial cancer, generally have poorer clinical outcomes

Image by Darryl Leja, NHGRI

Advanced Cancer Cell Growth in Cervix

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of advanced cancerous cell growth of cervix. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 3 of 3.

Image by TheVisualMD

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Healthy Cervix

The cervix is the lower portion of the uterus where it joins with the top of the vagina. The opening of the the cervix into the vagina is called the external os, and can vary in appearance from a small, circular opening in women who have not given birth, to a wider, more slit-like opening in women who have had children. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Women should be screened for cellular changes of the cervix with a pap smear as part of a regular pelvic exam. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a large group of related viruses that are often sexually transmitted. Most infections clear up quickly and cause few problems, though HPV can cause genital warts. Infection by certain types of HPV, however, can lead to cervical cancer. In 2006, the FDA approved an HPV vaccine (Gardisil) that protects against viral types that cause most cases of cervical cancer as well as genital warts. Public health experts recommend routine vaccination for girls ages 11-12 to ensure vaccine effectiveness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Studying Cells

These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left. The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus (HPV). Notice that the infected cells are larger; also, two of these cells each have two nuclei instead of one, the normal number. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman, MD; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Image by CNX Openstax

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Anterior view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. Incurable and often asymptomatic, genital HPV infection is spread through genital, skin-to-skin contact, causes genital warts, and can lead to cervical cancer, as well as some cases of anal, rectal, and penile cancer. There are more than 100 strains of HPV, and more than 30 of these are transmitted sexually; however, only a small subset of those are cancer-causing. Pap smear testing is used to detect abnormal cells caused by genital HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Cell Growth in Cervix

Three-dimensional visualization reconstructed from scanned human data. Superiolateral view of cross-section of healthy cervical cells. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 3.

Image by TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

Medical visualization of a lateral cross-section of a healthy cervix, as well as the uterus and vagina. Cervical cancer begins with precancerous cellular changes, often caused by human papillomavirus (HPV.) There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell carcinoma (the most common type at 80%+) and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma develops from the cells that cover the surface of the cervix, while adenocarcinoma develops from mucous-producing glandular tissue. Cervical cancer is highly preventable, with precancerous cells visible on a regular Pap smear. Also, a vaccine is being developed that could prevent initial infection of some of the more dangerous strains of HPV that lead to precancerous cellular changes. 1 of 2.

Image by TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Medical visualization of an anterior close-up view of a human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, the virus responsible for genital HPV infection, one of the most common sexually transmitted infections.

Image by TheVisualMD

2:13

A cervical screening test - What can you expect?

Healthchanneltv / cherishyourhealthtv/YouTube

6:01

Cervical Dysplasia (Gynecology - Pap Smear)

Med Twice/YouTube

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Smear showing Chlamydia

Dr. Lance Liotta Laboratory / Unknown Photographer

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Test: Pap Smear (Pap Test)

TheVisualMD

Pap Test: Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

HPV E6 E7 mRNA and Pap Tests

TheVisualMD

3:40

Pap smears vs HPV testing and cervical cancer detection

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Pap Smear

National Cancer Institute / Bill Branson (Photographer)

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Pap Smear Laser

National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer

Endometrial Cancer

Darryl Leja, NHGRI

Advanced Cancer Cell Growth in Cervix

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Healthy Cervix

TheVisualMD

Studying Cells

CNX Openstax

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Normal Cell Growth in Cervix

TheVisualMD

Uterus and Cervix Sagittal Section

TheVisualMD

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

TheVisualMD

Prenatal Ultrasound

Prenatal Ultrasound

Also called: Fetal Ultrasound, Pregnancy Sonography, Pregnancy Sonogram, Obstetric Ultrasonography, Ultrasound - Prenatal

Prenatal ultrasound is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to generate images of the fetus. Ultrasounds can be performed at any time; however, they are usually done and are more useful during the first trimester of pregnancy.

Prenatal Ultrasound

Also called: Fetal Ultrasound, Pregnancy Sonography, Pregnancy Sonogram, Obstetric Ultrasonography, Ultrasound - Prenatal

Prenatal ultrasound is an imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to generate images of the fetus. Ultrasounds can be performed at any time; however, they are usually done and are more useful during the first trimester of pregnancy.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
* Your baby is growing at a normal rate.
* You have the right amount of amniotic fluid.
* No birth defects were found, though not all birth defects will show up on a sonogram.
Related conditions
1. First Trimester / Dating Ultrasound | Advanced Women's Imaging [accessed on Oct 02, 2018]
2. http://www.advancedwomensimaging.com.au/second-trimester-morphology-ultrasound [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
3. https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/prenatal-ultrasound.html [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]
4. https://www.webmd.com/baby/ultrasound#1 [accessed on Jan 24, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

High Risk Pregnancy: Ultrasound Services

Video by Swedish/YouTube

Prenatal Ultrasound

Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

Getting A Pregnancy Ultrasound | Kaiser Permanente

Video by Kaiser Permanente Thrive/YouTube

3 Questions to ask at your ultrasound | Boston Children's Hospital

Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube

Obstetric ultrasonography

Ultrasound image of fetus at 14 weeks (profile)

Image by X.Compagnion (cropped by Hidro)

Ultrasound Scan ND 1231102308 1028500

A well defined hypoechoic lesion is seen in choroid plexsus. Choroid plexsus cyst. It may regress automatically. Medical ultrasound image. Provided as-is. Please feel free to categorise, add description, crop.

Image by Nevit Dilmen (talk)

Head-3D

Ultrasound to detect possible kidney cysts

Drawing of female health worker giving an ultrasound examination to a female patient. An ultrasound imaging device passes harmless sound waves through the body to detect possible kidney cysts.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Drawing of a fetus with an enlarged kidney visible, as seen in an ultrasound. The enlarged kidney is labeled

A prenatal ultrasound can show enlarged kidneys, ureters, or bladders in babies.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests

The PAPP-A screen is administered as a first-trimester screen integrated with an hCG test and nuchal translucency (NT) ultrasound. The test screens for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome and trisomy 18. The image featured here shows an ultrasound image of a fetus suspected to have down syndrome. The areas of concern are highlighted in yellow.

Image by TheVisualMD

Obstetric ultrasonography

Medical ultrasound examination of a pregnant woman.

Image by Scott

Megacystis

Megacystis in fetus : Ultrasound revealing megacystis in a fetus with Down syndrome.

Image by X.Compagnion

Fetal Ultrasound

Ultrasound image (sonogram) of a fetus in the womb.

Image by BruceBlaus/Wikimedia

Fetal Ultrasound Excess?

Video by Wall Street Journal/YouTube

Understanding your fetal ultrasound

Video by UTSWMed/YouTube

Fetal Diagnosis of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia (CDH) (2 of 11)

Video by The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

2:58

High Risk Pregnancy: Ultrasound Services

Swedish/YouTube

4:00

Prenatal Ultrasound

Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

1:10

Getting A Pregnancy Ultrasound | Kaiser Permanente

Kaiser Permanente Thrive/YouTube

1:26

3 Questions to ask at your ultrasound | Boston Children's Hospital

Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube

Obstetric ultrasonography

X.Compagnion (cropped by Hidro)

Ultrasound Scan ND 1231102308 1028500

Nevit Dilmen (talk)

Head-3D

Ultrasound to detect possible kidney cysts

NIDDK Image Library

Drawing of a fetus with an enlarged kidney visible, as seen in an ultrasound. The enlarged kidney is labeled

NIDDK Image Library

PAPP-A: PAPP-A Screening Tests

TheVisualMD

Obstetric ultrasonography

Scott

Megacystis

X.Compagnion

Fetal Ultrasound

BruceBlaus/Wikimedia

2:46

Fetal Ultrasound Excess?

Wall Street Journal/YouTube

4:54

Understanding your fetal ultrasound

UTSWMed/YouTube

7:36

Fetal Diagnosis of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia (CDH) (2 of 11)

The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube

Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening

Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening

Also called: Cell-Free fetal DNA testing for fetal chromosomal abnormalities, Cell-free fetal DNA, cffDNA, Non-invasive prenatal test, NIPT, cfDNA, Cell Free DNA Screening

A prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. It checks to see if an unborn baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another chromosome disorder.

Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening

Also called: Cell-Free fetal DNA testing for fetal chromosomal abnormalities, Cell-free fetal DNA, cffDNA, Non-invasive prenatal test, NIPT, cfDNA, Cell Free DNA Screening

A prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. It checks to see if an unborn baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another chromosome disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative cell-free fetal DNA test result means that it is very unlikely that the baby has trisomy 13, 18, or 21.
Related conditions
Prenatal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) screening is a blood test for pregnant women. During pregnancy, some of an unborn baby's DNA circulates in the mother's bloodstream. A cfDNA screening checks this DNA to find out if the baby is more likely to have Down syndrome or another disorder caused by a trisomy.
A trisomy is a disorder of the chromosomes. Chromosomes are the parts of your cells that contain your genes. Genes are parts of DNA passed down from your mother and father. They carry information that determines your unique traits, such as height and eye color.
- People normally have 46 chromosomes, divided into 23 pairs, in each cell.
- If one of these pairs has an extra copy of a chromosome, it's called a trisomy. A trisomy causes changes in the way the body and brain develop.
- In Down syndrome, there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. This is also known as trisomy 21. Down syndrome is the most common chromosome disorder in the United States.
- Other trisomy disorders include Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18), where there is an extra copy of chromosome 18, and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13), where there is an extra copy of chromosome 13. These disorders are rare but more serious than Down syndrome. Most babies with trisomy 18 or trisomy 13 die within the first year of life.
A cfDNA screening has very little risk to you and your baby, but it can't tell you for sure whether your baby has a chromosome disorder. Your health care provider will need to order other tests to confirm or rule out a diagnosis.
A cfDNA screening is most often used to show if your unborn baby has an increased risk for one of the following chromosome disorders:
- Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
- Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18)
- Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)
The screening may also be used to:
- Determine a baby's gender (sex). This may be done if an ultrasound shows that a baby's genitals are not clearly male or female. This may be caused by a disorder of the sex chromosomes.
- Check Rh blood type. Rh is a protein found on red blood cells. If you have the protein, you are considered Rh positive. If you don't, you are Rh negative. If you are Rh negative and your unborn baby is Rh positive, your body's immune system may attack your baby's blood cells. If you find out you are Rh negative early in pregnancy, you can take medicines to protect your baby from dangerous complications.
A cfDNA screening can be done as early as the 10th week of pregnancy.
Many health care providers recommend this screening to pregnant women who are at higher risk of having a baby with a chromosome disorder. You may be at higher risk if:
- You are age 35 or older. A mother's age is the primary risk factor for having a baby with Down syndrome or other trisomy disorders. The risk increases as a woman gets older.
- You've had another baby with a chromosome disorder.
- Your fetal ultrasound didn't look normal.
- Other prenatal test results were not normal.
Some health care providers recommend screening to all pregnant women. This is because the screening has almost no risk and has a high rate of accuracy compared with other prenatal screening tests.
You and your health care provider should discuss if a cfDNA screening is right for you.
1. Cell-Free Fetal DNA. Lab Tests Online. [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
2. What is noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) and what disorders can it screen for? Genetics Home Reference (GHR), U.S. National Library of Medicine [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
3. Prenatal cell-free DNA screening - Mayo Clinic [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]
4. FAQ: Cell-Free DNA Screening | Patient Education | UCSF Medical Center [accessed on Nov 08, 2018]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (23)

Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA)

Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA) migrating into the maternal blood stream via the apoptotic trophoblast cells shedding off the placental tissue.

Image by Swils6/Wikimedia

Pinpointing Genes

This illustration explains chromosome staining, inherited markers, and DNA cloning.

Image by National Cancer Institute / Jane Hurd (Illustrator)

DNA Molecule

DNA Molecule

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Liquid biopsy

Tumor cells shed protein and DNA into bloodstream for laboratory analysis and early cancer detection.

Image by Jill George/NIH

Amniocentesis

BruceBlaus

Image by Wikimedia Commons

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time

hCG testing for pregnancy is available to women of child-bearing age. The \"quad\" screen, of which hCG is a component, is especially recommended for women with higher-risk pregnancies as indicated by factors such as maternal age, family history, and disease history. Levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11 days after conception and about 12-14 days after conception by a urine test. In general the hCG levels will double every 72 hours. The level will reach its peak in the first 8-11 weeks of pregnancy and then will decline and level off for the remainder of the pregnancy.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) is a prenatal diagnostic test that gathers information about a fetus' health from a sample of chorionic villi cells from the placenta. If a woman is at high risk for a genetic disease, a doctor may recommend CVS to determine whether a baby has certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, among other diseases.

Image by TheVisualMD

Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit

An ultrasound is a simple test during pregnancy that will give your healthcare provider a detailed look at your baby's progress. Learn helpful tips for what to expect and how to stay healthy while pregnant.

Image by TheVisualMD

The Tipsy Test Genebook from BGI

BGI "Genebook", an experimental platform for genetic testing being offered as a perk to the staff. The Tipsy test screens alcohol metabolism genes and gives a score on how well you should be able to metabolise alcohol

Image by Scotted400

Factors affecting penetrance

Factors affecting penetrance

Image by Genomics Education Program

Hipaa Violations by Type

This chart breaks Hipaa Privacy Violations down by the percentage of total violations for each violation type. Based on data available from The U.S Department of Health and Human Services for the period 9/22/2009 to 07/04/2012. Includes the following types: sensitive data disclosed without permision, data compromised by hackers, improper disposal of data, data lost and not accounted for, data physically stolen, and other/unknown. I created this chart in Microsoft Excel 2010 using the information provided on this page of the HHS.gov website. I altered the descriptions used by HHS to make them more descriptive. For example, I changed 'Theft' to 'Data Stolen Physically' as it specifically refers to data that was stolen by physically carying an item out of the place of business.

Image by Compliance and Safety LLC

Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer

Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer.

Image by WassermanLab

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

1♂︎—Sperm is collected from a male. 1♀︎—Eggs are collected via in vitro fertilization from a female. 2—The sperm and eggs are fertilized. 3a—The embryos are allowed to develop; those that thrive are given identifiers. 3b—A genetic test is run on each embryo for a given trait and the results are matched with the embryos. 4—The embryos without the desired trait are identified and discarded. 5—The remaining embryos are allowed to grow to the point that they can be implanted. 6a—The embryos with the desired trait are implanted. 6b—The embryos result in a healthy pregnancy. 6c—Fraternal twins with the desired trait, not expressed in their mother, are born.

Image by Psiĥedelisto, Vincent Le Moign, and Nevit Dilmen (User:Nevit)

Genetic discrimination

genetic discrimination

Image by TheVisualMD

Pinpointing Genes in Cancer

This illustration explains about 1) chromosome staining, 2)inherited markers and 3) DNA cloning.

Image by Jane Hurd (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Genetic Changes and Cancer

Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Types of Genetic Mutations

Genes contain information to make proteins, and proteins control many important functions like cell growth. Genetic mutations can change how proteins function. Some types of genetic mutations change proteins in ways that cause healthy cells to become cancerous.

Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)

Video by Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

Screening in Pregnancy

Video by Michigan Medicine/YouTube

Stanford Hospital's Dr. Jane Chueh on Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis

Video by Stanford Health Care/YouTube

Cell-free DNA Analysis and Cancer Treatment

Video by NEJMvideo/YouTube

Prenatal Screening Options: cfDNA (cell free DNA)

Video by UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube

Cell-Free DNA Prenatal Screen

Video by Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube

Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA)

Swils6/Wikimedia

Pinpointing Genes

National Cancer Institute / Jane Hurd (Illustrator)

DNA Molecule

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Liquid biopsy

Jill George/NIH

Amniocentesis

Wikimedia Commons

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): hCG Levels Increase Over Time

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

TheVisualMD

Prenatal Testing: What to Expect During a First Prenatal Visit

TheVisualMD

The Tipsy Test Genebook from BGI

Scotted400

Factors affecting penetrance

Genomics Education Program

Hipaa Violations by Type

Compliance and Safety LLC

Methylation of CpG islands in TSG promoters can suppress gene expression and lead to cancer

WassermanLab

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

Psiĥedelisto, Vincent Le Moign, and Nevit Dilmen (User:Nevit)

Genetic discrimination

TheVisualMD

Pinpointing Genes in Cancer

Jane Hurd (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Genetic Changes and Cancer

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

Types of Genetic Mutations

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

3:54

Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Screening (cfDNA Screening)

Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

5:34

Screening in Pregnancy

Michigan Medicine/YouTube

1:11:38

Stanford Hospital's Dr. Jane Chueh on Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis

Stanford Health Care/YouTube

3:36

Cell-free DNA Analysis and Cancer Treatment

NEJMvideo/YouTube

4:56

Prenatal Screening Options: cfDNA (cell free DNA)

UNC Center for Maternal and Infant Health/YouTube

4:58

Cell-Free DNA Prenatal Screen

Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube

Complete Blood Count

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
- Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
- Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
- Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
- Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
- Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
- Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
- Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
- Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
- High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (25)

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood sample

During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.

Image by United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.

Image by MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.

Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation

Image by Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best. Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Complete Blood Count

Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt1

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt2

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Blood Flow

Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.

Video by TheVisualMD

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Video by Seeker+/YouTube

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

TheVisualMD

Blood sample

United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

4:18

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

7:04

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

4:11

Complete Blood Count

Tom Wade MD/YouTube

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

16:12

Complete Blood Count pt1

Med Immersion/YouTube

22:14

Complete Blood Count pt2

Med Immersion/YouTube

0:06

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:07

Anemic Blood Flow

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

8:29

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Seeker+/YouTube

10:42

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

1:32

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Norton Healthcare/YouTube

2:39

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

OncLiveTV/YouTube

Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10<sup>6</sup>)/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Vision problems
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Anemia
- Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
- Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
- Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
- Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
- Lung disease
- Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
- Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
- Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
- Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
1. Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

Red blood cells

Red blood cells

Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm

Image by TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cell Development

This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red blood cells

John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

7:45

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Nursing School Explained/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

3:01

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

0:12

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

0:31

Red Blood Cell Development

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
4500
11000
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
- Neutrophils
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
- Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
- Bacterial or viral infections
- Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
- Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
- Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
- Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
- Fever
- Chills
- Body aches
- Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
- A bacterial or viral infection
- An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
- An allergy
- Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
- Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
- Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
- Cancers that affect the bone marrow
- An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
- HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
- A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
- A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
- A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
- A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
1. White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (37)

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

Immune Response to Bacteria

Video by NIAID/YouTube

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Formed Elements of Blood

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells

Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

Image by NIAID

Neutrophil

Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

Innate immune system

Image by US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens

Image by TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

Image by OpenStax College

Innate immune system

Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.

Image by OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.

Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.

Image by TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.

Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.

Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

Image by BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

Video by CLL Society/YouTube

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

White Blood Count

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

6:49

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

1:47

Immune Response to Bacteria

NIAID/YouTube

14:59

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

3:02

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

15:02

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

TheVisualMD

White blood cells

NIAID

Neutrophil

NIAID

Innate immune system

US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

OpenStax College

Innate immune system

OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

3:12

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

1:17:17

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

CLL Society/YouTube

16:52

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

TheVisualMD

Platelets

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Normal.
A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
- Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
- Nosebleeds
- Unexplained bruising
- Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
- Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
- Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
- Numbness of hands and feet
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Weakness
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
- A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
- A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
- An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
- Infection or damage to the bone marrow
- Cirrhosis
- Vitamin B12 deficiency
- Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
- Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
- Anemia
- Inflammatory bowel disease
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- A viral or bacterial infection
1. Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

Platelet Development

Illustration of Platelet Development

Image by OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

Video by American Red Cross/YouTube

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Platelet Development

OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

KnuteKnudsen (talk)

0:48

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Merck Manuals/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

3:54

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

1:47

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

American Red Cross/YouTube

10:35

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Normal.
Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
- Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
- A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
- A diet low in iron and other minerals
- A long-term infection
- Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Different types of anemia
- Thalassemia
- Iron deficiency
- Liver disease
- Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Lung disease
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Haemoglobin

Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

Video by DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

Molecule of hemoglobin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.

Image by TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

14:34

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Khan Academy/YouTube

10:01

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

CrashCourse/YouTube

5:31

Haemoglobin

Wellcome Trust/YouTube

1:43

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
- Headache
- Feeling light-headed or dizzy
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
- Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
- Blurred or double vision and blind spots
- Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
- Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Bone marrow disease
  Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Lung disease
  Congenital heart disease
  Heart failure
  Polycythemia
- Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
  Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
  Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood

Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.

Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.

Image by Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.

Image by Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

Composition of Blood

Image by OpenStax College

Hematology | Hematocrit

Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

Haematocrit or PCV

Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Video by Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

4:40

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Blood

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

0:53

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

OpenStax College

10:46

Hematology | Hematocrit

Ninja Nerd/YouTube

8:32

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

7:06

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Strong Medicine/YouTube

6:14

Haematocrit or PCV

LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

9:16

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

14:32

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

6:19

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

MCV

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
- Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
  A lack of vitamin B12
  A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
- Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
- Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
- A sudden loss of blood
- Kidney failure
- Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
1. MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (22)

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Hemolytic Anemia

Video by DrER.tv/YouTube

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

RBC Indices

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1

Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Blood Components

This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.

Image by TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel

1

2

3

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic. 2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal. 3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Interactive by TheVisualMD

5:57

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

4:39

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

9:42

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:56

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

NHLBI/YouTube

3:24

Hemolytic Anemia

DrER.tv/YouTube

3:16

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

iMedicalSchool/YouTube

9:54

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

9:02

RBC Indices

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

Blood Components

TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

TheVisualMD

Glucose in Urine Test

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Glucose in Urine Test

Also called: Urine sugar test, Urine glucose test, Glucosuria test, Glucose urine dipstick

A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
- Increased thirst
- More frequent urination
- Blurred vision
- Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
1. Wash your hands.
2. Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
3. Start to urinate into the toilet.
4. Move the collection container under your urine stream.
5. Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
6. Finish urinating into the toilet.
7. Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
- Diabetes
- Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
- A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
1. https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
2. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
3. https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
4. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (6)

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.

Image by TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.

Image by TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney

TheVisualMD

Diabetes Symptoms

TheVisualMD

Male Figure with Urinary System

TheVisualMD

Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration

TheVisualMD

Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons

TheVisualMD

Glomerulonephritis

TheVisualMD

Amniocentesis

Amniocentesis

Also called: Amnio, Amniotic Fluid Test, AFT, Amniotic Fluid Analysis

Amniocentesis is a test done during pregnancy, usually between weeks 15 and 20. It uses a sample of amniotic fluid to diagnose certain genetic disorders, birth defects, and other health problems in an unborn baby.

Amniocentesis

Also called: Amnio, Amniotic Fluid Test, AFT, Amniotic Fluid Analysis

Amniocentesis is a test done during pregnancy, usually between weeks 15 and 20. It uses a sample of amniotic fluid to diagnose certain genetic disorders, birth defects, and other health problems in an unborn baby.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal or negative result means that there were 46 chromosomes in the sample without any unusual changes in their structure. Normal karyotypes for females contain two X chromosomes and are denoted 46,XX; males have both an X and a Y chromosome denoted 46,XY.
Related conditions
Amniocentesis is used to diagnose certain health problems in an unborn baby. It is commonly used to find:
- Genetic and chromosomal disorders, including:
  Down syndrome, a disorder that causes intellectual disabilities and other health problems
  Cystic fibrosis, a disease of the mucus and sweat glands that causes thick sticky mucus, which can lead to problems with breathing and digestion
  Sickle cell disease, a group of red blood cell disorders that can cause anemia and other health problems
  Tay-Sachs disease, a disease that destroys nerve cells, causes mental and physical problems, and often death in early childhood (uncommon)
- Neural tube defects, severe birth defects of the baby's brain and/or spine, such as spina bifida and anencephaly.
The test may also be used to:
- Check your baby's lung development if you have a risk for giving birth too soon (premature birth). In this case, amniocentesis is done later in pregnancy.
- Diagnose an infection or certain other illnesses in the baby
Having amniocentesis is your choice. You may want this test if you have a high risk for having a baby with a health problem. You may have an increased risk if:
- You are age 35 or older. (The risk of having a baby with a genetic disorder increases with age.)
- You had a prenatal screening test that shows your baby might have a problem.
- You or your partner have a family history of a genetic disorder or neural tube defect.
- You or your partner had genetic testing that showed you carry a genetic disorder.
- You or your partner have a child with a genetic disorder or birth defect.
Amniocentesis isn't right for everyone. Before you decide to get tested, think about how you'd feel and what you might do after learning the results.
The test is usually done between 15 and 20 weeks of pregnancy. It is sometimes done later in pregnancy to check the baby's lung development or diagnose certain infections or illnesses, such as anemia in the unborn baby caused by Rh incompatibility.
During the procedure:
- You'll lie on your back on an exam table.
- Your provider may apply a numbing medicine to your abdomen.
- Your provider will move an ultrasound wand-like device, called a transducer, on your belly. Ultrasound uses sound waves to show the position of your baby and placenta so your provider can see where to take a sample of amniotic fluid.
- Your provider will insert a thin needle into your abdomen and withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid.
- When the sample is removed, your provider will check your baby's heartbeat with the ultrasound.
The procedure usually takes about 15 minutes. Afterwards, you may be told to avoid any hard exercise or physical activity for the next 24 hours.
Amniotic fluid may be tested for many different disorders. Your test results will depend on which tests your provider ordered.
- Normal results are reported as "normal" or "negative." This means that it's very unlikely that your baby has the disorder that was tested, but it does not guarantee your baby will not have any health problems.
- Results that are not normal are reported as "abnormal" or "positive." This means that your baby very likely has the disorder that was tested.
Your provider will explain your test results. Amniocentesis is very accurate, but in certain cases, your provider may order more tests to learn about your baby's health.
It may help to speak to a genetic counselor before testing and/or after you get your results. A genetic counselor is a specially trained professional in genetics and genetic testing who can help you understand what your results mean.
1. Amniocentesis (amniotic fluid test): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Amniocentesis: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
3. Diagnosis of Birth Defects | CDC [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
4. Amniocentesis. Test in pregnancy, amniocentesis information. | Patient [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
5. Amniocentesis - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
6. Amniotic Fluid Analysis [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
7. Amniocentesis - InsideRadiology [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
8. Amniocentesis - NHS [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
9. Amniocentesis - American Pregnancy Association [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
10. Amniocentesis Procedure [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]
11. Amniocentesis | March of Dimes [accessed on Jan 17, 2019]

Additional Materials (10)

Amniocentesis

TheVisualMD

Amniocentesis Being Performed on Human Pregnancy

TheVisualMD

3:15

Amniocentesis

Obstetrics & Gynecology Associates/YouTube

2:01

Amniocentesis: Pre-Baby Care (Pregnancy Health Guru)

Healthguru/YouTube

4:57

Amniocentesis | Parents

Parents/YouTube

4:34

Prenatal Diagnostic Testing

TheVisualMD

4:38

Genetic Testing During Pregnancy

University of California Television (UCTV)/YouTube

0:49

Amniocentesis.flv

PortalMedicoModerno/YouTube

1:56

Amnio vs. Genetic Blood Testing

Lee Health/YouTube

3:44

Amniocentesis

Washington State Department of Health/YouTube

Treatment

Parent with child sitting on knee with a physician or doctor

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Is There Any Treatment for Angelman Syndrome?

There is no specific therapy for Angelman syndrome at this time. The best treatment is to minimize seizures, anxiety, and gastrointestinal issues and maximize sleep. Seizures are treated with medications and dietary therapies, while sleep issues are treated with medications and sleep training. It is also important to test for and treat any problems with vision, hearing, and mobility. Intensive therapies such as physical, occcupational, and speech therapies are critical to begin early and continue as long as necessary. Applied behavior analysis and/or behavior therapy also are important for many individuals.

Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)

Additional Materials (6)

5:01

How can we cure Angelman Syndrome?

FAST UK/YouTube

3:39

Communication in Angelman Syndrome - Part 1 - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

9:29

Starting AAC - Communication Part 2 - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

5:27

Epilepsy & Angelman Syndrome - ASSERT

AngelmanUK/YouTube

6:50

What are the alternative treatments for Epilepsy? - AngelmanUK

AngelmanUK/YouTube

9:49

Should we use Cannabis to treat Epilepsy? - AngelmanUK

AngelmanUK/YouTube

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