A plasma cell neoplasm (PCN) is cancer that begins in plasma cells, white blood cells that produce antibodies. Multiple myeloma, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), and plasmacytoma are types of plasma cell neoplasms. Learn about the different types, risk factors and treatment options.
A normal plasma cell, a type of white blood cell, that helps to protect the body from germs and other harmful substances.
Image by Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute
Plasma cell neoplasms are diseases in which the body makes too many plasma cells.
Plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes (B cells), a type of white blood cell that is made in the bone marrow. Normally, when bacteria or viruses enter the body, some of the B cells will change into plasma cells. The plasma cells make antibodies to fight bacteria and viruses, to stop infection and disease.
Multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma cells are abnormal plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) that build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in many bones of the body. Normal plasma cells make antibodies to help the body fight infection and disease. As the number of multiple myeloma cells increases, more antibodies are made. This can cause the blood to thicken and keep the bone marrow from making enough healthy blood cells. Multiple myeloma cells also damage and weaken the bone.
Plasma cell neoplasms are diseases in which abnormal plasma cells or cells form tumors in the bones or soft tissues of the body. The plasma cells also make an antibody protein, called M protein, that is not needed by the body and does not help fight infection. These antibody proteins build up in the bone marrow and can cause the blood to thicken or can damage the kidneys.
Plasma cell neoplasms can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).
Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is not cancer but can become cancer. The following types of plasma cell neoplasms are cancer:
Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (also called Waldenström macroglobulinemia).
Plasmacytoma.
Multiple myeloma.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (26)
What are plasma cell dyscrasias? | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Myeloma - The Origin of the Myeloma Cell
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Myeloma Bone Disease
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Myeloma Kidney Disease
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
The Effect of Myeloma on the Bone Marrow
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma - signs and symptoms, pathophysiology, treatment
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
What is multiple myeloma? | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Surviving Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Living Well With Myeloma: Making Sense of Tests and Results
Video by International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube
How I Treat Relapsed/Refractory Multiple Myeloma - Kenneth Anderson, MD
Video by American Society of Hematology/YouTube
Medical School - Multiple Myeloma
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Genetic causes of myeloma
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Immunotherapy in myeloma
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Proteasome inhibitors in myeloma
Video by Myeloma UK/YouTube
Emerging Immunotherapies in Multiple Myeloma
Video by ImedexCME/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma Update: Maintenance Therapy
Video by ImedexCME/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma: Combination Therapy for Relapsed/Refractory Patients
Video by ImedexCME/YouTube
New treatments for multiple myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Dr. Nikhil Munshi discusses progress in multiple myeloma treatment
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Video by Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma Testing at Mayo Medical Laboratories [Hot Topic]
Video by Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma: What you need to know - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Stem Cell Transplantation as a Treatment for Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Mayo Clinic and the future of Multiple Myeloma treatment
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
Video by nabil ebraheim/YouTube
7:54
What are plasma cell dyscrasias? | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
2:35
Myeloma - The Origin of the Myeloma Cell
Myeloma UK/YouTube
2:07
Myeloma Bone Disease
Myeloma UK/YouTube
1:51
Myeloma Kidney Disease
Myeloma UK/YouTube
1:54
The Effect of Myeloma on the Bone Marrow
Myeloma UK/YouTube
11:41
Multiple Myeloma - signs and symptoms, pathophysiology, treatment
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
10:11
What is multiple myeloma? | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:47
Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
3:33
Surviving Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
59:48
Living Well With Myeloma: Making Sense of Tests and Results
International Myeloma Foundation/YouTube
5:28
How I Treat Relapsed/Refractory Multiple Myeloma - Kenneth Anderson, MD
American Society of Hematology/YouTube
7:41
Medical School - Multiple Myeloma
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
3:13
Genetic causes of myeloma
Myeloma UK/YouTube
3:34
Immunotherapy in myeloma
Myeloma UK/YouTube
2:35
Proteasome inhibitors in myeloma
Myeloma UK/YouTube
19:23
Emerging Immunotherapies in Multiple Myeloma
ImedexCME/YouTube
21:13
Multiple Myeloma Update: Maintenance Therapy
ImedexCME/YouTube
21:22
Multiple Myeloma: Combination Therapy for Relapsed/Refractory Patients
ImedexCME/YouTube
10:08
New treatments for multiple myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:48
Dr. Nikhil Munshi discusses progress in multiple myeloma treatment
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
16:56
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
9:10
Multiple Myeloma Testing at Mayo Medical Laboratories [Hot Topic]
Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
9:32
Multiple Myeloma: What you need to know - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
5:10
Stem Cell Transplantation as a Treatment for Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
5:40
Mayo Clinic and the future of Multiple Myeloma treatment
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
9:42
Multiple Myeloma - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
Types
X-ray of the left femur of a 59 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows yet no signs of multiple myeloma. / X-ray of the left femur of a 62 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows typical lytic lesions of multiple myeloma.
Multiple Myeloma - Femur
Interactive by Mikael Häggström
X-ray of the left femur of a 59 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows yet no signs of multiple myeloma. / X-ray of the left femur of a 62 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows typical lytic lesions of multiple myeloma.
Multiple Myeloma - Femur
Interactive by Mikael Häggström
What Are the Types of Plasma Cell Neoplasms?
There are several types of plasma cell neoplasms.
Plasma cell neoplasms include the following:
Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS)
In this type of plasma cell neoplasm, less than 10% of the bone marrow is made up of abnormal plasma cells and there is no cancer. The abnormal plasma cells make M protein, which is sometimes found during a routine blood or urine test. In most patients, the amount of M protein stays the same and there are no signs, symptoms, or health problems.
In some patients, MGUS may later become a more serious condition, such as amyloidosis, or cause problems with the kidneys, heart, or nerves. MGUS can also become cancer, such as multiple myeloma, lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, or chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
Plasmacytoma
In this type of plasma cell neoplasm, the abnormal plasma cells (myeloma cells) are in one place and form one tumor, called a plasmacytoma. Sometimes plasmacytoma can be cured. There are two types of plasmacytoma.
In isolated plasmacytoma of bone, one plasma cell tumor is found in the bone, less than 10% of the bone marrow is made up of plasma cells, and there are no other signs of cancer. Plasmacytoma of the bone often becomes multiple myeloma.
In extramedullary plasmacytoma, one plasma cell tumor is found in soft tissue but not in the bone or the bone marrow. Extramedullary plasmacytomas commonly form in tissues of the throat, tonsil, and paranasal sinuses.
Signs and symptoms depend on where the tumor is.
In bone, the plasmacytoma may cause pain or broken bones.
In soft tissue, the tumor may press on nearby areas and cause pain or other problems. For example, a plasmacytoma in the throat can make it hard to swallow.
Multiple myeloma
In multiple myeloma, abnormal plasma cells (myeloma cells) build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in many bones of the body. These tumors may keep the bone marrow from making enough healthy blood cells. Normally, the bone marrow makes stem cells (immature cells) that become three types of mature blood cells:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other substances to all tissues of the body.
White blood cells that fight infection and disease.
Platelets that form blood clots to help prevent bleeding.
As the number of myeloma cells increases, fewer red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are made. The myeloma cells also damage and weaken the bone.
Sometimes multiple myeloma does not cause any signs or symptoms. This is called smoldering multiple myeloma. It may be found when a blood or urine test is done for another condition. Signs and symptoms may be caused by multiple myeloma or other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:
Bone pain, especially in the back or ribs.
Bones that break easily.
Fever for no known reason or frequent infections.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Trouble breathing.
Weakness of the arms or legs.
Feeling very tired.
A tumor can damage the bone and cause hypercalcemia (too much calcium in the blood). This can affect many organs in the body, including the kidneys, nerves, heart, muscles, and digestive tract, and cause serious health problems.
Hypercalcemia may cause the following signs and symptoms:
Loss of appetite.
Nausea or vomiting.
Feeling thirsty.
Frequent urination.
Constipation.
Feeling very tired.
Muscle weakness.
Restlessness.
Confusion or trouble thinking.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (2)
Multiple Myeloma - signs and symptoms, pathophysiology, treatment
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Is double autologous transplantation in multiple myeloma superior in the age of new agents?
Video by VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
11:41
Multiple Myeloma - signs and symptoms, pathophysiology, treatment
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:44
Is double autologous transplantation in multiple myeloma superior in the age of new agents?
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Risk Factors
Aging
Image by sabinevanerp/Pixabay
Aging
Image by sabinevanerp/Pixabay
What Are the Risk Factors for Plasma Cell Neoplasms?
Age can affect the risk of plasma cell neoplasms.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk.
Plasma cell neoplasms are most common in people who are middle aged or older. For multiple myeloma and plasmacytoma, other risk factors include the following:
Being Black.
Being male.
Having a personal history of MGUS or plasmacytoma.
Being exposed to radiation or certain chemicals.
Studies about how racial, social, and financial factors affect access to treatment and rates of plasma cell neoplasms are ongoing.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (3)
Surviving Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Video by Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
3:33
Surviving Multiple Myeloma - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
16:56
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagnosis
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
How Are Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms Diagnosed?
Tests that examine the blood, bone marrow, and urine are used to diagnose multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Blood and urine immunoglobulin studies: A procedure in which a blood or urine sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain antibodies (immunoglobulins). For multiple myeloma, beta-2-microglobulin, M protein, free light chains, and other proteins made by the myeloma cells are measured. A higher-than-normal amount of these substances can be a sign of disease.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the patient’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.The following tests may be done on the sample of tissue removed during the bone marrow aspiration and biopsy:
Cytogenetic analysis: A laboratory test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. Changes in certain chromosomes may be a sign of cancer. Cytogenetic analysis is used to help diagnose cancer, plan treatment, or find out how well treatment is working.
FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization): A laboratory test used to look at and count genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues. Pieces of DNA that contain fluorescent dyes are made in the laboratory and added to a sample of a patient’s cells or tissues. When these dyed pieces of DNA attach to certain genes or areas of chromosomes in the sample, they light up when viewed under a fluorescent microscope. The FISH test is used to help diagnose cancer and help plan treatment.
Flow cytometry: A laboratory test that measures the number of cells in a sample, the percentage of live cells in a sample, and certain characteristics of the cells, such as size, shape, and the presence of tumor (or other) markers on the cell surface. The cells from a sample of a patient's bone marrow are stained with a fluorescent dye, placed in a fluid, and then passed one at a time through a beam of light. The test results are based on how the cells that were stained with the fluorescent dye react to the beam of light. This test is used to help diagnose and manage certain types of cancers, such as leukemia and lymphoma.
Skeletal bone survey: In a skeletal bone survey, x-rays of all the bones in the body are taken. The x-rays are used to find areas where the bone is damaged. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
Complete blood count (CBC) with differential: A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
The number of red blood cells and platelets.
The number and type of white blood cells.
The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as calcium or albumin, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
Twenty-four-hour urine test: A test in which urine is collected for 24 hours to measure the amounts of certain substances. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. A higher than normal amount of protein may be a sign of multiple myeloma.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). An MRI of the spine and pelvis may be used to find areas where the bone is damaged.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the spine, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
PET-CT scan: A procedure that combines the pictures from a positron emission tomography (PET) scan and a computed tomography (CT) scan. The PET and CT scans are done at the same time with the same machine. The combined scans give more detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the spine, than either scan gives by itself.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (2)
Multiple Myeloma Testing at Mayo Medical Laboratories [Hot Topic]
Video by Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
X-ray of the left humerus of a 59 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows subtle lytic lesions of multiple myeloma.
X-ray of the left humerus of a 62 year old man with elevated myeloma protein. It shows typical lytic lesions of multiple myeloma.
1
2
Myeloma of the Humerus
Interactive by Mikael Häggström
9:10
Multiple Myeloma Testing at Mayo Medical Laboratories [Hot Topic]
Mayo Clinic Laboratories/YouTube
Myeloma of the Humerus
Mikael Häggström
Immunoglobulin A Test
Immunoglobulin A Test
Also called: IgA
An immunoglobulin A (IgA) test measures the blood level of immunoglobulin A, a common antibody found in the linings of the respiratory tract and digestive system, as well as in saliva, tears, and breast milk. IgA levels are a marker of immune health.
Immunoglobulin A Test
Also called: IgA
An immunoglobulin A (IgA) test measures the blood level of immunoglobulin A, a common antibody found in the linings of the respiratory tract and digestive system, as well as in saliva, tears, and breast milk. IgA levels are a marker of immune health.
{"label":"IgA Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":61},"text":"Decreased IgA levels can be found in partial or complete immune deficiencies. People with very low IgA levels have a higher chance of developing an infection. A very small number of people cannot make IgA and have a higher chance of developing a potentially life-threatening reaction to a blood transfusion.","conditions":["IgA deficiency","Diabetes complications","Kidney disease","Kidney failure","HIV\/AIDS"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":61,"max":356},"text":"IgA is found at high levels in fluid your mucus membranes make, such as saliva, tears, and nasal secretions. Normal IgA levels protect the body against infections, allergies, and autoimmunity.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":356,"max":1000},"text":"IgA levels may be high in autoimmune conditions, disorders in which the body mistakenly makes antibodies against healthy tissues.","conditions":["Hepatitis","Cirrhosis","Chronic infections","Lupus","Rheumatoid arthritis","Vasculitis","Marfan syndrome","Multiple myeloma","Lymphoma","Amyloidosis"]}],"value":208.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
61
356
Your result is Normal.
IgA is found at high levels in fluid your mucus membranes make, such as saliva, tears, and nasal secretions. Normal IgA levels protect the body against infections, allergies, and autoimmunity.
Related conditions
This test measures the amount of immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, in your blood. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system to fight disease-causing substances, like viruses and bacteria. Your body makes different types of immunoglobulins to fight different types of these substances.
An immunoglobulins test usually measures three specific types of immunoglobulins. They are called IgG, IgM, and IgA. If your levels of IgG, IgM, or IgA are too low or too high, it may be a sign of a serious health problem.
An immunoglobulins blood test may be used to help diagnose a variety of conditions, including:
Bacterial or viral infections
Immunodeficiency, a condition that reduces the body's ability to fight infections and other diseases
An autoimmune disorder, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. An autoimmune disorder causes your immune system to attack healthy cells, tissues, and/or organs by mistake.
Certain types of cancer, such as multiple myeloma
Infections in newborns
You may need this test if your health care provider thinks your immunoglobulin levels might be too low or too high.
Symptoms of levels that are too low include:
Frequent and/or unusual bacterial or viral infections
Chronic diarrhea
Sinus infections
Lung infections
Family history of immunodeficiency
If your immunoglobulin levels are too high, it may be a sign of an autoimmune disease, a chronic illness, an infection, or a type of cancer. Symptoms of these conditions vary greatly. Your health care provider may use information from your physical exam, medical history, and/or other tests to see if you are at risk for one of these diseases.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an immunoglobulins blood test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show lower than normal levels of immunoglobulins, it may indicate:
Kidney disease
Severe burn injury
Complications from diabetes
Malnutrition
Sepsis
Leukemia
If your results show higher than normal levels of immunoglobulins, it may indicate:
An autoimmune disease
Hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Mononucleosis
A chronic infection
A viral infection such as HIV or cytomegalovirus
Multiple myeloma
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
If your results are not normal, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition needing treatment. The use of certain medicines, alcohol, and recreational drugs can affect your results. If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Your health care provider may order other tests to help make a diagnosis. These tests might include urinalysis, other blood tests, or a procedure called a spinal tap. During a spinal tap, a health care provider will use a special needle to remove a sample of a clear liquid, called cerebrospinal fluid, from your back.
https://www.labcorp.com/tests/520072/iga-immunoglobulin-a-rdl [accessed on Oct 25, 2021]
https://labs.selfdecode.com/blog/increase-iga-levels/ [accessed on Oct 25, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt1
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
Complete Blood Count pt2
Video by Med Immersion/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Video by Seeker+/YouTube
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
TheVisualMD
Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
4:11
Complete Blood Count
Tom Wade MD/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
Med Immersion/YouTube
22:14
Complete Blood Count pt2
Med Immersion/YouTube
0:06
Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:07
Anemic Blood Flow
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
0:14
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
8:29
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
10:42
Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3.9},"text":"If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are low, you have anemia (a condition where the blood is unable to transport enough oxygen to the tissues and organs). "},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.9,"max":5.5},"text":"Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5.5,"max":20},"text":"If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are high, you have polycythemia (a condition that causes a decreased blood flow). RBC count normally increases for several weeks when in a higher altitude."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(10<sup>6<\/sup>)\/\u03bcL","code":"10*6\/uL","name":"million per microliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(10<sup>6</sup>)/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Low.
If your RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels are low, you have anemia (a condition where the blood is unable to transport enough oxygen to the tissues and organs).
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
{"scale":"lin","step":1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":4500},"text":"A low white blood cell count, called leukopenia, can result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as immune deficiencies, severe infections, and bone marrow disorders, among others. "},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4500,"max":11000},"text":"Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":11000,"max":50000},"text":"A high white blood cell count, called leukocytosis, may result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as infections, inflammatory diseases, and physical stress, among others. "}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
4500
11000
Your result is Low.
A low white blood cell count, called leukopenia, can result from a number of conditions and diseases, such as immune deficiencies, severe infections, and bone marrow disorders, among others.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel or fingertip with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a few drops of blood and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
A bacterial or viral infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
{"scale":"lin","step":1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Vl","long":"Very low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":50},"text":"A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. If your platelet count is very low, your risk for bleeding is higher. Even every day activities can cause bleeding. Thrombocytopenia can be life-threatening, especially if you have serious bleeding or bleeding in your brain. "},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50,"max":150},"text":"A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. Bleeding can happen inside your body, underneath your skin, or from the surface of your skin."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":150,"max":450},"text":"A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"H","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":450,"max":1000},"text":"A higher-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(10³)\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":1},{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
(10³)/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Very low.
A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. If your platelet count is very low, your risk for bleeding is higher. Even every day activities can cause bleeding. Thrombocytopenia can be life-threatening, especially if you have serious bleeding or bleeding in your brain.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Clotting is the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. There are two types of platelet tests: a platelet count test and platelet function tests.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding. A higher than normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or too much clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
Nosebleeds
Unexplained bruising
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to the bone marrow
Cirrhosis
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":13.8},"text":"Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":13.8,"max":17.2},"text":"Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body. "},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":17.2,"max":30},"text":"High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"g\/dL","code":"g\/dL","name":"gram per deciliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Low.
Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":40.7},"text":"A hematocrit level below the normal range, meaning the person has too few red blood cells, is called anemia."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40.7,"max":50.3},"text":"Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50.3,"max":100},"text":"A hematocrit level above the normal range, meaning too many red blood cells, may indicate polycythemia or erythrocytosis. High hematocrits can be seen in people living at high altitudes and in chronic smokers."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Low.
A hematocrit level below the normal range, meaning the person has too few red blood cells, is called anemia.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":76},"text":"A low MCV indicates that the red blood cells are smaller than normal, or microcytic."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":76,"max":96},"text":"A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":200},"text":"A high MCV indicates that the red blood cells are larger than normal, or macrocytic."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"fL","code":"fL","name":"femtoliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Low.
A low MCV indicates that the red blood cells are smaller than normal, or microcytic.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
1
2
3
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.
A urine test is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It evaluates many characteristics, macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). It is a routine exam for your health check-up, before surgery, or when pregnant.
A urinalysis test consists in the evaluation of the macroscopic (that can be seen with the naked eye) and microscopic (invisible to the naked eye, can be seen through a microscope) characteristics of a urine sample to detect and measure various substances and compounds that the body filter through the kidneys.
Usually, these characteristics are done as a single panel and are not done separately as it had been before. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
The structure of the test includes:
Macroscopic aspects:
Color
Appearance
Odor
Chemical examination:
pH
Density
Proteins
Glucose
Urobilinogen
Bilirubin
Leucocytes
Nitrites
Blood
Ketones
Microscopic aspects include:
Blood cells (white and red cells)
Epithelial cells
Bacteria
Crystals or casts
The most common uses of the urine test are:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
Drug screening
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Macroscopic findings
Appearance (Clarity): normal urine is typically clear. If the urine seems to be cloudy or with floating particles, it may be indicative of urinary tract infection.
Color: most often shades of yellow. Unusual colors might be because of certain foods, medications or a specific condition.
Odor: normally it is relatively mild and not too noticeable.
Chemical examination
pH: this measures the acidity. Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
Density (specific gravity): this measures how diluted or concentrated is your urine. Normal urine density is usually from 1.003 to 1.035.
Proteins: urine can have small amounts of proteins; however, finding high protein levels may indicate kidney disease or diabetes mellitus.
Glucose: no glucose should be found in the urine of a healthy individual.
Urobilinogen: normal results range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/dL.
Bilirubin: no bilirubin should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. Positive findings may suggest liver disease.
Nitrite: no nitrites should be found in the urine of a healthy individual. When positive is highly indicative of urinary tract infection.
Ketones: normally is not found. However, it can be positive if you have been fasting for long periods of time, or if you have diabetes mellitus.
Microscopic aspects
Red blood cells (RBC’s): is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).
White blood cells (WBC’s): under normal conditions, this parameter should be negative. A positive result is suggestive of urinary tract infection.
Epithelial cells: from 1 to 5 squamous/hpf is considered to be normal. Higher results may indicate contamination of the urine sample by improper collection methods.
Bacteria: it is normal to find up to 1+ bacteria; more than this is abnormal and should be analyzed to discern whether is caused by an infection or by improper sample storage.
Crystals or casts: no crystals or casts should be found in the urine of healthy individuals. When present, it may be indicative of kidney disease or kidney stones.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Mayo Clinic: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review; Am Fam Physician. 2005 Mar 15;71(6):1153-1162. [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
University of Utah: Urinalysis [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Additional Materials (24)
Urine Test
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine color chart
Your urine could also be other colors. Here is what they could indicate about your health:
1. Dark yellow urine
2. Orange urine
3. Red or pink urine
4. Blue urine
5. Green urine
6. Brown urine
7. Whitish urine
Test Tube Containing Urine
Visualization of a test tube containing urine. Urine comprises mainly of water - 96% and the remaining 4% is urea and sodium.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
Image by Bobjgalindo
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Urine samples
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine collection container
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Cancer screening
Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Male Urinary System
Image of a male showing his urinary system. The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, produces, stores, and eliminates urine. It also helps to maintain the fluid balance in humans. The male urinary system consists of two kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, prostate, and urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Nephron of Kidney
The nephron is composed of looping and folding tubules that at first glance look like an impossibly tangled knot of highways, side roads and interchanges. But in fact, the nephron directs the traffic flow effortlessly. When stretched out, a nephron would be almost a couple of feet in length and there are about a million nephrons in each kidney. A nephron is composed of two basic parts: the glomerulus and the tubule. The glomerulus, part of the vascular system, is a tuft of capillaries that filters the wastes and fluid from the blood. The tubules then catch, concentrate and excrete the waste into the urine. The walls of the tubules are made of specialized cells, which serve as \"check points\" for the waste flowing by them. Hormonal sensors in these cells determine which substances should be excreted as waste and which substances will be reabsorbed into the blood to nourish the body's cells. The specific materials the cells are assigned to reabsorb or secrete include water and essential nutrients, salts and minerals, depending on where in the tubules the cells are located. From the glomerulus until the collecting duct, intricate and minute calculations are at constant play within the nephron. The production of urine does not just result in a waste product but also protects the fine balance of substances required to keep the body healthy.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Filtration
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. The kidneys also play a key role in maintaining the body's fluid balance within a very narrow range. Even a 1% increase in blood sodium, for example, will make a person thirsty enough to take a drink in order to return the fluid balance to normal.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ammonia, Urine
Ammonia is a waste product generated by intestinal bacteria during the digestion of protein. From the intestine, ammonia is transported to the liver, where it is converted into urea, which is then excreted in the urine by the kidneys. The conversion and elimination of ammonia can be impaired by liver disease or kidney damage, which can result in a dangerous build up of ammonia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pyuria
Urine may contain pus (a condition known as pyuria) as seen from a person with sepsis due to a urinary tract infection.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Urine
Urine Color Chart
Image by OpenStax College
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Urine Test
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine color chart
Test Tube Containing Urine
TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
TheVisualMD
White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample. Bigger cells are skin cells (epithelial cells)
Bobjgalindo
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample
Doruk Salancı
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample
Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Urine samples
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Urine collection container
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Cancer screening
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Male Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Nephron of Kidney
TheVisualMD
Fluid Filtration
TheVisualMD
Ammonia, Urine
TheVisualMD
Pyuria
James Heilman, MD
Urine
Markhamilton
Urine
OpenStax College
6:10
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 1) - Introduction and Inspection
Strong Medicine/YouTube
16:36
Interpretation of the Urinalysis (Part 2) - The Dipstick
Strong Medicine/YouTube
1:03
How to collect a mid-stream urine sample for a urinary tract infection test
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
1:06
How to collect a first-void or first-pass urine sample
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in your urine. The test is used to monitor both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
{"label":"Glucose in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"mg\/dL","code":"mg\/dL","name":"milligram per deciliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":15},"text":"Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":15,"max":40},"text":"If high levels of glucose in urine are found in pregnant women, it may indicate\u00a0gestational diabetes. A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.","conditions":["Diabetes","Pregnancy","Renal glycosuria"]}],"value":7.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
15
Your result is Negative.
Glucose is not usually found in urine. If it is, further testing is needed.
Related conditions
A glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose in your urine. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If too much glucose gets into the blood, the extra glucose will be eliminated through your urine. A urine glucose test can be used to help determine if blood glucose levels are too high, which may be a sign of diabetes.
A glucose in urine test may be part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. A glucose in urine test may also be used to screen for diabetes. However, a urine glucose test is not as accurate as a blood glucose test. It may be ordered if blood glucose testing is difficult or not possible. Some people can't get blood drawn because their veins are too small or too scarred from repeated punctures. Other people avoid blood tests due to extreme anxiety or fear of needles.
You may get a glucose in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of diabetes and cannot take a blood glucose test. Symptoms of diabetes include:
Increased thirst
More frequent urination
Blurred vision
Fatigue
You may also need a urinalysis, which includes a glucose in urine test, if you are pregnant. If high levels of glucose in urine are found, it may indicate gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is form of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Blood glucose testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Most pregnant women are tested for gestational diabetes with a blood glucose test, between their 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy.
If your urine glucose test is part of a urinalysis, you will need to provide a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container in which to collect the urine and special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often referred to as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
Your health care provider may ask you to monitor your urine glucose at home with a test kit. He or she will provide you with either a kit or a recommendation of which kit to buy. Your urine glucose test kit will include instructions on how to perform the test and a package of strips for testing. Be sure to follow the kit instructions carefully, and talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
You don't need any special preparations for this test.
There is no known risk to having a glucose in urine test.
Glucose is not normally found in urine. If results show glucose, it may be a sign of:
Diabetes
Pregnancy. As many half of all pregnant women have some glucose in their urine during pregnancy. Too much glucose may indicate gestational diabetes.
A kidney disorder
A urine glucose test is only a screening test. If glucose is found in your urine, your provider will order a blood glucose test to help make a diagnosis.
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/glucose-in-urine-test/ [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003581.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.labcorp.com/test-menu/26061/glucose-quantitative-urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=glucose_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
Sugar is one of the nutrients your body uses for energy. It is the product of the body's breakdown of complex carbohydrates and is circulated in the blood to all your cells. Although blood sugar levels change depending on whether you just ate or exercised, in general, your body keeps the sugar levels within a narrow range. Not enough sugar - hypoglycemia - and you can get hungry, shaky, sweaty, tired, and even faint. Too much sugar - hyperglycemia - is a cardiovascular risk factor leading to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). To control blood sugar levels, your body depends on a hormone called insulin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
(left to right) Fatigue: dehydration, lack of ability to utilize glucose for energy and other factors cause fatigue; weight loss: because it can't use glucose for energy, the body breaks down muscle instead; constant hunger: diabetes prevents glucose from entering cells, leading to constant hunger due to cell starvation; increased thirst: too much urination leaves tissues dehydrated and causes increased thirst; frequent urination: fluids are drawn from tissues and the kidneys constantly filter out glucose, leading to frequent urination.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Proteins are also normally filtered out of the blood and recycled in the body by the kidneys. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
As a person ages, the number of nephrons, the kidneys' vital filters, decreases, as does the overall amount of tissue in the kidneys. A healthy aging kidney will not function like a 20-year-old kidney, but it can still do its job. The difference between an aging kidney in a healthy body and a kidney damaged by hypertension or diabetes can be as stark as the difference between someone who is a picture of health and someone who is debilitated by illness.
Image by TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
Our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood each day to extract about 2 quarts of waste, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation of these tiny filters and can be caused by diabetes and chronic high blood pressure or, in acute cases, infection. When kidney function declines, waste products normally filtered out and excreted into the urine begin instead to accumulate in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Abdomen Revealing Pancreas and Kidney
TheVisualMD
Diabetes Symptoms
TheVisualMD
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Kidney Glomeruli, Compromised Filtration
TheVisualMD
Diseased and Aging Kidney Tissue Comparisons
TheVisualMD
Glomerulonephritis
TheVisualMD
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine Test
Also called: Total Urine Bilirubin, Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid produced by the liver. When the liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into your urine. A bilirubin in urine test can help detect liver disease.
{"label":"Bilirubin Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"High levels of bilirubin could mean your liver is not functioning correctly. However, high levels can also be due to medications, exercise, or certain foods.","conditions":["Biliary tract disease","Cirrhosis","Gallstones in the biliary tract","Hepatitis","Liver disease","Tumors of the liver or gallbladder"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Bilirubin is not normally found in the urine.
Related conditions
A bilirubin in urine test measures the levels of bilirubin in your urine. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance made during the body's normal process of breaking down red blood cells. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid in your liver that helps you digest food. If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak into the blood and urine. Bilirubin in urine may be a sign of liver disease.
A bilirubin in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to check for liver problems.
Your health care provider may have ordered a bilirubin in urine test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms include:
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Dark-colored urine
Abdominal pain
Nausea and vomiting
Fatigue
Because bilirubin in urine can indicate liver damage before other symptoms appear, your health care provider may order a bilirubin in urine test if you are at a higher risk for liver damage. Risk factors for liver disease include:
Family history of liver disease
Heavy drinking
Exposure or possible exposure to hepatitis virus
Obesity
Diabetes
Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container to your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations to test for bilirubin in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a bilirubin in urine test.
If bilirubin is found in your urine, it may indicate:
A liver disease such as hepatitis
A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
A problem with liver function
A bilirubin in urine test is only one measure of liver function. If your results are abnormal, your health care provider may order additional blood and urine tests, including a liver panel. A liver panel is a series of blood tests that measure various enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver. It is often used to detect liver disease.
Bilirubin in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003595.htm [accessed on Aug 22, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Ketones in Urine Test
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
Ketones in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Ketones, Ketone Bodies (Urine), Ketones Urine Test
Ketones in urine may indicate a problem with the body's ability to burn energy. Diabetics are at a higher risk for developing urine ketones. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
{"label":"Ketones in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"N","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":20},"text":"A negative test result is normal.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"S","long":"Small","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":20,"max":40},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"M","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40,"max":60},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"L","long":"Large","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":80},"text":"An abnormal result means you have ketones in your urine. The results are usually listed as small, moderate, or large.","conditions":["Fasting or starvation","High protein or low carbohydrate diet","Vomiting over a long period (such as during early pregnancy)","Acute or severe illnesses, such as sepsis or burns","High fevers","Hyperthyroidism","Nursing a baby, if the mother does not eat and drink enough"]}],"value":10}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A negative test result is normal.
Related conditions
The test measures ketone levels in your urine. Normally, your body burns glucose (sugar) for energy. If your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead. This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine. High ketone levels in urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
The test is often used to help monitor people at a higher risk of developing ketones. These include people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you have diabetes, ketones in urine can mean that you are not getting enough insulin. If you don't have diabetes, you may still be at risk for developing ketones if you:
Experience chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea
Have a digestive disorder
Participate in strenuous exercise
Are on a very low-carbohydrate diet
Have an eating disorder
Are pregnant
Your health care provider may order a ketones in urine test if you have diabetes or other risk factors for developing ketones. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of ketoacidosis. These include:
Nausea or vomiting
Abdominal pain
Confusion
Trouble breathing
Feeling extremely sleepy
People with type 1 diabetes are at a higher risk for ketoacidosis.
A ketones in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will be given instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method generally includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amount.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If you do the test at home, follow the instructions that are in your test kit. Your kit will include a package of strips for testing. You will either be instructed to provide a clean catch sample in a container as described above or to put the test strip directly in the stream of your urine. Talk to your health care provider about specific instructions.
You may have to fast (not eat or drink) for a certain period of time before taking a ketones in urine test. Ask your health care provider if you need to fast or do any other type of preparation before your test.
There is no known risk to having a ketones in urine test.
Your test results may be a specific number or listed as a "small," "moderate," or "large" amount of ketones. Normal results can vary, depending on your on your diet, activity level, and other factors. Because high ketone levels can be dangerous, be sure to talk to your health care provider about what is normal for you and what your results mean.
Ketone test kits are available at most pharmacies without a prescription. If you are planning to test for ketones at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to perform and can provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Ketones in Urine: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003585.htm [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=167&contentid=ketone_bodies_urine [accessed on Sep 15, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Video by Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Video by Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
Image by BruceBlaus
5:46
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
DrER.tv/YouTube
1:00
Symptoms of Ketoacidosis
Diabetes.co.uk/YouTube
5:50
Diabetes & Associated Complications
Boehringer Ingelheim/YouTube
11:26
Acute complications of diabetes - Diabetic ketoacidosis | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
A medical illustration depicting a ketone urine test
BruceBlaus
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
Urine Specific Gravity Test
Also called: Urine SG, Specific Gravity of Urine, Urine Density
A urine specific gravity test measures the concentration of solutes in your urine, which shows if your kidneys are properly diluting urine. This test is a partial analysis used in case of suspected kidney disorder.
{"label":"Urine Specific Gravity Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.8,"max":1.002},"text":"Your urine is too diluted.","conditions":["Diabetes","Kidney disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Pyelonephritis","Kidney failure","Overhydration"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.002,"max":1.03},"text":"Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.03,"max":1.2},"text":"Your urine is too concentrated. ","conditions":["Liver disease","Adrenal glands disorder","Heart disease","Dehydration","Shock"]}],"value":1.02}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
1.002
1.03
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
In the kidneys, most of the water, ions, and nutrients are returned to the body while waste products and excess ions are excreted through the urine.
Normally, the color of urine is straw-yellow but it may be affected by several situations, including infections, intake of certain foods or medications, or insufficient or excessive fluid intake. Your urine color may reflect how concentrated or diluted is your urine.
A urine specific gravity (SG) test is used to compare the density of your urine to the normal density of water. The result gives an overview of the concentration of the solutes (particles) in your urine. In other words, it shows how well your kidneys are diluting urine.
A shift in the urine SG test result may give the first indication that your kidneys are not working properly. However, if a kidney disorder is suspected, further tests should be taken to confirm or exclude certain disease.
A urine specific gravity test is mainly used as a partial analysis to assess the kidney’s ability to concentrate and dilute urine. Thus, it can be used to help detect certain disorders or diseases of the urinary tract.
Your doctor may order a urine specific gravity test as part of your routine health checkup, or to help diagnose or monitor the following conditions:
Urinary tract infection
Dehydration or overhydration
Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)
Kidney failure
Shifts in sodium levels (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
Diabetes
Shock
Heart failure
Testing for urine specific gravity starts with mid-stream urine sample collection. It is recommended that the sample is collected in the morning when the urine concentration is the highest.
To collect the urine sample, you need to clean your genitals and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container. You need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external germs. Once you have collected enough urine, put the container cap on and then you can finish emptying your bladder into the toilet.
After the collection, the sample is transported to the laboratory.
Your doctor may ask you to stop taking certain medications and foods before the test.
There are no risks related to a urine gravity test.
The normal value for urine specific gravity is 1.002-1.030.
Lower-than-normal values of urine gravity may indicate:
Higher-than-normal urine gravity test results may refer to an increased level of some substances in your urine, such as proteins, bacteria, glucose, urine crystals, red and white blood cells. These findings may occur in cases of:
Liver disease
Adrenal glands disorder
Heart disease
Dehydration (not consuming enough water, or losing too much fluid through sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea)
Shock
Certain foods may affect the color of your urine; therefore, it's advised not to eat foods such as beet, rhubarb, blackberries, carrots or lava beans before giving a urine sample.
Sometimes doctors may choose a urine osmolality test instead of a urine specific gravity test. The urine osmolarity test is more specific and could help your doctor to diagnose certain disorders more accurately.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003587.htm [accessed on Oct 09, 2021]
Urine Specific Gravity Test: Overview, Tests, and Procedure [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Urine specific gravity test: Procedure and results [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (20)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
The glomeruli are sets of looping blood vessels in nephrons--the tiny working units of the kidneys that filter wastes and remove extra fluid from the blood.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
Each day our kidneys filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which are then eliminated as urine. Urine samples are evaluated visually, for color, clarity and concentration; chemically, for various substances, such as glucose and proteins, in solution; and microscopically, for signs of bacteria, crystals and other contaminants.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
Urine is tested for a variety of reasons and can reveal a wealth of information about the source individual. More than 100 different tests can be done on urine. In addition to visual characteristics, for example color and clarity, urine may be examined for the presence of glucose, nitrites, or ketones. Microscopic examination may reveal the presence of red or white blood cells, or bacteria, yeast cells, or parasites. Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer.
Image by TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
Drawing of a swollen kidney that results from ureteropelvic junction obstruction. The point of blockage is labeled UPJ obstruction. UPJ obstruction occurs when urine is blocked where the ureter joins the kidney.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is usually eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid digestion. Under normal circumstances, very little, if any, bilirubin is excreted in the urine, but in cases of liver damage or a blockage of the bile ducts, some bilirubin can leak out and appear in the urine, turning it a darker color.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
A strip of chemically treated paper will change color when dipped in urine with too much protein.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
Both the male and the female urinary tracts are made up of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.The kidneys filter wastes and water from the blood to produce urine. From the kidneys, urine passes through tubes called ureters to the bladder, which stores urine until it is full. Urine exits the bladder through another tube, the urethra. The male and female urinary tracts are relatively the same except for the length of the urethra: the male urethra is about five times as long as the female urethra.
Image by TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
Adequate water intake and kidney health. Replacing the water lost through sweating and waste elimination is vital to our health. Remaining hydrated is one way to help prevent kidney stones, which can form when certain waste minerals are highly concentrated in the urine. In this 3-D visualization, a clear bottle pours water into a model of a human kidney.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
There are a number of ways you can help to prevent UTIs. Drinking plenty of liquids, especially water, not only aids your kidneys in filtering out wastes, it also dilutes your urine and makes you urinate more frequently. This flushes out bacteria and other pathogens from your urinary tract and helps to prevent infections. Urinating after having sex also helps to flush out bacteria. Women should wipe from front to back when using the toilet and change tampons and pads frequently during their periods.
Image by TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Anatomy and physiology of animals Summary of the processes involved in the formation of urine.
Image by Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body
Image by BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Change in urine color before and after sun exposure Left figure is urine of the first day. Right figure is urine after sun exposure for 3 days. Urine color changed to “port wine” color after sun exposure. This color change is due to increased concentrations of porphyrin intermediates in the urine, indicating an abnormality in production and a partial block within the enzymatic porphyrin chain with metabolite formation. The urine color usually becomes darker with acute illness, even dark reddish or brown after sun exposure.
Image by Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
Drawing of a kidney with an inset of a nephron
NIDDK Image Library
Urine samples
TheVisualMD
Urine in Vial
TheVisualMD
Ureteropelvic junction obstruction
NIDDK Image Library
Bilirubin, Jaundice Urine
TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Drawing of a urine sample and dipstick
NIDDK Image Library
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Male Figure with Urinary System
TheVisualMD
Adequate water intake and kidney health
TheVisualMD
Urine
Markhamilton
Urine Culture: Preventing UTIs
TheVisualMD
formation of urine
Sunshineconnelly
male's urinary system
BruceBlaus
Urine of patient with porphyria
Chen GL, Yang DH, Wu JY, Kuo CW, Hsu WH
Blood in Urine Test
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
Blood in Urine Test
Also called: Hematuria, Bloody urine
A blood in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in urine. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection,
{"label":"Blood in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
A test called a urinalysis can detect whether there is blood in your urine. A urinalysis checks a sample of your urine for different cells, chemicals, and other substances, including blood. Most causes of blood in your urine are not serious, but sometimes red or white blood cells in your urine can mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment, such as a kidney disease, urinary tract infection, or liver disease.
A urinalysis, which includes a test for blood in urine, may be done as part of a regular checkup or to check for disorders of the urinary tract, kidney, or liver.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine exam. You may also need this test if you have seen blood in your urine or have other symptoms of a urinary disorder. These symptoms include:
Painful urination
Frequent urination
Back pain
Abdominal pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." It includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the needed amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations before getting a test for blood in your urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a blood in urine test.
There are a variety of factors that can cause red or white blood cells to be present in the urine. Many are not cause for concern. Small amounts of blood in the urine may be due to certain medicines, intense exercise, sexual activity, or menstruation. If larger amounts of blood are found, your health care provider may request further testing.
Increased red blood cells in urine may indicate:
A viral infection
Inflammation of the kidney or bladder
A blood disorder
Bladder or kidney cancer
Increased white blood cells in urine may indicate:
A bacterial urinary tract infection. This is the most common cause of a high white blood cell count in urine.
Inflammation of the urinary tract or kidneys
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
A blood in urine test is usually part of a typical urinalysis. In addition to checking for blood, a urinalysis measures other substances in the urine, including proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals.
Lab Tests Online: Blood in Urine (Hematuria) [accessed on Aug 19, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
Video by mdconversation/YouTube
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Video by Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
Blood in the Urine
Video by St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Microscopic hematuria
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
Image by J3D3
This browser does not support the video element.
Bleeding Tissue
Blood continues to flow into tissue after the piercing needle has left the finger. Camera starts off looking at the cut edges of bleeding capillaries in the tissue and then looks down at the cavity where blood is beginning to pool.
Video by TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
12:53
Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)
mdconversation/YouTube
0:50
Blood in the Urine: What does it mean?
Frederick Memorial Hospital/YouTube
2:24
Blood in the Urine
St. Mark's Hospital/YouTube
Hematuria
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microphotography - sample of urine with hematuria
J3D3
0:08
Bleeding Tissue
TheVisualMD
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
PH of Urine Test
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Urine pH, Acid loading test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It is performed under a urinalysis test.
PH of Urine Test
Also called: Urine pH, Acid loading test
A urine pH test is used to detect a wide range of conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes. It is performed under a urinalysis test.
{"label":"PH of Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"pH","code":"[pH]","name":"pH"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.5},"text":"This means that your urine is acidic. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of meat, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Metabolic acidosis","Respiratory acidosis","Xanthine kidney stones","Cystine kidney stones","Uric acid kidney stones","Diabetes","Diarrhea","Starvation","Fanconi syndrome","Milkman syndrome"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.5,"max":8},"text":"Normal pH levels can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":14},"text":"This means that your urine is alkaline. This can be seen in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables, and it's also related to other health issues. ","conditions":["Kidney failure","Urinary tract infection","Calcium carbonate kidney stones","Calcium phosphate kidney stones","Struvite kidney stones","Respiratory alkalosis","Metabolic alkalosis"]}],"value":6.3}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
pH
4.5
8
Your result is Normal.
Normal pH levels can slightly vary from laboratory to laboratory.
Related conditions
A urine pH test is the analysis of the acidity/alkalinity of the urine. It is part of the chemical examination in a urinalysis. This test can be used to make an overall health evaluation of the urinary tract, but it also helps diagnose and monitor many other conditions.
Some of the most common uses of the urine pH test are:
Evaluate the risk of developing kidney stones (nephrolithiasis)
Assessment of metabolic acidosis
Monitor treatment of uric acid kidney stones
Help identify crystals in the urine
You will need to provide a urine sample.
No preparations are required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Under normal conditions, the urine is acidic with pH levels that range from 4.5 to 8.0
A high urine pH (alkaline urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of citrus fruit and vegetables. Other causes include:
Kidney failure
Urinary tract infection
Kidney stones made up from calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate)
Respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis
A low urine pH (acid urine) can be found in people who eat large quantities of meat. Other causes include:
Metabolic acidosis
Respiratory acidosis
Kidney stones made up from xanthine, cystine, and uric acid
Diabetes
Diarrhea
Starvation
Fanconi syndrome
Milkman syndrome
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
013037: pH, Urine | LabCorp [accessed on Jan 04, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Protein in Urine Test
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
Protein in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Protein
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. A large amount of protein can indicate a problem with your kidneys.
{"label":"Protein in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels.<br \/>\n<br \/>\nIf your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Lupus","High blood pressure","Preeclampsia","Diabetes","Certain types of cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. Proteins are substances that are essential for your body to function properly. Protein is normally found in the blood. If there is a problem with your kidneys, protein can leak into your urine. While a small amount is normal, a large amount of protein in urine may indicate kidney disease.
A protein in urine test is often part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and substances in your urine. Urinalysis is often included as part of a routine exam. This test may also be used to look for or to monitor kidney disease.
Your health care provider may have ordered a protein test as part of your regular checkup, or if you have symptoms of kidney disease. These symptoms include:
Difficulty urinating
Frequent urination, especially at night
Nausea and vomiting
Loss of appetite
Swelling in the hands and feet
Fatigue
Itching
A protein in urine test can be done in the home as well as in a lab. If in a lab, you will receive instructions to provide a "clean catch" sample. The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
If at home, you will use a test kit. The kit will include a package of strips for testing and instructions on how to provide a clean catch sample. Talk to your health care provider if you have any questions.
Your health care provider may also request you collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This "24-hour urine sample test" is used because the amounts of substances in urine, including protein, can vary throughout the day. Collecting several samples in a day may provide a more accurate picture of your urine content.
You don't need any special preparations to test for protein in urine. If your health care provider has ordered a 24-hour urine sample, you will get specific instructions on how to provide and store your samples.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a urine in protein test.
If a large amount of protein is found in your urine sample, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical problem needing treatment. Strenuous exercise, diet, stress, pregnancy, and other factors can cause a temporary rise in urine protein levels. Your health care provider may recommend additional urinalysis tests if a high level of protein is found. This testing may include a 24-hour urine sample test.
If your urine protein levels are consistently high, it may indicate kidney damage or other medical condition. These include:
Urinary tract infection
Lupus
High blood pressure
Preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy, marked by high blood pressure. If it is not treated, preeclampsia can be life-threatening to the mother and baby.
Diabetes
Certain types of cancer
To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If you will be doing your urine test at home, ask your health care provider for recommendations on which test kit would be best for you. At-home urine tests are easy to do and provide accurate results as long as you carefully follow all instructions.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Urine Total Protein Test for Diseased Glomerulus : The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, which are recycled in the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
When kidneys are diseased or damaged, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows protein to then leak into urine.
TheVisualMD
Urobilinogen Test
Urobilinogen Test
Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen
A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.
Urobilinogen Test
Also called: Urinary Urobilinogen
A urobilinogen in urine test looks for liver disease or damage. It may be included in a routine exam or if a liver problem is suspected.
{"label":"Urobilinogen Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate a blockage in the blood flow of the liver or structures that carry bile from your liver or a problem with liver function.","conditions":["Liver issues"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Urinary urobilinogen may be increased in the presence of a hemolytic process such as hemolytic anemia. It may also be increased with infectious hepatitis, or with cirrhosis.","conditions":["Hepatitis","Cirrhosis","Liver damage","Hemolytic anemia"]}],"value":2.25}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
A urobilinogen in urine test measures the amount of urobilinogen in a urine sample. Urobilinogen is formed from the reduction of bilirubin. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance found in your liver that helps break down red blood cells. Normal urine contains some urobilinogen. If there is little or no urobilinogen in urine, it can mean your liver isn't working correctly. Too much urobilinogen in urine can indicate a liver disease such as hepatitis or cirrhosis.
A urobilinogen test may part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different cells, chemicals, and other substances in your urine. A urinalysis is often part of a routine exam.
Your health care provider may have ordered this test as part of your regular checkup, to monitor an existing liver condition, or if you have symptoms of a liver disease. These include:
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Nausea and/or vomiting
Dark colored urine
Pain and swelling in the abdomen
Itchy skin
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. He or she will provide you with special instructions to ensure the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called as the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having this test.
If your test results show too little or no urobilinogen in your urine, it may indicate:
A blockage in the structures that carry bile from your liver
A blockage in the blood flow of the liver
A problem with liver function
If your test results show a higher-than-normal level of urobilinogen, it may indicate:
Hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Liver damage due to drugs
Hemolytic anemia, a condition in which red blood cells are destroyed before they can be replaced. This leaves the body without enough healthy red blood cells
If your results are abnormal, it does not necessarily indicate you have a medical condition requiring treatment. Be sure to tell your health care provider about any medicines and supplements you are taking, as these can affect your results. If you are a woman, you should tell your health care provider if you are menstruating.
This test is only one measure of liver function. If your health care provider thinks you might have a liver disease, additional urine and blood tests may be ordered.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (4)
Bilirubin Metabolism
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Urinalysis
Kidneys and Related Conditions : The value of routine urinalysis is that abnormal levels of substances such as protein or glucose, for example, will often appear in the urine before patients are aware they may have a problem. It is also used to detect disorders of the urinary tract, most commonly infections. Abnormal urine screens are typically followed up by more specific diagnostic tests.
Image by TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, filtering blood and removing toxins, storing sugars, lipids, and vitamins, and producing important blood proteins. Liver function is typically evaluated by a panel of tests, including one for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an enzyme made in liver cells, that help doctors distinguish among the many different possible causes of liver damage. Many types of liver damage, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver cancer or drug toxicity, can elevate ALP levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, filtering blood and removing toxins, storing sugars, lipids, and vitamins, and producing important blood proteins such as albumin as well as those involved in blood clotting. The liver also produces most of body's cholesterol (the rest comes from food) as well as a quart of bile each day, a greenish-brown, alkaline fluid that aids digestion. The gallbladder stores bile for release into the small intestine; bile contains cholesterol, bile salts, and bilirubin, a yellowish pigment produced by the breakdown of red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:44
Bilirubin Metabolism
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Urinalysis
TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
TheVisualMD
Liver and Gallbladder with Associated Vessel
TheVisualMD
Nitrites in Urine Test
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
Nitrites in Urine Test
Also called: Urine Nitrite
A nitrites in urine test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in urine. If nitrites are present, it may indicate an infection.
{"label":"Nitrites in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"negative","label":{"short":"Negative","long":"Negative","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"positive","label":{"short":"Positive","long":"Positive","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a urinary tract infection.","conditions":["UTI"]}],"value":0.5}[{"negative":0},{"positive":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites.
Related conditions
A urinalysis, also called a urine test, can detect the presence of nitrites in the urine. Normal urine contains chemicals called nitrates. If bacteria enter the urinary tract, nitrates can turn into different, similarly named chemicals called nitrites. Nitrites in urine may be a sign of a urinary tract infection (UTI).
UTIs are one of the most common types of infections, especially in women. Fortunately, most UTIs are not serious and are usually treated with antibiotics. It's important to see your health care provider if you have symptoms of a UTI so you can start treatment right away.
Other names: urine test, urine analysis, microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, UA
A urinalysis, which includes a test for nitrites in urine, may be part of a regular exam. It may also be used to check for a UTI.
Your health care provider may have ordered a urinalysis as part of a routine checkup or if you have symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms of a UTI may include:
Frequent urge to urinate, but little urine comes out
Painful urination
Dark, cloudy, or reddish colored urine
Bad smelling urine
Weakness and fatigue, particularly in older women and men
Fever
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container, which should have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider
You don't need any special preparations to test for nitrites in urine. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having a urinalysis or a nitrites in urine test.
If there are nitrites in your urine, it may mean that you have a UTI. However, even if no nitrites are found, you still may have an infection, because bacteria don't always change nitrates into nitrites. If you have symptoms of a UTI, your health care provider will also look at other results of your urinalysis, especially the white blood cell count. A high white blood cell count in urine is another possible sign of an infection. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
If a urinalysis is part of your regular checkup, your urine will be tested for a variety of substances along with nitrites. These include red and white blood cells, proteins, acid and sugar levels, cell fragments, and crystals in your urine.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (2)
Urine Color Chart
Urine Color Chart - Hydration
Image by OpenStax College
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Video by Osmosis/YouTube
Urine Color Chart
OpenStax College
0:45
Lower urinary tract infection (cystitis) - an Osmosis preview
Osmosis/YouTube
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
Red Blood Cells in Urine Test
Also called: RBC urine
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of RBCs in your urine indicates that you have hematuria.
{"label":"Red Blood Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{cells}\/uL","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"One cross (+)","long":"One cross (+)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":25},"text":"This indicates that small but significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Repeat test may be necessary and should be looked at in clinical setting.","conditions":["Persistent microscopic haematuria","Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Two crosses (++)","long":"Two crosses (++)","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"This indicates that significant traces of blood was found in your urine. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{cells}/uL
5
25
Your result is Normal.
This indicates that only small traces of blood was found in your urine. It is considered normal and does not require further investigation.
Related conditions
{"label":"Red Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\/HPF","code":"\/[HPF]","name":"per high power field"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3},"text":"Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":20},"text":"This indicates hematuria. Further testing is necessary.","conditions":["Glomerular disorders","Glomerulonephritis","Systemic lupus erythematosus","Renal disorders","Polycystic kidney disease","Benign prostatic hyperplasia","Cancer","Cystitis","Pyelonephritis","Nephrolithiasis","Prostatitis","Intake or certain drugs","Trauma"]}],"value":1.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
/HPF
3
Your result is Normal.
Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, are cells that can be found circulating in the blood. They are produced in the bone marrow (the spongy tissue inside some of your bones), and their function is to carry a protein called hemoglobin through the body, which in turn delivers oxygen to the tissues and organs.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that RBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not usually ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
To monitor a medical condition, such as diabetes or kidney disease
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
Is not unusual to find RBCs in a urine sample; however, 3 or more red blood cells per high-powered field are regarded as a sign of hematuria (blood loss through urine).; further information should be gathered to make a diagnose.
Presence of RBC’s in urine may be due to:
Glomerular disorders
Glomerulonephritis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Renal disorders
Polycystic kidney disease
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
Cancer
Cystitis
Pyelonephritis
Nephrolithiasis
Prostatitis
Intake or certain drugs
Trauma
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, menstruation traces, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Hematuria
Hematuria Trauma : Gross hematuria due to kidney trauma.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Source of Hematuria by anatomic location
Image by Copene
Microhematuria
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
Pyridiumurine : The characteristic color of urine after taking pyridium.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hematuria
James Heilman, MD
Microscopic hematuria: Red blood cells in a urine sample seen under the microscope.
Bobjgalindo
Hematuria by anatomic location
Copene
Microhematuria
Bobjgalindo
Phenazopyridine
James Heilman, MD
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
White Blood Cells, Urine Test
Also called: Leukocytes in Urine
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, may also be found in a urinalysis, or a urine test. High levels of WBCs in your urine suggest that you have a urinary tract infection (UTI).
{"label":"White Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"{cells}\/uL","code":"{cells}\/uL","name":"cells per microliter"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":10},"text":"Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Borderline","long":"Borderline","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":100},"text":"This is usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment. Discuss your result with your doctor. ","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Vaginal infection"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":200},"text":"A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Urinary tract inflammation","Pyelonephritis","Glomerulonephritis","Interstitial nephritis","Renal inflammatory processes"]}],"value":5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{cells}/uL
10
100
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
{"label":"White Blood Cells, Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"\/HPF","code":"\/[HPF]","name":"per high power field"}],"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":20},"text":"A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Urinary tract inflammation","Pyelonephritis","Glomerulonephritis","Interstitial nephritis","Renal inflammatory processes"]}],"value":2.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
/HPF
5
Your result is Normal.
Normal reference ranges can slightly vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, are part of the immune system. These cells protect your body against viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungus, and any other strange organism or substance that may want to enter into your system.
This test is part of the microscopic characteristics evaluated in a urinalysis, or urine test. This means that WBCs are invisible to the naked eye, and can only be seen through a microscope.
This test is not ordered alone but rather as part of a urinalysis. It can be helpful in the following cases:
Overall check up
To monitor pregnant women
If you have signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection (pelvic pain, dark urine, painful urination, blood in urine, frequent urination)
You will need to give a clean catch urine sample.
This requires following these simple steps;
Clean your genitals
Start to urinate in the toilet
Stop halfway through
Collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container
Stop again and close the container
Last, finish peeing in the toilet
You also need to be careful not to touch your genitals with the container to avoid possible contamination with external microorganisms.
No preparation is required. Your healthcare provider may want to know of any medication you are currently taking.
No risks are associated with this test.
The normal range for WBCs in urine is:
<10 WBC/µl: not significant
10-100 WBC/µl: usually not significant but still requires further clinical assessment
>100 WBC/µl: suggestive of infection
It is also considered normal to have less than 5 WBCs/hpf. A high number of WBCs may indicate a urinary tract infection or inflammation, especially if bacteria is also present.
Several factors can compromise the urinalysis results, including the method used for collecting the sample, the method used for testing by the laboratory, intake of certain drugs, and the time elapsed between the urine collection and its evaluation in the laboratory.
Urinalysis: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review - - American Family Physician [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
https://www.cambridgeshireandpeterboroughccg.nhs.uk/EasySiteWeb/GatewayLink.aspx?alId=7479 [accessed on Jan 10, 2019]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (1)
Pyuria
Pyuria : White blood cells seen under a microscope from a urine sample.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Pyuria
Bobjgalindo
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
Epithelial Cells in Urine Test
The test measures the amount of epithelial cells in urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition. This test is part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine.
{"label":"Epithelial Cells in Urine Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Few","long":"Few","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"\"Few\" cells are generally considered in the normal range.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Moderate","long":"Moderate","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"\"Moderate\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Many","long":"Many","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"\"Many\" cells may indicate a medical condition, however it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment.","conditions":["Urinary tract infection","Yeast infection","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Certain types of\u00a0cancer"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"borderline":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Few.
"Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range.
Related conditions
Epithelial cells are a type of cell that lines the surfaces of your body. They are found on your skin, blood vessels, urinary tract, and organs. An epithelial cells in urine test looks at urine under a microscope to see if the number of your epithelial cells is in the normal range. It's normal to have a small amount of epithelial cells in your urine. A large amount may indicate an infection, kidney disease, or other serious medical condition.
An epithelial cells in urine test is a part of a urinalysis, a test that measures different substances in your urine. A urinalysis may include a visual examination of your urine sample, tests for certain chemicals, and an examination of urine cells under a microscope. An epithelial cells in urine test is part of a microscopic exam of urine.
Your health care provider may have ordered an epithelial cells in urine test as part of your regular checkup or if your visual or chemical urine tests showed abnormal results. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a urinary or kidney disorder. These symptoms may include:
Frequent and/or painful urination
Abdominal pain
Back pain
Your health care provider will need to collect a sample of your urine. During your office visit, you will receive a container to collect the urine and special instructions to make sure that the sample is sterile. These instructions are often called the "clean catch method." The clean catch method includes the following steps:
Wash your hands.
Clean your genital area with a cleansing pad given to you by your provider. Men should wipe the tip of their penis. Women should open their labia and clean from front to back.
Start to urinate into the toilet.
Move the collection container under your urine stream.
Collect at least an ounce or two of urine into the container. The container will have markings to indicate the amounts.
Finish urinating into the toilet.
Return the sample container as instructed by your health care provider.
You don't need any special preparations for the test. If your health care provider has ordered other urine or blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is no known risk to having the test.
Results are often reported as an approximate amount, such as "few," moderate," or "many" cells. "Few" cells are generally considered in the normal range. "Moderate" or "many" cells may indicate a medical condition such as:
Urinary tract infection
Yeast infection
Kidney disease
Liver disease
Certain types of cancer
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean that you have a medical condition that requires treatment. You may need more tests before you can get a diagnosis. To learn what your results mean, talk to your health care provider.
There are three types of epithelial cells that line the urinary tract. They are called transitional cells, renal tubular cells, and squamous cells. If there are squamous epithelial cells in your urine, it may mean your sample was contaminated. This means that the sample contains cells from the urethra (in men) or the vaginal opening (in women). It can happen if you do not clean well enough when using the clean catch method.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (5)
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Abundant uric acid crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 5, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them, some amorphous urate crystals that are either clumped or dispersed can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate / triple phosphate) crystals in a human urine sample with a pH of 9, as detected by an automated urinalysis system. Along with them; abundant amorphous phosphate crystals, several squamous and non-squamous epithelial cells and a few leukocytes can be observed.
Image by Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
Image by frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Sample of human urine
Image by Markhamilton
Cancer screening
Screening for Cancer: Urine Tests : Urine samples may contain tumor markers, which can suggest cancer. Urinalysis is commonly a part of routine health screening. It is simply an analysis of the urine that can be performed in many healthcare settings including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities, laboratories, and hospitals. Urinalysis can disclose evidence of diseases, even some that have not caused significant signs or symptoms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Struvite crystals (urine)
Doruk Salancı
Urine Test
frolicsomepl/Pixabay
Urine
Markhamilton
Cancer screening
TheVisualMD
Urinary Casts Test
Urinary Casts Test
Also called: Urine Casts
Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.
Urinary Casts Test
Also called: Urine Casts
Urinary casts are tiny structures that can be seen in a urine test (urinalysis) when certain kidney diseases or conditions are present.
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
Related conditions
Urinary casts are tiny cylindrical, tube-shaped structures that are produced by the kidneys and may be found in a urinalysis test when certain diseases or conditions are present.
This test usually forms part of a urine test (urinalysis), which can be ordered as part of a normal routine check-up, or when kidney diseases are suspected.
You will be asked to provide a urine sample by urinating into a sterile urine container.
To adequately do this, you need to clean your genitals, and then discard the first stream of urine into the toilet (this is done to “clean” your urethra), proceeding then to collect about two ounces of midstream urine in the container.
No fasting or other preparations are necessary for this test. Follow the instructions provided by your healthcare professional.
There are no known risks associated with this test.
Hyaline casts: the presence of a few of these casts is usually normal and can occur in physiologic states (e.g., after exercise).
Fatty casts: these casts can be found in people who have lipids (fat) in the urine and are usually related to a kidney disease complication, such as nephrotic syndrome, glomerulonephritis, or other forms of chronic renal diseases.
Granular casts: these casts might be found after exercise, but also when certain kidney diseases are present.
Red blood cell casts: these casts are related to a very small amount of bleeding from the kidney. Red blood cell casts are seen in many kidney diseases.
Epithelial cell casts: the apparition of these casts implies damage to cells in the kidneys. These casts are seen in conditions such as heavy metal poisoning, and kidney transplant rejection, among others.
Waxy casts: these casts can be found in people with long-term (chronic) kidney disease and chronic kidney failure.
White blood cell (WBC) casts: these casts can be found when acute kidney infections are present.
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
FISH Test
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a test used to detect chromosome changes in a sample of blood or bone marrow cells. FISH can be used to identify where a specific gene is located on a chromosome, how many copies of the gene are present, and any chromosomal abnormalities. It is used to diagnose cancer, plan and monitor response to treatment.
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a test used to detect chromosome changes in a sample of blood or bone marrow cells. FISH can be used to identify where a specific gene is located on a chromosome, how many copies of the gene are present, and any chromosomal abnormalities. It is used to diagnose cancer, plan and monitor response to treatment.
{"label":"FISH Study Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal FISH study indicates the amount of cells counted and analyzed and that no gene rearrangements were observed.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"","conditions":[]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal FISH study indicates the amount of cells counted and analyzed and that no gene rearrangements were observed.
Related conditions
FISH is useful, for example, to help a researcher or clinician identify where a particular gene falls within an individual's chromosomes. The first step is to prepare short sequences of single-stranded DNA that match a portion of the gene the researcher is looking for. These are called probes. The next step is to label these probes by attaching one of a number of colors of fluorescent dye.DNA is composed of two strands of complementary molecules that bind to each other like chemical magnets. Since the researchers' probes are single-stranded, they are able to bind to the complementary strand of DNA, wherever it may reside on a person's chromosomes. When a probe binds to a chromosome, its fluorescent tag provides a way for researchers to see its location.
Scientists use three different types of FISH probes, each of which has a different application:
Locus specific probes bind to a particular region of a chromosome. This type of probe is useful when scientists have isolated a small portion of a gene and want to determine on which chromosome the gene is located, or how many copies of a gene exist within a particular genome.
Alphoid or centromeric repeat probes are generated from repetitive sequences found in the middle of each chromosome. Researchers use these probes to determine whether an individual has the correct number of chromosomes. These probes can also be used in combination with "locus specific probes" to determine whether an individual is missing genetic material from a particular chromosome.
Whole chromosome probes are actually collections of smaller probes, each of which binds to a different sequence along the length of a given chromosome. Using multiple probes labeled with a mixture of different fluorescent dyes, scientists are able to label each chromosome in its own unique color. The resulting full-color map of the chromosome is known as a spectral karyotype. Whole chromosome probes are particularly useful for examining chromosomal abnormalities, for example, when a piece of one chromosome is attached to the end of another chromosome.
For many applications, FISH has largely been replaced by the use of microarrays. However, FISH remains useful for some tests. FISH may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomal arrangements of genes across related species.
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization Fact Sheet | National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
510669: Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH), Oncology | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (40)
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Image by Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
Indian Muntjac cultured cells; DAPI nuclei, Alexa Fluor 488 Phalloidin actin, Mitotracker Red CMXRos; 63x/1.4. Imaged with ZEISS ApoTome.2, Axiocam 702 mono and Axio Imager www.zeiss.com/axiocam Sample courtesy of Michael W. Davidson, Florida State University
Image by ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
Under a magnification of 562X, this photomicrograph, stained using a fluorescent antibody (FA) staining technique, and NOT stained using a Candida conjugate, revealed the presence of Aspergillus sp. organisms, in a case of aspergillosis.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M./Wikimedia
FISH (Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization)
Scheme of the principle of the FISH (Fluorescent in situ hybridization) Experiment to localize a gene in the nucleus.
Image by MrMatze/Wikimedia
FISH for Bacterial Pathogen Identification
This figure outlines the process of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) used for bacterial pathogen identification. First, a sample of the infected tissue is taken from the patient. Then an oligonucleotide that is complementary to the suspected pathogen’s genetic code is synthesized and chemically tagged with a fluorescent probe. The collected tissue sample must then be chemically treated in order to make the cell membranes permeable to the fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide. After the tissue sample is treated, the tagged complementary oligonucleotide is added. The fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide will only bind to the complementary DNA of the suspected pathogen. If the pathogen is present in the tissue sample, then the pathogen’s cells will glow/fluoresce after treatment with the tagged oligonucleotide. All other cells will not glow after treatment.
Image by Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes. (A) Dual color hybridization showing highly specific signals on the X (red) and Y (green) chromosomes in metaphase cells. The two diploid interphase cell nuclei from a normal male donor show the expected pair of single signals. (B) The approximate locations of the hybridization targets shown along ideograms of the human X and Y chromosomes.
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Staining of chromosome Hordeum vulgare by Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
Image by Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Fluorescence in situ hybridization versus chromogenic in situ hybridization
Image by Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Fluorescent in-situ hybridization is a process which vividly paints chromosomes or portions of chromosomes with fluorescent molecules. This technique is useful for identifying chromosomal abnormalities and for gene mapping.
Image by Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe on metaphase spreads of ‘normal’ cells. (A) The dual color FISH results showing a normal diploid metaphase spread. The DAPI DNA counterstain is shown in gray; (B) Schematic diagram illustrating the relative positions of the chromosome 16 whole chromosome painting probe (Coatasome-16, Oncor) and the biotinylated DNA repeat probe prepared from BAC RP11-486E19 (detected with avidin-FITC, green).
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Obraz fluorescencyjny jądra ludzkiego limfocytu barwionego diaminofenyloindolem (DAPI) z sygnałami sond swoistych dla chromosomów 13 (zielony, sonda znakowana fluoresceiną) i 21 (czerwony, sonda znakowana rodaminą), uzyskany w wyniku zastosowania techniki FISH
Image by Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
ViewRNA assay for detection of miR-133 microRNA (green) and myogenin mRNA (red) in differentiating C2C12 cells.
Image by Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
Her2 gene amplification by FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) in breast cancer cells
Image by IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Human metaphase chromosomes were subjected to fluorescence in situ hybridization with a probe to the Alu Sequence (green signals)and counterstained for DNA (red).
Image by Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
General workflow for Q-FISH with cultured cells.
Image by Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Abnova/YouTube
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Video by ПИМУ - Приволжский исследовательский мед.универ./YouTube
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
Video by biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique for detecting and locating a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
Hybridization is the process of combining two complementary single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules and allowing them to form a single double-stranded molecule through base pairing.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
In situ hybridization. 18p (green) and 18q (red) with subtelomeric probes showing 18p deletion in the patient with De Grouchy syndrome type I (deletion 18p)
Image by /Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
Kidney section. IHC stained with Cy3 (red), anti-GFP antibody stained with Alexa 488(green), nuclei stained with DAPI (blue). Fluorescence microscopy with ZEISS Axio Observer, Axiocam, Colibri 7. www.zeiss.com/axioobserver
Image by ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Figure 2. Result of FISH analysis using LSI probe (TUPLE 1) from DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome critical region. TUPLE 1 (HIRA) probe was labeled in Spectrum Orange and Arylsulfatase A (ARSA) in SpectrumGreen as control. Absence of the orange signal indicates deletion of the TUPLE 1 locus at 22q11.2. Tonelli et al. Journal of Medical Case Reports 2007 1:167 doi:10.1186/1752-1947-1-167
Image by Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
Visualization of the enormous degree of chromosomal instability in primary breast cancers using fluorescence in situ hybridization to identify copy number changes of specific chromosomes and oncogenes.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
Mapping the position of genes in the cell nucleus sheds light on basic principles governing the genome. Here, a single gene called Pem (purple) has been localized using fluorescence in situ hybridization. DNA is stained blue; the cell cytoplasm is stained green.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project and selected for exhibit. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
This (a) microbial mat, about one meter in diameter, grows over a hydrothermal vent in the Pacific Ocean in a region known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire.” The mat helps retain microbial nutrients. Chimneys such as the one indicated by the arrow allow gases to escape. (b) In this micrograph, bacteria are visualized using fluorescence microscopy. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Bob Embley, NOAA PMEL, Chief Scientist; credit b: modification of work by Ricardo Murga, Rodney Donlan, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system. A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system.
Image by Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
This browser does not support the video element.
Biofilm blocking fluid flow
This time-lapse movie shows that bacterial communities called biofilms can create blockages that prevent fluid flow in devices such as stents and catheters over a period of about 56 hours. This video was featured in a news release from Princeton University.
Video by NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
Stage 1, initial attachment; stage 2, irreversible attachment; stage 3, maturation I; stage 4, maturation II; stage 5, dispersion. Each stage of development in the diagram is paired with a photomicrograph of a developing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. All photomicrographs are shown to same scale
Image by D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
This digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather; revealed the presence of unidentified organisms; which included bacteria; protozoa; and algae. In this particular view; a microorganism is featured; the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pin cushion; was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm; within which many bacteria; and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
Under a magnification of 2500X, this digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather, revealed the presence of unidentified organisms, which included bacteria, protozoa, and algae. In this particular view, a microorganism is featured, the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections, imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pincushion was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm, within which many bacteria and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well. See PHIL 11781 for a greater magnification of this organism’s exterior.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
Using a confocal laser scanning microscope, microbiologist Maria Brandl examines a mixed biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green) in soft rot lesions on cilantro leaves (blue).
Image by USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) provides researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic material in an individual's cells, including specifc genes or portions of genes. This is important for understanding a variety of chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations. Unlike most other techniques used to study chromosomes, FISH does not have to be performed on cells that are actively dividing. This makes it a very versatile procedure. Credit: Darryl Leja, NHGRI.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
FISH method. The chromosomes are blue in the fluorescence microscope , except for a point on one of the chromosomes, which is green and red. This is where the sequence causing one of the types of leukemia is located
Image by Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
The image shows nuclei of neoplastic cells of a breast cancer with a normal number of copies of the Her2 gene (red signals) (in green, centromere labeling signals). Technique: in situ hybridization of interphase nuclei obtained from paraffin-embedded material from breast cancer.
Image by Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
A probe is a single-stranded sequence of DNA or RNA used to search for its complementary sequence in a sample genome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
3:22
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
8:57
Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
5:01
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Abnova/YouTube
1:44
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
/Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
0:08
Biofilm blocking fluid flow
NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Bone Marrow Tests
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
{"label":"Bone Marrow Biopsy Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result means the bone marrow contains the proper number and types of blood-forming (hematopoietic) cells, fat cells, and connective tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be due to cancers of the bone marrow (leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or other cancers). The results may detect the cause of anemia (too few red blood cells), abnormal white blood cells, or thrombocytopenia (too few platelets).","conditions":["Disseminated coccidioidomycosis","Hairy cell leukemia","Hodgkin or non-Hodgkin lymphoma","Aplastic anemia","Multiple myeloma","Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS)","Neuroblastoma","Polycythemia vera","Amyloidosis","Myelofibrosis","Thrombocythemia","Waldenstr\u00f6m macroglobulinemia"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means the bone marrow contains the proper number and types of blood-forming (hematopoietic) cells, fat cells, and connective tissues.
Related conditions
{"label":"Bone Marrow Aspiration Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A normal result means the bone marrow contains the proper number and types of blood-forming (hematopoietic) cells, fat cells, and connective tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"Abnormal results may be due to cancers of the bone marrow (acute or chronic leukemias, or other cancers). The results may detect the cause of anemia (too few red blood cells), abnormal white blood cells, or thrombocytopenia (too few platelets).","conditions":["Aplastic anemia","Bacterial or fungal infections","Hodgkin or non-Hodgkin lymphoma","Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)","Multiple myeloma","Myelofibrosis","Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS)","Primary thrombocytopenia","Waldenstr\u00f6m macroglobulinemia"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result means the bone marrow contains the proper number and types of blood-forming (hematopoietic) cells, fat cells, and connective tissues.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells. These include:
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
Platelets, which help with blood clotting.
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor various bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests:
Bone marrow aspiration, which removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid
Bone marrow biopsy, which removes a small amount of bone marrow tissue
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy tests are usually performed at the same time.
Bone marrow tests are used to:
Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white bloods, or platelets
Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as anemia, polycythemia vera, and thrombocytopenia
Diagnose bone marrow disorders
Diagnose and monitor certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
Diagnose infections that may have started or spread to the bone marrow
Your health care provider may order a bone marrow aspiration and a bone marrow biopsy if other blood tests show your levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are not normal. Too many or too few of these cells may mean you have a medical disorder, such as cancer that starts in your blood or bone marrow. If you are being treated for another type of cancer, these tests can find out if the cancer has spread to your bone marrow.
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy tests are usually given at the same time. A doctor or other health care provider will perform the tests. Before the tests, the provider may ask you to put on a hospital gown. The provider will check your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature. You may be given a mild sedative, a medicine that will help you relax. During the test:
You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used for testing. Most bone marrow tests are taken from the hip bone.
Your body will be covered with cloth, so that only the area around the testing site is showing.
The site will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
You will get an injection of a numbing solution. It may sting.
Once the area is numb, the health care provider will take the sample. You will need to lie very still during the tests.
For a bone marrow aspiration, which is usually performed first, the health care provider will insert a needle through the bone and pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a sharp but brief pain when the needle is inserted.
For a bone marrow biopsy, the health care provider will use a special tool that twists into the bone to take out a sample of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure on the site while the sample is being taken.
It takes about 10 minutes to perform both tests.
After the test, the health care provider will cover the site with a bandage.
Plan to have someone drive you home, since you may be given a sedative before the tests, which may make you drowsy.
You will be asked to sign a form that gives permission to perform bone marrow tests. Be sure to ask your provider any questions you have about the procedure.
Many people feel a little uncomfortable after bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy testing. After the test, you may feel stiff or sore at the injection site. This usually goes away in a few days. Your health care provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
Long-lasting pain or discomfort around the injection site
Redness, swelling, or excessive bleeding at the site
Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your health care provider.
It may take several days or even several weeks to get your bone marrow test results. The results may show whether you have a bone marrow disease, a blood disorder, or cancer. If you are being treated for cancer, the results may show:
Whether your treatment is working
How advanced your disease is
If your results are not normal, your health care provider will likely order more tests or discuss treatment options. If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Additional Materials (22)
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Video by Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
Image by doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.
Image by CNX Openstax
This browser does not support the video element.
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue
Video by TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.
Image by CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.
Image by Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
3:24
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
2:12
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
5:56
Having a bone marrow test
Design Science/YouTube
2:20
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:38
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
4:03
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
0:06
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio
Also called: TP and A/G Ratio, Hypoproteinemia Test, Hyperproteinemia Test
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures total protein levels in your blood. The two major proteins are albumin and globulin. It also compares the amount of albumin to the amount of globulin. The results can show if you have liver or kidney disease.
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio
Also called: TP and A/G Ratio, Hypoproteinemia Test, Hyperproteinemia Test
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures total protein levels in your blood. The two major proteins are albumin and globulin. It also compares the amount of albumin to the amount of globulin. The results can show if you have liver or kidney disease.
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":6},"text":"A lower than normal protein level is called hypoproteinemia. This result may indicate a liver or kidney problem, or that protein isn't being digested or absorbed properly."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":8},"text":"Proteins are important building blocks of all cells and tissues; they are important for body growth and health. Total protein level may reflect your nutritional status, the presence of kidney or liver disease, as well as many other conditions. "},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":15},"text":"A higher than normal protein level is called hyperproteinemia. This result could indicate inflammation, infection, or a bone marrow disorder, such as multiple myeloma, that causes protein to accumulate abnormally. Your total protein level may also increase during pregnancy."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"g\/dL","code":"g\/dL","name":"gram per deciliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
6
8
Your result is Low.
A lower than normal protein level is called hypoproteinemia. This result may indicate a liver or kidney problem, or that protein isn't being digested or absorbed properly.
Related conditions
{"scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A low A\/G ratio may be due to overproduction of globulins and\/or underproduction of albumins. This can be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, kidney or liver disease."},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2.5},"text":"An imbalance of albumins to globulins ratio gives insight into your nutritional status and immune function. The normal range for albumin\/globulin ratio is approximately 1 to 2. That\u2019s because there\u2019s a bit more albumin than globulin in serum protein."},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2.5,"max":5},"text":"A high A\/G ratio can be due to an overproduction of albumins and\/or underproduction of globulins. This can be a sign of disease in your liver, kidney, or intestines. It\u2019s also linked to low thyroid activity and leukemia."}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"g\/dL","code":"g\/dL","name":"gram per deciliter"}],"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
1
2.5
Your result is Low.
A low A/G ratio may be due to overproduction of globulins and/or underproduction of albumins. This can be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, kidney or liver disease.
Related conditions
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures the total amount of protein in your blood. There are two major types of protein in the blood:
Albumin, which helps keep blood from leaking out of blood vessels. It also helps move hormones, medicines, vitamins, and other important substances throughout the body. Albumin is made in the liver.
Globulins, which help fight infection and move nutrients throughout the body. Some globulins are made by the liver. Others are made by the immune system.
The test also compares the amount of albumin in your blood to the amount of globulin. The comparison is called the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio.
If your total protein levels or A/G ratio results are not normal, it can be a sign of a serious health problem.
A total protein and A/G ratio test is often included as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel, a test that measures proteins and other substances in the blood. It may also be used to help diagnose kidney disease, liver disease, or nutritional problems.
You may get this test as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms that indicate abnormal protein levels. These include:
Swelling in the feet, ankles, legs, and/or abdomen, which is caused by extra fluid in your tissues
Fatigue
Unexplained weight loss
Loss of appetite
Nausea and vomiting
Jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes). This is a common symptom of liver disease.
Blood in the urine, a common symptom of kidney disease
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a total protein and A/G ratio test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have normal, low, or high total protein levels. They will also show if you have a normal, low, or high albumin to globulin (A/G) ratio.
If your total protein levels were low, it may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Liver disease
Kidney disease
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
A malabsorption syndrome, a type of disorder in which your small intestine can't absorb enough nutrients from food. Malabsorption syndromes include celiac disease and Crohn's disease.
If your total protein levels were high, it may mean you have one of the following conditions:
An infection such as HIV or viral hepatitis
Multiple myeloma, a type of blood cancer
If your A/G ratio was low, it may be caused by:
An autoimmune disease, such as lupus
Liver disease, including cirrhosis
Kidney disease
If your A/G ratio was high, it may be caused by:
Certain types of genetic disorders
Leukemia
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
In addition to total protein levels, your provider may order a separate blood test for albumin and/or a test for globulins. The globulins test is called serum electrophoresis. It is a blood test that measures the levels of four different types of globulins.
These results may show the following:
Low albumin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease, including cirrhosis
Kidney disease
Malnutrition
Thyroid disease
High albumin levels may be a sign of:
Severe dehydration
Diarrhea
Low globulin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease
Kidney disease
High globulin levels may be a sign of:
Certain types of blood cancers, such as multiple myeloma, Hodgkin disease, or leukemia
Hemolytic anemia
An autoimmune disease, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
Tuberculosis
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio : MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Total protein: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Total Protein and A/G Ratio - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (4)
Serum Total Protein: Protein
Serum protein levels can reflect nutritional status in cases of malnutrition or malabsorption, but a high-protein diet does not raise serum levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Excess Renin
The kidneys produce the hormone renin, which helps to control blood pressure. High blood pressure can lead to edema, a swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in the body's tissues, most commonly noticed in the hands, arms, feet, ankles, and legs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney with Visible Blood Vessel
This is a cross-section of the left kidney showing only its dense vasculature. Blood flows in through the renal artery, and continues through the segmental, lobar, arcuate, and interlobular arteries, ending up in the cortex of the kidneys, where the filtering process takes place in the glomerular capillaries.
Image by TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Kidney
Abnormalities of serum protein most often indicate kidney or liver problems; serum protein levels often rise before other symptoms appear.
Image by TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Protein
TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Excess Renin
TheVisualMD
Kidney with Visible Blood Vessel
TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Kidney
TheVisualMD
Staging
Staging Cancer
Image by TheVisualMD
Staging Cancer
Cancer staging, that is, determining the extent and spread of cancer in the body, is used by doctors to plan treatment and to arrive at a prognosis (estimate of future course and outcome) for the disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Stages of Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms?
KEY POINTS
There are no standard staging systems for monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) and plasmacytoma.
After multiple myeloma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out how much cancer is in the body.
The stage of multiple myeloma is based on the levels of beta-2-microglobulin and albumin in the blood.
The following stages are used for multiple myeloma:
Stage I multiple myeloma
Stage II multiple myeloma
Stage III multiple myeloma
Plasma cell neoplasms may not respond to treatment or may come back after treatment.
There are no standard staging systems for monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) and plasmacytoma.
After multiple myeloma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out how much cancer is in the body.
The process used to find out the amount of cancer in the body is called staging. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.
The following tests and procedures may be used to find out how much cancer is in the body:
Skeletal bone survey: In a skeletal bone survey, x-rays of all the bones in the body are taken. The x-rays are used to find areas where the bone is damaged. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the bone marrow. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
Bone densitometry: A procedure that uses a special type of x-ray to measure bone density.
The stage of multiple myeloma is based on the levels of beta-2-microglobulin and albumin in the blood.
Beta-2-microglobulin and albumin are found in the blood. Beta-2-microglobulin is a protein found on plasma cells. Albumin makes up the biggest part of the blood plasma. It keeps fluid from leaking out of blood vessels. It also brings nutrients to tissues, and carries hormones, vitamins, drugs, and other substances, such as calcium, all through the body. In the blood of patients with multiple myeloma, the amount of beta-2-microglobulin is increased and the amount of albumin is decreased.
The following stages are used for multiple myeloma:
Stage I multiple myeloma
In stage I multiple myeloma, the blood levels are as follows:
beta-2-microglobulin level is lower than 3.5 mg/L; and
albumin level is 3.5 g/dL or higher.
Stage II multiple myeloma
In stage II multiple myeloma, the blood levels are in between the levels for stage I and stage III.
Stage III multiple myeloma
In stage III multiple myeloma, the blood level of beta-2-microglobulin is 5.5 mg/L or higher and the patient also has one of the following:
high levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH); or
certain changes in the chromosomes.
Plasma cell neoplasms may not respond to treatment or may come back after treatment.
Plasma cell neoplasms are called refractory when the number of plasma cells keeps going up even though treatment is given. Plasma cell neoplasms are called relapsed when they have come back after treatment.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (4)
Staging cancers: TNM and I-IV systems
Video by Oncology for Medical Students/YouTube
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Video by Learn Oncology/YouTube
MGUS and the role of the microenvironment in myeloma
Video by VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Myeloma Staging and Up-front Treatment Options
Video by Targeted Oncology/YouTube
8:10
Staging cancers: TNM and I-IV systems
Oncology for Medical Students/YouTube
5:40
The Staging and Grading of Cancer
Learn Oncology/YouTube
1:00
MGUS and the role of the microenvironment in myeloma
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
5:21
Myeloma Staging and Up-front Treatment Options
Targeted Oncology/YouTube
Treatment
Genomic information
Image by NHS HEE Genomics Education Programme
Genomic information
This image was created by the NHS HEE Genomics Education Programme. For further information and resources please visit our website www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk
Image by NHS HEE Genomics Education Programme
How Are Plasma Cell Neoplasms Treated?
Treatment Option Overview
KEY POINTS
There are different types of treatment for patients with plasma cell neoplasms.
Eight types of treatment are used:
Chemotherapy
Other drug therapy
Targeted therapy
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
Immunotherapy
Radiation therapy
Surgery
Watchful waiting
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
New combinations of therapies
Treatment for plasma cell neoplasms may cause side effects.
Supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
There are different types of treatment for patients with plasma cell neoplasms.
Different types of treatments are available for patients with plasma cell neoplasms. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Eight types of treatment are used:
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy).
See Drugs Approved for Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms.
Other drug therapy
Corticosteroids are steroids that have antitumor effects in multiple myeloma.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Several types of targeted therapy may be used to treat multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms. There are different types of targeted therapy:
Proteasome inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks the action of proteasomes in cancer cells. A proteasome is a protein that removes other proteins no longer needed by the cell. When the proteins are not removed from the cell, they build up and may cause the cancer cell to die. Bortezomib, carfilzomib, and ixazomib are proteasome inhibitors used in the treatment of multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms.
Monoclonal antibody therapy: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells. Daratumumab and elotuzumab are monoclonal antibodies used in the treatment of multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms. Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody used to slow bone loss and reduce bone pain in patients with multiple myeloma.
BCL2 inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks a protein called BCL2. Blocking this protein may help kill cancer cells and may make them more sensitive to anticancer drugs. Venetoclax is a BCL2 inhibitor being studied in the treatment of relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
High doses of chemotherapy are given to kill cancer cells. Healthy cells, including blood-forming cells, are also destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cell transplant is a treatment to replace the blood-forming cells. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient (autologous) or a donor (allogeneic) and are frozen and stored. After the patient completes chemotherapy, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
Stem cell transplant. (Step 1): Blood is taken from a vein in the arm of the donor. The patient or another person may be the donor. The blood flows through a machine that removes the stem cells. Then the blood is returned to the donor through a vein in the other arm. (Step 2): The patient receives chemotherapy to kill blood-forming cells. The patient may receive radiation therapy (not shown). (Step 3): The patient receives stem cells through a catheter placed into a blood vessel in the chest.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This cancer treatment is a type of biologic therapy.
Immunomodulator therapy: Thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide are immunomodulators used to treat multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms.
CAR T-cell therapy: This treatment changes the patient's T cells (a type of immune system cell) so they will attack certain proteins on the surface of cancer cells. T cells are taken from the patient and special receptors are added to their surface in the laboratory. The changed cells are called chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. The CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells multiply in the patient's blood and attack cancer cells. CAR T-cell therapy is being studied in the treatment of multiple myeloma that has recurred (come back).CAR T-cell therapy. A type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells (a type of immune cell) are changed in the laboratory so they will bind to cancer cells and kill them. Blood from a vein in the patient’s arm flows through a tube to an apheresis machine (not shown), which removes the white blood cells, including the T cells, and sends the rest of the blood back to the patient. Then, the gene for a special receptor called a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is inserted into the T cells in the laboratory. Millions of the CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and then given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells are able to bind to an antigen on the cancer cells and kill them.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the area of the body with cancer.
Surgery
Surgery to remove the tumor may be done. After the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to lower the risk that the cancer will come back, is called adjuvant therapy.
Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient’s condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change.
New combinations of therapies
Clinical trials are studying different combinations of immunotherapy, chemotherapy, steroid therapy, and drugs. New treatment regimens using selinexor are also being studied.
Treatment for plasma cell neoplasms may cause side effects.
Supportive care is given to lessen the problems caused by the disease or its treatment.
This therapy controls problems or side effects caused by the disease or its treatment, and improves quality of life. Supportive care is given to treat problems caused by multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms.
Supportive care may include the following:
Plasmapheresis: If the blood becomes thick with extra antibody proteins and interferes with circulation, plasmapheresis is done to remove extra plasma and antibody proteins from the blood. In this procedure blood is removed from the patient and sent through a machine that separates the plasma (the liquid part of the blood) from the blood cells. The patient's plasma contains the unneeded antibodies and is not returned to the patient. The normal blood cells are returned to the bloodstream along with donated plasma or a plasma replacement. Plasmapheresis does not keep new antibodies from forming.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant: If amyloidosis occurs, treatment may include high-dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant using the patient's own stem cells.
Immunotherapy: Immunotherapy with thalidomide, lenalidomide, or pomalidomide is given to treat amyloidosis.
Targeted therapy: Targeted therapy with proteasome inhibitors is given to decrease how much immunoglobulin M is in the blood and treat amyloidosis. Targeted therapy with daratumumab is given with or without other drugs to treat amyloidosis. Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody is given to slow bone loss and reduce bone pain.
Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy is given for bone lesions of the spine.
Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy is given to reduce back pain from osteoporosis or compression fractures of the spine.
Bisphosphonate therapy: Bisphosphonate therapy is given to slow bone loss and reduce bone pain.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage. Clinical trials supported by other organizations can be found on the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Treatment of Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Significance
Treatment of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is usually watchful waiting. Regular blood tests to check the level of M protein in the blood and physical exams to check for signs or symptoms of cancer will be done.
Use our clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are accepting patients. You can search for trials based on the type of cancer, the age of the patient, and where the trials are being done. General information about clinical trials is also available.
Treatment of Isolated Plasmacytoma of Bone
Treatment of isolated plasmacytoma of bone is usually radiation therapy to the bone lesion.
Treatment of Extramedullary Plasmacytoma
Treatment of extramedullary plasmacytoma may include the following:
Radiation therapy to the tumor and nearby lymph nodes.
Surgery, usually followed by radiation therapy.
Watchful waiting after initial treatment, followed by radiation therapy, surgery, or chemotherapy if the tumor grows or causes signs or symptoms.
Treatment of Multiple Myeloma
Patients without signs or symptoms may not need treatment. These patients can have watchful waiting until signs or symptoms appear.
When signs or symptoms appear, there are two categories for patients receiving treatment:
Younger, fit patients who are eligible for a stem cell transplant.
Older, unfit patients who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant.
Patients younger than 65 years are usually considered younger and fit. Patients older than 75 years are usually not eligible for a stem cell transplant. For patients between the ages of 65 and 75 years, fitness is determined by their overall health and other factors.
The treatment of multiple myeloma is usually done in phases:
Induction therapy: This is the first phase of treatment. Its goal is to reduce the amount of disease, and may include one or more of the following:
For younger, fit patients (eligible for a transplant):
Chemotherapy.
Targeted therapy with a proteasome inhibitor (bortezomib).
Immunotherapy (lenalidomide).
Corticosteroid therapy.
For older, unfit patients (not eligible for a transplant):
Chemotherapy.
Targeted therapy with a proteasome inhibitor (bortezomib or carfilzomib) or a monoclonal antibody (daratumumab).
Immunotherapy (lenalidomide).
Corticosteroid therapy.
Consolidation chemotherapy: This is the second phase of treatment. Treatment in the consolidation phase is to kill any remaining cancer cells. High-dose chemotherapy is followed by either:
one autologous stem cell transplant, in which the patient's stem cells from the blood or bone marrow are used; or
two autologous stem cell transplants followed by an autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplant, in which the patient receives stem cells from the blood or bone marrow of a donor; or
one allogeneic stem cell transplant.
Maintenance therapy: After the initial treatment, maintenance therapy is often given to help keep the disease in remission for a longer time. Several types of treatment are being studied for this use, including the following:
Chemotherapy.
Immunotherapy (lenalidomide).
Corticosteroid therapy.
Targeted therapy with a proteasome inhibitor (bortezomib or ixazomib).
Treatment of Relapsed or Refractory Multiple Myeloma
Treatment of relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma may include the following:
Watchful waiting for patients whose disease is stable.
A different treatment than treatment already given, for patients whose tumor kept growing during treatment.
The same drugs used before the relapse may be used if the relapse occurs one or more years after initial treatment.
Drugs used may include the following:
Targeted therapy with monoclonal antibodies (daratumumab or elotuzumab).
Targeted therapy with proteasome inhibitors (bortezomib, carfilzomib, or ixazomib).
Immunotherapy (pomalidomide, lenalidomide, or thalidomide).
Chemotherapy.
Corticosteroid therapy.
A clinical trial of CAR T-cell therapy.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy with a small molecule inhibitor (selinexor) and corticosteroid therapy.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy with a BCL2 inhibitor (venetoclax).
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (1)
Mayo Clinic and the future of Multiple Myeloma treatment
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
5:40
Mayo Clinic and the future of Multiple Myeloma treatment
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Complications
Cutaneous Lichen Amyloidosis
Image by National Cancer Institute - Nancy Perrier, MD, FACS, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center
Cutaneous Lichen Amyloidosis
Photograph of the neck and upper back of an individual whose skin is covered with many small bumps that are brownish-red in color. Cutaneous lichen amyloidosis is a condition in which itchy papules that are brownish-red in color typically appear on the shins, thighs, feet, or neck, as shown here.
Image by National Cancer Institute - Nancy Perrier, MD, FACS, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center
What Are the Possible Complications of Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms?
Multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms may cause a condition called amyloidosis.
In rare cases, multiple myeloma can cause peripheral nerves (nerves that are not in the brain or spinal cord) and organs to fail. This may be caused by a condition called amyloidosis. Antibody proteins build up and stick together in peripheral nerves and organs, such as the kidney and heart. This can cause the nerves and organs to become stiff and unable to work the way they should.
Amyloidosis may cause the following signs and symptoms:
Feeling very tired.
Purple spots on the skin.
Enlarged tongue.
Diarrhea.
Swelling caused by fluid in your body's tissues.
Tingling or numbness in your legs and feet.
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Additional Materials (8)
Michael York: Amyloidosis and Stem Cell Research
Video by California Institute for Regenerative Medicine/YouTube
3D Video Understanding ATTR Amyloidosis
Video by Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
3D Video Understanding AL Amyloidosis
Video by Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
Understanding Amyloidosis - 3D Animation & Overview
Video by Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
What is Amyloidosis? (Buildup of Amyloid Proteins)
Video by healthery/YouTube
Attacking plasma cell dyscrasia in AL amyloidosis
Video by VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Video by Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
Multiple Myeloma: What you need to know - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
18:41
Michael York: Amyloidosis and Stem Cell Research
California Institute for Regenerative Medicine/YouTube
3:04
3D Video Understanding ATTR Amyloidosis
Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
2:14
3D Video Understanding AL Amyloidosis
Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
2:52
Understanding Amyloidosis - 3D Animation & Overview
Amyloidosis Research Consortium ARC/YouTube
3:15
What is Amyloidosis? (Buildup of Amyloid Proteins)
healthery/YouTube
1:11
Attacking plasma cell dyscrasia in AL amyloidosis
VJHemOnc – Video Journal of Hematological Oncology/YouTube
16:56
Multiple Myeloma – Is It Now a Curable Disease?
Leukemia Research Foundation/YouTube
9:32
Multiple Myeloma: What you need to know - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Prognosis
Doctor meeting patient
Image by Sozavisimost/Pixabay
Doctor meeting patient
Doctor
Image by Sozavisimost/Pixabay
What Affects the Long-Term Outlook in People with Plasma Cell Neoplasms?
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis depends on the following:
The type of plasma cell neoplasm.
The stage of the disease.
Whether a certain immunoglobulin (antibody) is present.
Whether there are certain genetic changes.
Whether the kidney is damaged.
Whether the cancer responds to initial treatment or recurs (comes back).
Treatment options depend on the following:
The type of plasma cell neoplasm.
The age and general health of the patient.
Whether there are signs, symptoms, or health problems, such as kidney failure or infection, related to the disease.
Whether the cancer responds to initial treatment or recurs (comes back).
Source: PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
Send this HealthJournal to your friends or across your social medias.
Plasma Cell Neoplasms
A plasma cell neoplasm (PCN) is cancer that begins in plasma cells, white blood cells that produce antibodies. Multiple myeloma, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), and plasmacytoma are types of plasma cell neoplasms. Learn about the different types, risk factors and treatment options.