Childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which cancer cells form in the lymph system. The three major types are aggressive mature B-cell NHL, lymphoblastic lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Learn about the symptoms, diagnosis, staging, and treatment.
Gracelyn, who is currently undergoing chemotherapy while battling Lymphoblastic Lymphoma, gives her father a new look
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by R. Nial Bradshaw
Overview
Lymphatic immune system lymph node
Image by Chris Sullivan/Wikimedia
Lymphatic immune system lymph node
The diagram represents a simple, unlabeled version of a human lymph node.
Image by Chris Sullivan/Wikimedia
What Is Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
General Information About Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
KEY POINTS
Childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system, which is a part of the body's immune system.
There are three major types of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Aggressive mature B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Lymphoblastic lymphoma
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Some types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma are rare in children.
Having a weakened immune system increases the risk of NHL in children.
Signs of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma include breathing problems and swollen lymph nodes.
Tests that examine the body and lymph system are used to diagnose childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
A biopsy is done to diagnose childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system, which is a part of the body's immune system.
The immune system helps protect the body from infection and disease.
The lymph system is made up of the following:
Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph vessels and carries lymphocytes (white blood cells).
B lymphocytes, also called B cells, make antibodies to help fight infection. Most types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma begin in B lymphocytes.
T lymphocytes, also called T cells, help B lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection.
Natural killer cells, also called NK cells, attack cancer cells and viruses.
Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are found along a network of lymph vessels throughout the body. Groups of lymph nodes are found in the neck, underarm, mediastinum (the area between the lungs), abdomen, pelvis, and groin.
Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, stores red blood cells and lymphocytes, filters the blood, and destroys old blood cells. The spleen is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
Thymus: An organ in which T lymphocytes mature and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. There is one tonsil on each side of the throat.
Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the hip bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone marrow.
Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart.
Lymph tissue is also found in other parts of the body such as the stomach, thyroid gland, brain, and skin.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can begin in B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or natural killer cells.
There are two general types of lymphomas: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. This summary is about the treatment of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. For information about the treatment of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma, see Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment.
Treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is different for children and adults.
Gracelyn, who is currently undergoing chemotherapy while battling Lymphoblastic Lymphoma, gives her father a new look
Gracelyn, who is currently undergoing chemotherapy while battling Lymphoblastic Lymphoma, gives her father a new look March 23 in the 388th Operations Support Squadron Heritage Room at Hill AFB. 419th Fighter Wing Chief of Safety Maj. Nathan Litz, Gracelyn's father, along with nearly 80 members of the 388th and 419th Fighter Wings shaved their heads to support Gracelyn and all who endure childhood cancer. (U.S. Air Force photo by R. Nial Bradshaw).
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by R. Nial Bradshaw
Baby Sitting Showing Respiratory and Lymph Systems
One of the most obvious ways that we notice the overall immune health of a baby is through the presence or absence of respiratory infections. Respiratory illness is the leading cause of hospitalization among young children. And when it is severe enough to require hospitalization, respiratory illness greatly increases the risk of childhood asthma. Lymph nodes and vessels are a direct component of the immune system. Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body especially in the neck, axillae, groin, lung and aortic areas. These aggregations of lymph tissue aid the immunological system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body. Lymph vessels transport lymph, a clear fluid derived from intercellular spaces around the body, eventually back into the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Gracelyn, who is currently undergoing chemotherapy while battling Lymphoblastic Lymphoma, gives her father a new look
U.S. Air Force photo by R. Nial Bradshaw
Baby Sitting Showing Respiratory and Lymph Systems
TheVisualMD
3:56
Lifestyle Factors Impact Survival of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Patients, Mayo Study Finds
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Types
Lymph Node with Vasculature
Image by TheVisualMD
Lymph Node with Vasculature
Computer generated illustration of a human lymph node and its vasculature. Lymph nodes are encapsulated bundles of lymph tissue found throughout the body especially in the neck, axillae, groin, lung and aortic areas. These aggregations of lymph tissue aid the immunological system by collecting and breaking down toxins and other waste products of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Types of Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
There are three major types of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The type of lymphoma is determined by how the cells look under a microscope. The three major types of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma are:
Mature B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Mature B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas include:
Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia: Burkitt lymphoma and Burkitt leukemia are different forms of the same disease. Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia is an aggressive (fast-growing) disorder of B lymphocytes that is most common in children and young adults. It may form in the abdomen, Waldeyer's ring, testicles, bone, bone marrow, skin, or central nervous system (CNS). Burkitt leukemia may start in the lymph nodes as Burkitt lymphoma and then spread to the blood and bone marrow, or it may start in the blood and bone marrow without forming in the lymph nodes first.
Both Burkitt leukemia and Burkitt lymphoma have been linked to infection with the Epstein-Barr virus(EBV), although EBV infection is more likely to occur in patients in Africa than in the United States. Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia are diagnosed when a sample of tissue is checked and a certain change to the MYC gene is found.
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that grows quickly in the lymph nodes. The spleen, liver, bone marrow, or other organs are also often affected. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma occurs more often in adolescents than in children.
Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma: A type of lymphoma that develops from B cells in the mediastinum (the area behind the breastbone). It may spread to nearby organs including the lungs and the sac around the heart. It may also spread to lymph nodes and distant organs including the kidneys. In children and adolescents, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma occurs more often in older adolescents.
Lymphoblastic lymphoma
Lymphoblastic lymphoma is a type of lymphoma that mainly affects T-cell lymphocytes. It usually forms in the mediastinum (the area behind the breastbone). This causes trouble breathing, wheezing, trouble swallowing, or swelling of the head and neck. It may spread to lymph nodes, bone, bone marrow, skin, the CNS, abdominal organs, and other areas. Lymphoblastic lymphoma is a lot like acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Anaplastic large cell lymphoma is a type of lymphoma that mainly affects T-cell lymphocytes. It usually forms in the lymph nodes, skin, or bone, and sometimes forms in the gastrointestinal tract, lung, tissue that covers the lungs, and muscle. Patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma have a receptor, called CD30, on the surface of their T cells. In many children, anaplastic large cell lymphoma is marked by changes in the ALK gene that makes a protein called anaplastic lymphoma kinase. A pathologist checks for these cell and gene changes to help diagnose anaplastic large cell lymphoma.
Some types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma are rare in children.
Some types of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma are less common. These include:
Pediatric-type follicular lymphoma : In children, follicular lymphoma occurs mainly in males. It is more likely to be found in one area and does not spread to other places in the body. It usually forms in the tonsils and lymph nodes in the neck, but may also form in the testicles, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, and salivary gland.
Marginal zone lymphoma : Marginal zone lymphoma is a type of lymphoma that tends to grow and spread slowly and is usually found at an early stage. It may be found in the lymph nodes or in areas outside the lymph nodes. Marginal zone lymphoma found outside the lymph nodes in children is called mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. MALT may be linked to Helicobacter pylori infection of the gastrointestinal tract and Chlamydophila psittaci infection of the conjunctival membrane which lines the eye.
Primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma : Primary CNS lymphoma is extremely rare in children.
Peripheral T-cell lymphoma : Peripheral T-cell lymphoma is an aggressive (fast-growing) non-Hodgkin lymphoma that begins in mature T lymphocytes. The T lymphocytes mature in the thymus gland and travel to other parts of the lymph system, such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen.
Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma : Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma begins in the skin and can cause the skin to thicken or form a tumor. It is very rare in children, but is more common in adolescents and young adults. There are different types of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, such as cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma, and mycosis fungoides. Mycosis fungoides rarely occurs in children and adolescents.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (3)
Burkitt lymphoma
Burkitt lymphoma, touch prep, Wright stain
Image by Ed Uthman, MD./Wikimedia
What is low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Video by Lymphoma Action/YouTube
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Video by Best Doctors/YouTube
Burkitt lymphoma
Ed Uthman, MD./Wikimedia
10:55
What is low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma?
Lymphoma Action/YouTube
3:58
Hodgkin's Disease or Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Best Doctors/YouTube
Risk Factors
HIV-infected H9 T cell
Image by NIAID
HIV-infected H9 T cell
Scanning electromicrograph of an HIV-infected H9 T cell. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
What Are the Risk Factors for Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Past treatment for cancer and having a weakened immune system affect the risk of having childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your child's doctor if you think your child may be at risk.
Possible risk factors for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma include the following:
Past treatment for cancer.
Being infected with the Epstein-Barr virus or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Having a weakened immune system after a transplant or from medicines given after a transplant.
Having certain inherited diseases (such as DNA repair defect syndromes which include ataxia-telangiectasia, Nijmegen breakage syndrome, and constitutional mismatch repair deficiency).
If lymphoma or lymphoproliferative disease is linked to a weakened immune system from certain inherited diseases, HIV infection, a transplant or medicines given after a transplant, the condition is called lymphoproliferative disease associated with immunodeficiency. The different types of lymphoproliferative disease associated with immunodeficiency include:
Lymphoproliferative disease associated with primary immunodeficiency.
HIV-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (1)
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Image by Analytical Imaging Facility at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Epstein-Barr virus breaks out of a B cell
Analytical Imaging Facility at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Symptoms
Child Coughing
Image by TheVisualMD
Child Coughing
Child Coughing
Image by TheVisualMD
What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma?
Signs of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma include breathing problems and swollen lymph nodes.
These and other signs may be caused by childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma or by other conditions. Check with a doctor if your child has any of the following:
Trouble breathing.
Wheezing.
Coughing.
High-pitched breathing sounds.
Swelling of the head, neck, upper body, or arms.
Trouble swallowing.
Painless swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, stomach, or groin.
Painless lump or swelling in a testicle.
Fever for no known reason.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Night sweats.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (1)
What You Need to Know about Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma: Presentation
Video by OMNIConnect/YouTube
36:58
What You Need to Know about Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma: Presentation
OMNIConnect/YouTube
Diagnosis
Physical exam of a child
Image by RIBI Image Library
Physical exam of a child
Physical exam of a child
Image by RIBI Image Library
How Is Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Diagnosed?
Tests that examine the body and lymph system are used to diagnose childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Blood chemistry studies : A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body, including electrolytes, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), uric acid, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and liver function values. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
Liver function tests : A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver. A higher than normal amount of a substance can be a sign of cancer.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Computed tomography (CT) scan. The child lies on a table that slides through the CT scanner, which takes a series of detailed x-ray pictures of areas inside the body.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do. Sometimes a PET scan and a CT scan are done at the same time. If there is any cancer, this increases the chance that it will be found.Positron emission tomography (PET) scan. The child lies on a table that slides through the PET scanner. The head rest and white strap help the child lie still. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into the child's vein, and a scanner makes a picture of where the glucose is being used in the body. Cancer cells show up brighter in the picture because they take up more glucose than normal cells do.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. The child lies on a table that slides into the MRI machine, which takes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. The positioning of the child on the table depends on the part of the body being imaged.
Lumbar puncture : A procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle between two bones in the spine and into the CSF around the spinal cord and removing a sample of the fluid. The sample of CSF is checked under a microscope for signs that the cancer has spread to the brain and spinal cord. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap.Lumbar puncture. A patient lies in a curled position on a table. After a small area on the lower back is numbed, a spinal needle (a long, thin needle) is inserted into the lower part of the spinal column to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing.
Chest x-ray : An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The picture can be printed to be looked at later.Abdominal ultrasound. An ultrasound transducer connected to a computer is pressed against the skin of the abdomen. The transducer bounces sound waves off internal organs and tissues to make echoes that form a sonogram (computer picture).
A biopsy is done to diagnose childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Cells and tissues are removed during a biopsy so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. Because treatment depends on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, biopsy samples should be checked by a pathologist who has experience in diagnosing childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
One of the following types of biopsies may be done:
Excisional biopsy : The removal of an entire lymph node or lump of tissue.
Incisional biopsy : The removal of part of a lump, lymph node, or sample of tissue.
Core biopsy : The removal of tissue or part of a lymph node using a wide needle.
Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy : The removal of tissue or part of a lymph node using a thin needle.
The procedure used to remove the sample of tissue depends on where the tumor is in the body:
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy : The removal of bone marrow and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone.Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the child’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
Mediastinoscopy : A surgical procedure to look at the organs, tissues, and lymph nodes between the lungs for abnormal areas. An incision (cut) is made at the top of the breastbone and a mediastinoscope is inserted into the chest. A mediastinoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It also has a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Anterior mediastinotomy : A surgical procedure to look at the organs and tissues between the lungs and between the breastbone and heart for abnormal areas. An incision (cut) is made next to the breastbone and a mediastinoscope is inserted into the chest. A mediastinoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It also has a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer. This is also called the Chamberlain procedure.
Thoracentesis : The removal of fluid from the space between the lining of the chest and the lung, using a needle. A pathologist views the fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells.
If cancer is found, the following tests may be done to study the cancer cells:
Immunohistochemistry : A laboratory test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens in a sample of tissue. The antibody is usually linked to a radioactive substance or a dye that causes the tissue to light up under a microscope. This type of test may be used to tell the difference between different types of cancer.
Flow cytometry : A laboratory test that measures the number of cells in a sample, the percentage of live cells in a sample, and certain characteristics of cells, such as size, shape, and the presence of tumor markers on the cell surface. The cells are stained with a light-sensitive dye, placed in a fluid, and passed in a stream before a laser or other type of light. The measurements are based on how the light-sensitive dye reacts to the light.
Cytogenetic analysis : A laboratory test in which cells in a sample of tissue are viewed under a microscope to look for certain changes in the chromosomes.
FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization): A laboratory test used to look at genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues. Pieces of DNA that contain a fluorescent dye are made in the laboratory and added to cells or tissues on a glass slide. When these pieces of DNA attach to certain genes or areas of chromosomes on the slide, they light up when viewed under a microscope with a special light. This type of test is used to find certain gene changes.
Immunophenotyping : A laboratory test used to identify cells, based on the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cell. This test is used to diagnose specific types of lymphoma by comparing the cancer cells to normal cells of the immune system.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on:
The type of lymphoma.
Where the tumor is in the body when the tumor is diagnosed.
The stage of the cancer.
Whether there are certain changes in the chromosomes.
The type of initial treatment.
Whether the lymphoma responded to initial treatment.
The patient’s age and general health.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Flow Cytometry Test
Flow Cytometry Test
Also called: Cytometric Flow Analysis
Flow cytometry is a laboratory method used to detect, identify, and count specific cells from blood, bone marrow, body fluids or tumors. It is used in basic research and to help diagnose, stage and monitor certain types of cancers, such as leukemia and lymphoma.
Flow Cytometry Test
Also called: Cytometric Flow Analysis
Flow cytometry is a laboratory method used to detect, identify, and count specific cells from blood, bone marrow, body fluids or tumors. It is used in basic research and to help diagnose, stage and monitor certain types of cancers, such as leukemia and lymphoma.
A flow cytometry is a laboratory method that measures the number of cells, the percentage of live cells, and certain characteristics of cells, such as size and shape, in a sample of blood, bone marrow, or other tissue. The presence of tumor markers, such as antigens, on the surface of the cells are also measured. The cells are stained with a light-sensitive dye, placed in a fluid, and then passed one at a time through a beam of light. The measurements are based on how the stained cells react to the beam of light.
Flow cytometry is used in basic research and to help diagnose and manage certain diseases, including cancer.
Flow cytometry. NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Lymphopenia - Diagnosis | NHLBI, NIH. May 31, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Flow Cytometry: Test, Use, Analysis & Results Interpretation | Cleveland Clinic [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Additional Materials (6)
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to "amplify" small segments of DNA.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
RNA Transcription
The process of protein synthesis begins within the nucleus of a cell, where DNA resides (purple). The first step is to reveal the blueprint. In the process called transcription, general transcription factors and RNA polymerase (orange) bind to the promoter region of a DNA nucleotide. The DNA helix is first unwound or "unzipped" to divulge the instructions for assembling a particular type of protein molecule. The instructions are then copied, or transcribed, to mRNA (messenger RNA), a snake-like strand that will carry the blueprint off for production (blue). When transcription is complete, the mRNA exits the cell nucleus with its duplicate of the blueprint and shuttles off to the protein-making factory, the ribosome.
Image by TheVisualMD
PCR tubes
Photo of a strip of PCR tubes, each tube contains a 1000uL (1mL) reaction.
Image by Madprime
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Ep. 1: Needle in a Haystack | MedscapeTV
Video by Medscape/YouTube
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Symptoms and Treatment of AML Video About com
Video by Mohammed Dhaw/YouTube
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
RNA Transcription
TheVisualMD
PCR tubes
Madprime
6:51
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Ep. 1: Needle in a Haystack | MedscapeTV
Medscape/YouTube
4:11
Acute Myeloid Leukemia Symptoms and Treatment of AML Video About com
Mohammed Dhaw/YouTube
Electrolyte Panel
Electrolyte Panel
Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes
An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.
Electrolyte Panel
Also called: Electrolytes, Lytes
An electrolyte panel measures the level of the body's main electrolytes. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control many important functions in the body. Levels that are too high or too low can indicate a serious health problem.
Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity, heart rhythm, and other important functions. An electrolyte panel, also known as a serum electrolyte test, is a blood test that measures levels of the body's main electrolytes:
Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in the body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
Chloride, which also helps control the amount of fluid in the body. In addition, it helps maintain healthy blood volume and blood pressure.
Potassium, which helps your heart and muscles work properly.
Bicarbonate, which helps maintain the body's acid and base balance. It also plays an important role in moving carbon dioxide through the bloodstream.
Abnormal levels of any of these electrolytes can be a sign of a serious health problem, including kidney disease, high blood pressure, and a life-threatening irregularity in heart rhythm.
An electrolyte panel is often part of a routine blood screening or a comprehensive metabolic panel. The test may also be used to find out if your body has a fluid imbalance or an imbalance in acid and base levels.
Electrolytes are usually measured together. But sometimes they are tested individually. Separate testing may be done if a provider suspects a problem with a specific electrolyte.
You may need this test if you have symptoms indicating that your body's electrolytes may be out of balance. These include:
Nausea and/or vomiting
Confusion
Weakness
Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't any special preparations for an electrolyte panel.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will include measurements for each electrolyte. Abnormal electrolyte levels can be caused by several different conditions, including:
Dehydration
Kidney disease
Heart disease
Diabetes
Acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
Your specific results will depend on which electrolyte is affected and whether levels are too low or too high. If your electrolyte levels were not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical problem needing treatment. Many factors can affect electrolyte levels. These include taking in too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids and blood pressure medicines may cause abnormal results.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Your health care provider may order another test, called an anion gap, along with your electrolyte panel. Some electrolytes have a positive electric charge. Others have a negative electric charge. The anion gap is a measurement of the difference between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a serious health problem.
Electrolyte Panel: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (10)
Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
8:05
Overview of Fluid and Electrolyte Physiology (Fluid Compartment)
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
9:43
Fluid and Electrolytes: Sodium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
4:19
Fluid and Electrolytes: Magnesium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
6:36
Fluid & Electrolytes: Phosphate
EmpoweRN/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
Sodium
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
Sodium Blood Test
Also called: Sodium, Hyponatremia Test, Hypernatremia Test
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.
{"label":"Sodium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":60,"max":134},"text":"Low sodium levels most often occur as a result of disease or a side effect of medicines; they are rarely due to too little sodium in the diet.","conditions":["Hyponatremia","Addison's disease","Diarrhea","Diuretics","Kidney disease","Heart failure","Cirrhosis"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":134,"max":144},"text":"Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":144,"max":200},"text":"High sodium levels can be caused by high dietary intake of salt, diabetes, hormone deficiency or fluid imbalance caused by excessive sweating, diarrhea or burns.","conditions":["Hypernatremia","Kidney dysfunction","Dehydration","Cushing's syndrome"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":139,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
134
144
Your result is Normal.
Sodium is a mineral that is used in regulating the amount of water in the body. Sodium also plays important roles, along with potassium, in muscle contraction, the beating of the heart, and the sending of nerve impulses.
Related conditions
A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. Sodium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals. They help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Sodium also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
You get most of the sodium you need in your diet. If you take in too much, your kidneys get rid of the extra sodium in your urine. Normally, your body keeps your sodium levels in a very narrow range. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a kidney problem, dehydration, or another type of medical condition.
A sodium blood test is a routine test that may be used to check your general health. It may be used to help find and monitor conditions that affect the balance of fluids, electrolytes, and acidity in your body.
The test is often done as part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel. It may also be part of two other groups of tests called a basic metabolic panel (BMP) and a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP)
Your health care provider may order a sodium blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you take medicine that can affect your fluid balance. You may also have this test if you have symptoms of too much sodium or too little sodium in your blood.
Symptoms of high sodium levels (hypernatremia) include:
Thirst
Urinating (peeing) very little
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely high levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
Symptoms of low sodium levels (hyponatremia) include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Confusion
Muscle twitching
Seizures
Without treatment, extremely low levels of sodium may lead to a coma and become life threatening.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your provider will let you know exactly how to prepare for a sodium blood test. On the day of the test, you may need to skip or delay certain medicines. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines, herbs, or supplements that you take. But don't stop any medicines without talking with your provider first.
You may also need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Ask your provider if you have any questions.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Blood sodium levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of many different types of conditions. To make a diagnosis, your provider will usually look at the results of your sodium blood test with the results of other tests, such as measurements of other electrolytes.
Sodium blood test results that are higher than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
Dehydration, which may be caused by not drinking enough, diarrhea, or certain medicines called diuretics (water pills)
A disorder of the adrenal glands
A kidney disease
Diabetes insipidus (uncommon).
Sodium blood test results that are lower than normal may be a sign of a condition, such as:
A loss of sodium from diarrhea or vomiting
A condition that may cause the body to hold onto extra fluid (which dilutes sodium), including:
Kidney diseases
Cirrhosis of the liver
Heart failure
Certain brain and lung diseases
Certain types of cancer
Certain medicines, including many over-the-counter pain relievers and some antidepressants
Addison disease
Malnutrition
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that need treatment. Certain medicines can increase or decrease your sodium levels. If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Sodium levels are often measured with other electrolytes in another test called the anion gap. An anion gap test looks at the difference between negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. The test checks for acid imbalances and other conditions.
Sodium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth
Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
Video by Healthcare Triage/YouTube
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
Video by DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
Salt is essential to life, but because our bodies are built to crave salt, modern diets often include too much. The kidneys balance the amount of salt and fluid in the body in order to maintain proper blood pressure. When healthy people eat too much salt, their bodies adjust and the kidneys excrete more sodium. But when the kidneys are damaged, they are less able to excrete sodium so that even normal salt intake can result in an increase in the fluid retained by the body, which causes blood pressure to rise. Controlling salt is key to controlling hypertension. High sodium foods to avoid: table salt, potato chips, bacon, pickles, olives hot dogs, pastrami, cheese.
Image by TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
A glass salt shaker with a metal top photographed on a white background. Reduction of salt intake is important in reducing blood pressure.
Image by Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Image by Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
Sodium is an electrolyte that plays key roles in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, as well as helps balance bodily fluids and facilitate the movement of materials across cell membranes. Abnormal sodium levels can be caused by many conditions; either too much or too little sodium can be dangerous. The body maintains sodium blood levels in a narrow range; urine is the primary way in which the body balances sodium levels. Normal sweating is one of the ways the nervous system regulates body temperature; excessive sweating can lead to low sodium, particularly when only water is used to replace lost fluids.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
A test for sodium, along with other electrolytes, is routinely included in the basic metabolic panel (BMP). If blood levels are abnormal, urine levels are also tested in order to help determine whether the problem is excessive intake of sodium or excessive loss.
Image by TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from Muzaffarabad to Islamabad, Pakistan, aboard a U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter
Image by Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
3:07
Hyponatremia SALT LOSS Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
3:33
Hypernatremia FRIED, SWINE, SALT, MODEL Nursing Mnemonics, Nursing School Study Tips
NURSINGcom/YouTube
6:46
You're Probably not Dehydrated: The Eight Glasses of Water a Day Myth
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
4:42
Dietary Salt Recommendations Don't Line Up with Recent Evidence
Healthcare Triage/YouTube
3:04
Fluids and Electrolytes Sodium
DrBruce Forciea/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Sodium Food
TheVisualMD
Living With the DASH Eating Plan
Dubravko Soric SoraZG on Flickr
Salt
Sam Bald
Man with Visible Musculature Lifting Weights (sodium)
TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Sodium: Blood Vessels
TheVisualMD
U.S. Army Sergeant Kornelia Rachwal gives a young Pakistani girl a drink of water as they are airlifted
Technical Sergeant Mike Buytas of the United States Air Force
Chloride
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
Chloride Blood Test
Also called: Chloride, Hypochloremia Test, Hyperchloremia Test
A chloride test measures the chloride in your blood. Chloride is a mineral that helps maintain the acid-base balance in your body. The test is usually part of a routine blood screening or to help determine if there is a problem with your body's electrolyte or acid-base (pH) balance.
{"label":"Chloride reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":80,"max":96},"text":"Low levels of chloride, called hypochloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or excessive sweating.","conditions":["Bartter syndrome","Burns","Congestive heart failure","Cushing syndrome","Dehydration","Excessive sweating","Hyperaldosteronism","Metabolic alkalosis","Respiratory acidosis","SIADH","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":96,"max":106},"text":"You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it\u2019s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":106,"max":125},"text":"High levels of chloride, called hyperchloremia, may be caused by conditions like diarrhea or kidney disease, certain medications, or eating too much salt.","conditions":["Addison disease","Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors","Diarrhea","Ethylene glycol poisoning","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disease","Lactic acidosis","Metabolic acidosis","Methanol poisoning","Renal tubular acidosis","Respiratory alkalosis","Salicylate toxicity","Ureteral diversion"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":101,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
96
106
Your result is Normal.
You get most of your chloride in the form of sodium chloride, or salt, in the food you eat. In healthy people, chloride is usually absorbed in the gut, then it’s transported through your blood and distributed to your tissues.
Related conditions
A chloride blood test measures the amount of chloride in your blood. Chloride is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. Chloride is often measured with other electrolytes to diagnose or monitor conditions, such as kidney disease, heart failure, liver disease, and high blood pressure.
You usually get a chloride test as part of a routine blood screening to check your general health. It's also used to help diagnose conditions related to an imbalance of acids or fluids in your body.
Your health care provider may have ordered a chloride blood test as part of an electrolyte panel, which is a routine blood test. An electrolyte panel is a test that measures chloride and other electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and bicarbonate. You may also need a chloride blood test if you have symptoms of an acid or fluid imbalance, including:
Vomiting over a long period of time
Diarrhea
Fatigue
Weakness
Dehydration
Trouble breathing
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a chloride blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There are many reasons why your chloride levels may not be in the normal range.
High levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Dehydration
Kidney disease
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which you have too much acid in your blood. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Low levels of chloride may be a sign of:
Heart failure
Lung disease
Addison disease, a condition in which your body's adrenal glands don't produce enough of certain types of hormones. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including weakness, dizziness, weight loss, and dehydration.
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which you have too much base in your blood. It can cause irritability, muscle twitching, and tingling in the fingers and toes.
If your chloride levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Many things can affect your chloride levels, such as drinking too much fluid or losing fluid because of vomiting or diarrhea. Also, certain medicines such as antacids can cause abnormal results. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Urine also contains some chloride. Your provider may also recommend a urine chloride test to get more information about your chloride levels.
Chloride Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride test - blood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Chloride - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH et al. Chloride: the queen of electrolytes?. European journal of internal medicine. Apr 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2011.11.013 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (12)
Fluid Regulation
The body's fluid balance is kept within a narrow range by the kidneys, which constantly monitor and adjust blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride) as well as blood proteins such as albumin. If the body is unable to self-regulate, however, treatment may involve dietary changes (lower salt intake or increased fluid intake, for example), diuretics or treatment of the underlying disease causing the fluid imbalance.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
Cells in the lining of the stomach use chloride to produce hydrochloric acid, a powerful acid that aids digestion. Other cells in the stomach lining produce biocarbonate to buffer the acid and mucus to prevent the acid from damaging the stomach lining.
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride
Image by Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
Cross section Human Stomach
Image by TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
Image by TheVisualMD
Fluid Regulation
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach Wall Lining Close Up
TheVisualMD
Chloride: Stomach
TheVisualMD
3:26
Fluid and Electrolytes: Chloride
EmpoweRN/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
TED-Ed/YouTube
4:07
Chloride Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
Calcium chloride
Firetwister _ Markus Brunner
Cross section Human Stomach
TheVisualMD
gastric acid in stomach hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride
TheVisualMD
Potassium
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
Potassium Blood Test
Also called: Potassium, Hypokalemia Test, Hyperkalemia Test
A potassium blood test measures the potassium levels in your blood. It is often included in a series of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. Too much or too little potassium may indicate a serious medical problem.
{"label":"Potassium reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypokalemia","long":"Hypokalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":3.5},"text":"Low levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting and diarrhea, or the side effects of drugs including, mostly commonly, diuretics.","conditions":["Acute or chronic diarrhea","Cushing syndrome (rare)","Diuretics","Hyperaldosteronism","Hypokalemic periodic paralysis","Not enough potassium in the diet","Renal artery stenosis","Renal tubular acidosis (rare)","Vomiting"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3.5,"max":5},"text":"Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hyperkalemia","long":"Hyperkalemia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":7},"text":"Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia, which is most commonly caused by reduced kidney function, particularly in dialysis patients.","conditions":["Addison disease (rare)","Blood transfusion","Certain medicines","Crushed tissue injury","Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis","Hypoaldosteronism (very rare)","Kidney insufficiency or failure","Metabolic or respiratory acidosis","Red blood cell destruction","Too much potassium in your diet"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":4.3,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Potassium is a mineral that your cells, nerves, and muscles need to function properly. It helps your body regulate your blood pressure, heart rhythm and the water content in cells. It also helps with digestion.
Related conditions
A potassium blood test measures the amount of potassium in your blood. Potassium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control fluid levels and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. They also help control muscle and nerve activity and perform other important functions.
Your cells, nerves, heart, and muscles need potassium to work properly. Potassium levels that are too high or too low may be a sign of a medical problem.
Other names: potassium serum, serum potassium, serum electrolytes, K
A potassium blood test measures how much potassium is in your blood. The test is often part of a group of routine blood tests called an electrolyte panel. It may be used to monitor or diagnose conditions related to abnormal potassium levels. These conditions include kidney disease, high blood pressure, and heart disease.
Your health care provider may order a potassium blood test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor an existing condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or adrenal gland disorders. You may also need this test if you take medicines that could affect your potassium levels or if you have symptoms of having too much or too little potassium.
If your potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), your symptoms may include:
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Fatigue
Muscle weakness
Nausea
Numbness or tingling
If your potassium levels are too low (hypokalemia), your symptoms may include:
Irregular heartbeat
Muscle cramps
Weak or twitching muscles
Fatigue
Nausea
Constipation
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a potassium blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Too much potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia). It's often the result of two or more causes. High potassium levels may be a sign of:
Kidney disease. Your kidneys remove extra potassium from your body. Too much potassium may mean your kidneys aren't working well.
Addison disease, a disorder of the adrenal glands
Injuries, burns, or surgery that can cause your cells to release extra potassium into your blood
Type 1 diabetes that is not well controlled
The side effects of certain medicines, such as diuretics ("water pills") or antibiotics
A diet too high in potassium (not common). Bananas, apricots, green leafy vegetables, avocados and many other foods are good sources of potassium that are part of a healthy diet. But eating very large amounts of potassium-rich foods or taking potassium supplements can lead to health problems.
Too little potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) may be a sign of:
Use of prescription diuretics
Fluid loss from diarrhea, vomiting, or heavy sweating
Using too many laxatives
Adrenal gland disorders, including Cushing's syndrome and aldosteronism
Kidney disease
Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
A diet too low in potassium (not common)
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements may raise your potassium levels. And eating a lot of licorice may lower your levels. But only real licorice, which comes from licorice plants, has this effect. Most licorice products sold in the U.S. don't contain any real licorice. Check the package ingredient label to be sure.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Repeated clenching and relaxing of your fist just before or during your blood test may temporarily increase the potassium levels in your blood. This may lead to an incorrect result.
Potassium Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 19, 2023]
Additional Materials (16)
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
Video by EmpoweRN/YouTube
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Video by Whats Up Dude/YouTube
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
Video by PictureFit/YouTube
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Video by Reactions/YouTube
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
Video by DoctorOz/YouTube
Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
Video by Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube
What Causes Cramps?
Video by Life Noggin/YouTube
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Video by Wendy Westwood/YouTube
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
Video by Fox News/YouTube
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Potassium Food
Clockwise from top left: tomato, orange, broccoli, carrot, butternut squash, beets, banana, spinach, almonds, avocado
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium Ion
Potassium is an electrolyte; that is, a substance that conducts electricity in the body. Potassium is critical for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs in the body. It is essential to heart function, and plays a major role in smooth muscle contraction, making it important for normal digestive and muscle function. The mineral also plays a role in decreasing high blood pressure, as it attenuates the water-gathering effects of sodium. Many foods contain potassium, including all meats, some types of fish (salmon, cod, flounder), and many fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Dairy products are also good sources. If you eat a variety of foods, you'll likely meet the daily requirement. Maintaining the proper balance of sodium and potassium can be difficult; E209most Americans take in far more sodium than potassium. As a rule, five times more potassium than sodium should be consumed.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Muscle Spasm
Muscles contract in response to nerve impulses. Electrolytes such as potassium establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which enables the transmission of these nerve impulses. Too little potassium can result in muscle weakness or spasms.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Heart Rate
Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cardiac electrical activity. A potassium imbalance can result in a slow or irregular heart beat, or even cardiac arrest.
Image by TheVisualMD
Potassium: Neural Conduction
Electrolytes can be either negatively and positively charged (potassium has a positive charge); they establish an electric potential between the inside and outside of cell membranes, which makes possible the transmission of nerve impulses.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:19
Fluid & Electrolytes: Potassium
EmpoweRN/YouTube
1:12
Electrolytes - What Are Electrolytes - Functions Of Electrolytes
Whats Up Dude/YouTube
1:47
Why You Need Electrolytes - Can It Help With Getting Stronger?
PictureFit/YouTube
2:42
What Do Electrolytes Actually Do?
Reactions/YouTube
4:52
What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli
TED-Ed/YouTube
5:18
3 Signs You're Not Getting Enough Potassium
DoctorOz/YouTube
4:03
Muscle Cramps & Spasms – Dr.Berg On Charley Horses
Dr. Eric Berg DC/YouTube
1:46
What Causes Cramps?
Life Noggin/YouTube
3:26
Charley Horse Causes, Relief
Wendy Westwood/YouTube
3:35
High potassium levels: Should I Worry?
Fox News/YouTube
13:18
Aldosterone raises blood pressure and lowers potassium | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Plate of High Potassium Food
TheVisualMD
Potassium Ion
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Muscle Spasm
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Heart Rate
TheVisualMD
Potassium: Neural Conduction
TheVisualMD
Bicarbonate
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
Carbon Dioxide Blood Test
Also called: Carbon Dioxide, CO2, Bicarbonate, Metabolic Alkalosis Test, Metabolic Acidosis Test
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide is in the blood in your veins. Too much or too little CO2 in the blood can indicate a health problem. The test is most often done as part of an electrolyte or metabolic panel.
{"label":"Carbon dioxide reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":22},"text":"Low results may indicate a wide range of conditions, such as electrolyte imbalance. ","conditions":["Hypocapnia","Addison's disease","Acidosis","Ketoacidosis","Shock","Kidney disorders"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":22,"max":28},"text":"Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":28,"max":60},"text":"High results may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Hypercapnia","Lung diseases","Disorders of the adrenal glands","Hormonal disorders","Kidney disorders","Alkalosis"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"meq\/L","code":"meq\/L","name":"milliequivalent per liter"}],"value":25,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
meq/L
22
28
Your result is Normal.
Changes in your CO2 level may suggest that you are losing or retaining acidic fluid. This may cause an imbalance in your body's acid-base balance (pH balance).
Related conditions
{"label":"pCO2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypocapnia","long":"Hypocapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":10,"max":35},"text":"A pCO2 value below 35 mm Hg is called hypocapnia, or hypocarbia. When the levels are low, the body naturally tries to produce more CO2 by joining bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions to create more CO2 molecules. However, hydrogen ions determine blood pH; by using up hydrogen ions to create CO2, the pH of the blood increases and becomes basic.","conditions":["Addison disease","CNS tumors","Dyspnea","Heart failure","Hyperventilation","Fatigue","Infections","Intracranial pressure","Ketoacidosis","Kidney disorders","Medications (aspirin, progesterone)","Metabolic acidosis","Pulmonary edema","Pulmonary embolism","Respiratory alkalosis","Shock"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":35,"max":45},"text":"A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Hypercapnia","long":"Hypercapnia","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":45,"max":100},"text":"A pCO2 value above 45 mm Hg is called hypercapnia, or hypercarbia. This result may indicate that your body has an electrolyte imbalance, or that there is a problem removing carbon dioxide through your lungs.","conditions":["Adrenal glands disorders","Hormonal disorders","Hyperthyroidism","Hypoventilation","Fever","Kidney diseases","Lung diseases","Respiratory acidosis","Respiratory failure"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"mm\u00a0Hg","code":"mm[Hg]","name":"millimeter of mercury"}],"value":40,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mm Hg
35
45
Your result is Normal.
A partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body gets rid of when you exhale. It helps regulate your breathing rate and the acid-base balance in your blood.
Related conditions
A carbon dioxide (CO2) blood test measures the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Carbon dioxide is an odorless, colorless gas. It is a waste product that your body makes when it uses food for energy.
Your blood carries carbon dioxide to your lungs. When you exhale, you breathe out carbon dioxide. Having too much or too little carbon dioxide in your blood can be a sign of a health problem.
Most of the carbon dioxide in your body is in the form of bicarbonate, which is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluid and the balance of acids and bases (pH balance) in your body. A CO2 blood test is often part of a group of tests called an electrolyte panel.
An electrolyte panel may be part of a regular check-up. The test may also help diagnose or monitor conditions related to an electrolyte imbalance. These include high blood pressure and diseases of the kidneys, lungs, or liver.
Your health care provider may order a CO2 blood test as part of your regular checkup or if you have symptoms of an electrolyte imbalance. These symptoms may include:
Trouble breathing
Confusion
Weakness
Fatigue
Vomiting and/or diarrhea over a long period of time
Your provider may also order a CO2 blood test to check for side effects of certain medicines that can cause electrolyte imbalances.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a CO2 blood test or an electrolyte panel. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Abnormal test results may be a sign that your body is having a hard time keeping the right acid-base balance (pH balance). This may be because your lungs or kidneys are having a problem removing carbon dioxide or because you have an electrolyte imbalance. Many different types of conditions can cause these problems.
Too much CO2 in the blood can be a sign of many conditions, including:
Lung diseases
Cushing's syndrome
Kidney failure
Metabolic alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough. You may lose acid from conditions such as vomiting, dehydration, and anorexia.
Too little CO2 in the blood may be a sign of:
Addison disease, a complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Shock
Metabolic acidosis, a condition in which your blood is too acidic. It may be caused by many things, including kidney or liver disease, or long-lasting diarrhea.
Respiratory alkalosis, a condition in which your blood is not acidic enough because of lung or breathing disorders, including hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing).
If your test results are not in the normal range, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other factors, including certain medicines, can affect the level of CO2 in your blood. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Some prescription and over-the-counter medicines can increase or decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood. Be sure to tell your provider about any medicines you are taking.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in Blood: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
CO2 blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Carbon Dioxide (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
This test measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in blood or other body fluids. LDH is an enzyme involved in energy production. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage or disease.
This test measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in blood or other body fluids. LDH is an enzyme involved in energy production. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage or disease.
{"label":"Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"units":[{"printSymbol":"U\/L","code":"U\/L","name":"enzyme unit per liter"}],"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":100},"text":"Low LDH levels happen rarely. LDH deficiency affects how the body breaks down sugar for use as energy in cells, particularly muscle cells.","conditions":["LDH deficiency","Genetic disorders","Excess intake of vitamin C"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":100,"max":200},"text":"Normal levels can vary depending on the person's age and the method used for testing. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":200,"max":300},"text":"Higher than normal LDH levels usually means you have some type of tissue damage or disease.","conditions":["Strenuous exercise","Hemolytic anemia","Megaloblastic anemia","Infections","Mononucleosis","Meningitis","HIV","Sepsis","Myocardial infarction","Pulmonary infarction","Kidney damage","Liver damage","Acute muscle injury","Pancreatitis","Bone fractures","Cancer","Hypoxia"]}],"value":150}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
100
200
Your result is Normal.
Normal levels can vary depending on the person's age and the method used for testing.
Related conditions
A lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test usually measures the level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in a sample of your blood. In certain cases, LDH levels are measured in samples of other body fluids. This includes testing fluid from the spine (cerebrospinal fluid), the belly (peritoneal fluid), and the chest (pleural fluid).
LDH is also called lactic acid dehydrogenase. It is an enzyme. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up certain chemical reactions in your body. LDH helps your cells make energy. It is found in almost all the tissues in your body. The largest amounts of LDH are found in your muscles, liver, kidneys, and red blood cells.
If disease or injury damages tissues that have LDH, their cells release the enzyme into your bloodstream or other body fluids. It's normal to have some LDH in your blood and body fluids. But if your LDH levels are high, it may be a sign of certain diseases or injuries.
An LDH test alone can't show what is damaging your tissues or where the damage is located. So, an LDH test is usually done with other types of tests that can help diagnose the problem.
Other names: LD test, lactic dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase
LDH is mainly used to check for tissue damage. Many types of acute (sudden) and chronic (long-lasting) conditions can damage tissues and cause high LDH levels. So LDH testing may be used in many different situations from bone and muscle injuries to monitoring treatment for cancer. For example, an LDH test may be used to:
Help diagnose and/or monitor diseases that affect the:
Blood, including anemia
Liver
Lungs
Kidneys
Heart, including heart attack
Pancreas
Brain and spinal cord, such as encephalitis and bacterial meningitis
Help monitor conditions that may get worse over time, such as muscular dystrophy and HIV
Help diagnose certain severe infections
Find out how serious certain types of cancer may be, including multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia, testicular cancer, and melanoma.
Check whether treatment for certain types of cancer is working
Because LDH testing is used for so many conditions, it's best to ask your health care provider why you need an LDH test. In general, the test is ordered if other tests and/or your symptoms suggest you have tissue damage or disease.
If you have a disease that affects LDH levels, you may need an LDH test to learn more about your condition and to find out if your treatment is helping.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
If your provider thinks you have a condition that may affect LDH levels in other body fluids, you may have a procedure to get a fluid sample. These procedures may include:
A lumbar puncture or "spinal tap" to collect cerebrospinal fluid that flows around your brain and spinal cord
A thoracentesis to remove fluid in the chest
A paracentesis or "abdominal tap" to remove fluid from the abdomen
If you are having one of these tests, your provider will explain the procedure.
You don't need any special preparations for an LDH blood test. If your test uses other fluid samples, your provider will tell you how to prepare.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly. If you are having another type of test, your provider will explain the risks.
LDH testing is used for many reasons. The meaning of your LDH test results depends on the reason you had the test, your symptoms, and the results of other tests you've had. So, ask your provider to explain what your results say about your health.
In general, LDH levels that are higher than normal usually mean you have some type of tissue damage. The damage is usually from disease, infection, or injury. Your provider may order more tests to diagnose your condition.
But higher a than normal LDH level doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. High levels can be caused by intense exercise and certain medicines, including aspirin. It's also possible to have a high LDH level if many red blood cells broke open when your sample was collected and tested.
Lower than normal LDH levels aren't common and usually aren't considered to be a health problem. Taking large amounts of vitamin C or vitamin E may cause low levels. Low LDH levels may also be caused by a rare genetic disorder called lactate dehydrogenase deficiency.
If your results showed higher than normal LDH levels, your provider may order a more specific type of LDH test that can help find out where the LDH is coming from. This more specific test is called an LDH isoenzyme test.
An LDH isoenzyme test measures the levels of five different forms of LDH. This information helps your provider find out about the type of tissue that's damaged, where in the body it may be, and how serious the damage may be.
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 28, 2024]
Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase (Blood) - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
LabCorp Test Menu / 001115: Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase (LD) [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
LD - Clinical: Lactate Dehydrogenase (LD), Serum [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) - Understand the Test & Your Results [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate dehydrogenase test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate Dehydrogenase Test: Types, Procedure, and Results [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Lactate dehydrogenase deficiency - Genetics Home Reference - NIH [accessed on Oct 16, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Complications after a heart attack (myocardial infarction) | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Preventing Stroke (Stroke #4)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Understanding Stroke (Stroke #1)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Stroke - Carotid Artery Disease and TIA
Video by EdwardHospital/YouTube
3D Medical Animation - What is a Heart Attack?
Video by BioDigital, Inc./YouTube
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : This image shows an Intracerebral and Intraventricular hemorrhage of a young woman. The woman was one week post partum, with no known trauma involved.
Image by Glitzy queen00
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : Spontaneous ICH with hydrocephalus on CT scan.
Image by Yadav YR, Mukerji G, Shenoy R, Basoor A, Jain G, Nelson A
Cerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral hemorrhage : An intracranial bleed with significant midline shift.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Ischemic Stroke
Ischemic Stroke: The illustration shows how an ischemic stroke can occur in the brain. If a blood clot breaks away from plaque buildup in a carotid (neck) artery, it can travel to and lodge in an artery in the brain. The clot can block blood flow to part of the brain, causing brain tissue death.
Image by National Heart Lung and Blood Insitute (NIH)
What Is a Heart Attack?
Diagram showing a heart attack (mycardial infaction).
Image by NIH: National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute
This test measures the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isoenzymes in the blood. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage from disease or injury. An isoenzyme test can help determine which organs and other tissues are likely to be damaged.
This test measures the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isoenzymes in the blood. High levels may be a sign of tissue damage from disease or injury. An isoenzyme test can help determine which organs and other tissues are likely to be damaged.
{"label":"LDH-1 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":17},"text":"Low LDH levels happen rarely. LDH deficiency affects how the body breaks down sugar for use as energy in cells, particularly muscle cells.","conditions":["LDH deficiency","Genetic disorders","Excess intake of vitamin C"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":17,"max":27},"text":"LDH-1 is mostly found in the heart, red blood cells, and brain.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":27,"max":50},"text":"High LDH-1 levels may indicate strenuous exercise before the test or damage in the heart, red blood cells, or brain. When your LDH-1 is higher than your LDH-2, it could mean that you had a heart attack in the past week.","conditions":["Strenuous exercise","Heart attack","Myocardial infarction","Hemolytic anemia","Megaloblastic anemia","Renal infarction","Hypoxia","Infections","Meningitis","Sepsis",""]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":22,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
17
27
Your result is Normal.
LDH-1 is mostly found in the heart, red blood cells, and brain.
Related conditions
{"label":"LDH-2 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":27},"text":"Low LDH levels happen rarely. LDH deficiency affects how the body breaks down sugar for use as energy in cells, particularly muscle cells.","conditions":["LDH deficiency","Genetic disorders","Excess intake of vitamin C"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":27,"max":37},"text":"LDH-2 is mostly found in the white blood cells, lymph nodes, and spleen. Normally your LDH-2 is higher than your LDH-1.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":37,"max":70},"text":"High LDH-2 levels may indicate strenuous exercise before the test or damage in the white blood cells, lymph nodes, or spleen.","conditions":["Strenuous exercise","Myocardial infarction","Heart attack","Hypoxia","Renal infarction","Hemolytic anemia","Megaloblastic anemia",""]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":32,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
27
37
Your result is Normal.
LDH-2 is mostly found in the white blood cells, lymph nodes, and spleen. Normally your LDH-2 is higher than your LDH-1.
Related conditions
{"label":"LDH-3 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":18},"text":"Low LDH levels happen rarely. LDH deficiency affects how the body breaks down sugar for use as energy in cells, particularly muscle cells.","conditions":["LDH deficiency","Genetic disorders","Excess intake of vitamin C"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":18,"max":25},"text":"LDH-3 is mostly found in the lungs.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":25,"max":100},"text":"High LDH-3 levels may indicate damage in the lungs.","conditions":["Pneumonia","Pulmonary infarction","Hypoxia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":21.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
18
25
Your result is Normal.
LDH-3 is mostly found in the lungs.
Related conditions
{"label":"LDH-4 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":3},"text":"Low LDH levels happen rarely. LDH deficiency affects how the body breaks down sugar for use as energy in cells, particularly muscle cells.","conditions":["LDH deficiency","Genetic disorders","Excess intake of vitamin C"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":8},"text":"LDH-4 is mostly found in the kidneys, placenta, and pancreas.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":20},"text":"High LDH-5 levels may indicate damage in the kidneys, placenta, or pancreas.","conditions":["Cancer","Pancreatitis","Kidney damage","Placental problems"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":5.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
3
8
Your result is Normal.
LDH-4 is mostly found in the kidneys, placenta, and pancreas.
Related conditions
{"label":"LDH-5 reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":5},"text":"LDH-5 is mostly found in the liver and muscles. ","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":5,"max":15},"text":"High LDH-5 levels may indicate strenuous exercise before the test or damage in the liver and muscles. When your LDH-5 is greater than your LDH-4 it could mean you have damage to your liver or liver disease.","conditions":["Strenuous exercise","Cancer","Liver Damage","Liver Disease","Cirrhosis","Hepatitis","Acute muscle injury"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"value":2.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
5
Your result is Normal.
LDH-5 is mostly found in the liver and muscles.
Related conditions
This test measures lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isoenzymes in a sample of your blood. It's a general test that can help find out if you have tissue damage from disease or injury. It can also help show which organs and other tissues are likely to be damaged. But an LDH isoenzymes test alone cannot diagnose what's causing the damage.
LDH is also called lactic acid dehydrogenase. It is an enzyme. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up certain chemical reactions in your body. The LDH enzyme helps your cells make energy. LDH is found in almost all the tissues in your body. The largest amounts of LDH are found in your muscles, liver, kidneys, and red blood cells.
There are five forms of the LDH enzyme which are called LDH isoenzymes. Each isoenzyme has a slightly different structure and is found in specific tissues in your body:
LDH-1 is mainly in your heart and red blood cells.
LDH-2 is mainly in your white blood cells. It is also found in your heart and red blood cells, but in smaller amounts than LDH-1.
LDH-3 is mainly in your lungs. Smaller amounts are found in other tissues.
LDH-4 is mainly in your kidneys and pancreas. If you're pregnant, it's also found in the placenta (the organ that brings oxygen and nutrients to the baby).
LDH-5 is mainly in your liver and skeletal muscles (muscles that attach to your bones to help you move).
It's normal to have some LDH in your blood. But if disease or injury damages tissues that contain LDH, the cells release LDH isoenzymes into your bloodstream and your LDH levels will rise above normal.
There are two ways to measure LDH:
A total LDH test measures the total amount of LDH in your blood or other body fluids. It can't tell the difference between the types of LDH isoenzymes. So, this test can show possible tissue damage, but it can't show which tissue may be damaged.
An LDH isoenzyme test measures the amount of each type of isoenzyme in your blood. This information helps your health care provider figure out which tissues may be damaged.
Because each LDH isoenzyme is found in more than one type of tissue, other more specific tests are often used with or instead of an LDH isoenzymes test. These tests can more accurately identify which tissue is damaged and the condition causing the damage.
Other names: LD isoenzymes, lactic dehydrogenase isoenzyme, LDH fractionation
An LDH isoenzymes test is mainly used as a general test to check for tissue damage. It can also help find out how serious the damage may be. An LDH isoenzymes test may be used to show which organs and other tissues are likely to be damaged, but other more specific tests may be used instead.
An LDH isoenzyme test may be used with other tests to help diagnose and monitor many types of acute (sudden) and chronic (long-lasting) conditions. Conditions that may cause high LDH levels include:
Anemia
Kidney disease
Liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis
Pancreatitis
A blood clot in the lung (pulmonary embolism)
Muscular dystrophy
A recent heart attack, although troponin tests have mostly replaced LDH isoenzyme tests for diagnosing damage to the heart muscle from a heart attack
LDH isoenzyme tests may also be used to find out if treatment for many conditions is working.
The test is used to learn how serious certain types of cancer may be and whether the cancer is likely to respond to certain treatments. Regular LDH isoenzyme testing may be done to see whether cancer is getting better during and/or after treatment.
An LDH isoenzyme testing may be used for many conditions, so it's best to ask your provider why you need this test. In general, the test is ordered if you:
Have symptoms that suggest you have some type of tissue damage
Had a total LDH test that showed you have higher than normal levels of LDH
Have a condition that affects LDH levels, and your provider wants to:
Learn more about your condition
Find out if your treatment is helping
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an LDH isoenzymes test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
The meaning of your LDH isoenzyme test results depends on the reason you had the test, your symptoms, and the results of other tests you've had. Ask your provider to explain what your results say about your health.
In general, a high level of one or more LDH isoenzymes usually means you have some type of tissue damage. The type of disease or damage depends on which LDH isoenzymes are high and how your isoenzyme levels compare with each other. For example:
LDH-1 that's higher than LDH-2 may be a sign of a certain type of anemia.
LDH-5 that's higher than LDH-4 may be a sign of liver damage or disease.
High levels of two or more isoenzymes may mean you have two different conditions. Or it could be a sign of cancer that has spread to different tissues.
Higher than normal LDH isoenzyme levels don't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. High levels of certain LDH isoenzymes can be caused by intense exercise and certain medicines, including aspirin. It's also possible to have high LDH isoenzymes if many red blood cells broke open when your sample was collected and tested.
Lower than normal LDH isoenzyme levels aren't common and usually aren't considered to be a health problem. Your levels of certain isoenzymes may be affected by taking large amounts of vitamin C or vitamin E. There is also a rare genetic disorder that can cause low LDH levels.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider.
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Isoenzymes Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 28, 2024]
Lactate Dehydrogenase Isoenzymes - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
LDH isoenzyme blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 17, 2018]
Uric Acid Test
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
Uric Acid Test
Also called: Urate
A uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal body waste product. High levels can cause gout, kidney disease, and other problems.
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mg/dL
3.4
7
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Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
This test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of your blood or urine (pee). Uric acid is a normal waste product that your body makes when it breaks down chemicals called purines. Purines come from your cells when they die. Purines are also found in many foods and beverages.
Most uric acid dissolves in your blood. Your kidneys filter the uric acid out of your blood, and it leaves your body in your urine. If uric acid builds up in your blood, it can form needle-shaped crystals in and around your joints. This condition is called gout.
Gout is a type of arthritis that causes painful swelling in your joints. High uric acid levels can also cause kidney stones, or kidney failure. But not everyone with high levels of uric acid will have these problems.
A uric acid blood test may be used to:
Help diagnose gout, usually when done with a synovial fluid analysis.
Monitor uric acid levels in people who are having cancer chemotherapy or certain other cancer treatments. When treatment kills cancer cells quickly, they release large amounts of purines into the blood. This can lead to serious problems from high uric acid levels. Testing helps catch an increase in uric acid so it can be treated early.
A uric acid urine test may be used to:
Help find out whether high levels of uric acid are causing kidney stones
Monitor the risk of developing kidney stones in people who have gout
You may need a uric acid blood test if you:
Have symptoms of gout. Symptoms usually happen in one joint at a time. The big toe is most commonly affected, but your other toes, ankle, or knee may have symptoms, which include:
Intense pain
Swelling
Redness
Feeling warm
Had or are having certain types of cancer treatments.
You may also need a uric acid urine test if you:
Have symptoms of a kidney stone, including:
Sharp pain in your lower abdomen (belly), side, groin or back
Blood in your urine
Frequent urge to urinate (pee)
Not being able to urinate at all or only urinating a little bit
Pain when urinating
Cloudy or bad-smelling urine
Nausea and vomiting
Fever and chills
Have gout and your health care provider wants to monitor your risk for developing kidney stones
A uric acid test may be done as a blood test or a urine test. Your provider will decide which test you need.
For a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a uric acid urine test, you'll need to collect all your urine during a 24-hour period. This is called a 24-hour urine sample test. You will be given a special container to collect your urine and instructions on how to collect and store your samples. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
Usually, you don't need any special preparations for a uric acid blood test. Many medicines, including aspirin, can affect your uric acid levels. Taking niacin (vitamin B-3) can also affect your results. So, be sure to tell your provider about all the medicines you take. But don't stop taking any medicines without talking with your provider first.
There is no known risk to having a uric acid blood or urine test.
High uric acid levels in a blood test may happen if:
Your body makes too much uric acid
Your kidneys can't remove uric acid from your blood
You are eating too many foods that cause high levels of purines such as:
Red meat and organ meats, including liver and kidney
Certain kinds of seafood, including shellfish, anchovies, sardines, trout, and tuna
Alcohol (all types)
High fructose corn syrup in soda and sweets
Your provider may order more tests to help diagnose what's causing the problem. High levels of uric acid may be related to many conditions, including:
Gout
Kidney disease
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body (metastatic cancer)
Side effects from certain cancer treatments
Alcohol use disorder
Preeclampsia, a condition that can cause dangerously high blood pressure in pregnant women
Low levels of uric acid in blood are uncommon and usually don't cause health problems. Health conditions that are related to low uric acid levels are usually diagnosed using other tests.
High uric levels in urine, may be related to:
Gout
Kidney stones or having a high risk for kidney stones
Leukemia, multiple myeloma, or cancer that has spread in your body
Obesity
An inherited genetic condition, such as Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, that makes it hard for your body to get rid of uric acid
Low levels of uric acid in urine may be related to kidney disease, lead poisoning, or alcohol use disorder.
If your results show a high level of uric acid in your blood or urine, it doesn't always mean you have a condition that needs treatment. Many people have high levels of uric acid without having health problems.
If you have questions about your results, talk with your provider. Medicines and/or changes in your diet may help you keep your uric acid levels in a healthy range.
Uric Acid Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Nov 05, 2018]
LabCorp: Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia (High Uric Acid) [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric acid - blood : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Uric Acid [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
URIC - Clinical: Uric Acid, Serum [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Hyperuricemia: Symptoms, Treatment, and More [accessed on Oct 29, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (15)
Uric Acid: Uric Acid Is a Waste Product
Uric acid is produced when the body breaks down substances called purines. Purines have two sources: They're end products of the breakdown of body proteins, and they're also found in a number of foods, including liver, anchovies, lentils, spinach, and beer. Uric acid is filtered out of the blood as a waste product by the kidneys. Two thirds of the uric acid produced daily is excreted by the kidneys, and the remaining one third leaves the body in the stool. Levels of uric acid in the body vary widely during the day as well as from day to day and from season to season, so several uric acid tests may be performed over an extended period of time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric Acid: Obesity and Gout
Gout is linked with obesity--and as the incidence of obesity has escalated, so has that of gout. Gout prevalence has doubled over the last 20 years or so. About 70% of people with gout are overweight, and 14% are obese (defined as having a body mass index of 30 or over). People who are obese are two to four times more likely to develop gout and are likely to develop it at a younger age. It's not entirely clear why obesity is linked with gout, but it's thought that it may be due to the increased insulin resistance associated with obesity. Moderate-intensity exercise benefits gout because it helps to control uric acid levels in the body while stretching and strengthening joints. The best forms of exercise for gout place minimal stress on the joints, such as swimming and water aerobics.
Image by TheVisualMD
Uric acid
Fluorescent uric acid : Spiked rods of monosodium urate crystals photographed under polarized light from a synovial fluid sample. Formation of en: monosodium urate crystals in the joints are associated with gout.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Nitrogenous Wastes
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in different forms by different species. These include (a) ammonia, (b) urea, and (c) uric acid. (credit a: modification of work by Eric Engbretson, USFWS; credit b: modification of work by B. "Moose" Peterson, USFWS; credit c: modification of work by Dave Menke, USFWS)
Image by CNX Openstax
Who Is Likely to Develop Gout?
Chronic Gout : Gouty tophi on knee and elbow of middle aged nurse
Image by NickGorton
What Is Gout?
Gout in left foot : A side-by-side comparison shot of gout in the main toe of the left foot, showing significant swelling of the surrounding tissue.
Image by Fatlittlebastard
What Are the Four Stages of Gout?
Gout in foot.
Image by vagawi
Gripped by Gout - Avoiding the Ache and Agony - NIH News in Health
Gout and Pseudogout, Joint Pain- Everything You Need To Know- Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
2:19
Psuedogout - Everything You Need To Know - Dr. Nabil Ebraheim
nabil ebraheim/YouTube
7:00
How Do Kidney Stones Form? How Can We Prevent Them?
VIP Urology/YouTube
1:10
How to Recognize the Signs and Symptoms of Kidney Stones
Howcast/YouTube
BUN/Creatinine Ratio
BUN/Creatinine Ratio
Also called: BUN-to-creatinine ratio
BUN-to-creatinine ratio shows the proportion of protein breakdown waste products like blood urea nitrogen and creatinine in your blood. The result allows your doctor to assess your kidney function and to distinguish different kidney disorders.
BUN/Creatinine Ratio
Also called: BUN-to-creatinine ratio
BUN-to-creatinine ratio shows the proportion of protein breakdown waste products like blood urea nitrogen and creatinine in your blood. The result allows your doctor to assess your kidney function and to distinguish different kidney disorders.
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{ratio}
10
20
Your result is Normal.
Normal results can vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
BUN (blood urea nitrogen) is a waste product that is formed during a breakdown of proteins. When you eat, your liver breaks down the proteins in your food and, as a result, blood urea nitrogen is created. The levels of BUN are related to your total muscle mass because every now and then your muscles are going through breakdown and rebuilding processes.
Your kidneys help remove BUN from the body through urine, leaving a small amount circulating in your blood. Testing for BUN helps to assess your kidney function as well as evaluate if your liver works properly.
Creatinine is also produced as a result of muscle activity. It is actively processed and secreted by small structures called nephrons, which are located in the kidneys. Measuring the creatinine level in your blood helps your doctor to assess your kidney function.
As different diseases affect BUN-to-creatinine ratio differently, the changes of BUN-to-creatinine ratio in the blood make it possible to distinguish kidney diseases.
BUN-to-creatinine ratio is mainly used to diagnose kidney disease.
Your doctor may order a BUN-to-creatinine ratio if you are experiencing symptoms of kidney disease, such as:
Problems when urinating (pain, urinating too often or too rarely)
Abnormal urine (foamy, bloody, brown, too light)
Pain in the middle of your back
Swelling in different areas of your body (arms, legs, ankles, around the eyes)
Restless legs
Fatigue
Pain in joints or bones
Sometimes, a BUN test is separately ordered to assess your risk of developing kidney disease. People at high risk of developing kidney disease are:
People who have a family history of kidney disease
People who have high blood pressure
People with diabetes
People with heart disease
Testing for BUN-to-creatinine ratio starts with blood sample collection from the vein. The blood is collected into small tubes and sent to the laboratory.
No fasting or other preparations are needed. However, you should inform your healthcare practitioner if you are taking any over-the-counter or prescription drugs.
You may feel discomfort when the needle is inserted and extracted but otherwise is a quick procedure. You may also experience bruising and a little bleeding, as well as mild soreness for a short amount of time after the blood extraction.
The normal result for BUN-to-creatinine ratio is from 10:1 to 20:1.
Lower results may indicate kidney disease (glomerulonephritis or acute tubular necrosis), liver failure, or malnutrition.
An increased BUN-to-creatinine ratio could refer to a condition that prevents blood flow to the kidneys (heart failure, dehydration). A higher ratio could also be seen in cases of high protein intake, high levels of protein in the blood, or in cases of gastrointestinal bleeding.
The level of BUN is affected by the amount of proteins in the blood. So, high protein intake causes an increase in BUN levels, while a low intake decreases the BUN levels.
Pregnancy could be related to both increased or decreased concentrations of BUN.
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) - Understand the Test & Your Results [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen): MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
BUN/Creatinine Ratio [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Test: High vs. Low Levels, Normal Range [accessed on Sep 06, 2018]
BUN/Creatinine Ratio Test - Healthlabs.com [accessed on Oct 09, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (7)
Creatinine Molecule
Glomeruli are tiny filters in the kidneys that remove waste products from the blood, while preventing the loss of other constituents, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute. When a person`s kidney function declines, the filtration rate decreases and waste products, including creatinine, which is produced in the muscles and normally filtered out and excreted into the urine, instead begin to accumulate in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Creatinine
Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.
Image by TheVisualMD
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
Video by NKN/YouTube
Acute Renal Failure
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Nephrology - Glomerular Filtration
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Blood Urea Nitrogen BUN Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Creatinine Molecule
TheVisualMD
Creatinine
TheVisualMD
8:29
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
NKN/YouTube
10:12
Acute Renal Failure
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
14:02
Nephrology - Glomerular Filtration
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:01
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
4:32
Blood Urea Nitrogen BUN Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
Creatinine Test
Creatinine Test
Also called: Creat, Creatinine
This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.
Creatinine Test
Also called: Creat, Creatinine
This test measures creatinine levels in your blood or urine. Creatinine is a waste product that is made each time you move your muscles. People who have larger muscles tend to make more creatinine than people who have smaller muscles. Abnormal levels can be a sign of kidney disease.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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mg/dL
0.7
1.2
Your result is Normal.
Creatinine is a chemical waste product of muscle metabolism. The muscle mass in the body is related to creatinine levels in the blood. Creatinine is removed from blood by kidneys, therefore creatinine test gives an overview of kidney function.
Related conditions
This test measures creatinine levels in a sample of your blood and/or urine (pee). Creatinine is a normal waste product in your body. It's made when you use your muscles and some of the muscle tissue breaks down.
Normally, your kidneys filter creatinine from your blood and remove it from your body in your urine. If there is a problem with your kidneys, creatinine can build up in your blood and less may be released in urine. If blood and/or urine creatinine levels are not normal, it may be a sign of kidney disease.
Creatinine in blood may be measured by itself or as part of a group of tests called a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) or a basic metabolic panel (BMP). Your health care provider may order these tests as part of a routine checkup.
Other names: blood creatinine, serum creatinine, urine creatinine, kidney function, renal function
A creatinine test is used to help:
Check the health of your kidneys
Diagnose kidney disease
Monitor known kidney problems and see how well treatment is working
Check for side effects from medicines that may affect your kidneys
Creatinine testing alone isn't the best way to check how well your kidneys are working. That's because people make different amounts creatinine depending on how much muscle they have, the foods they eat, their age, and how active they are. So, the results from creatinine testing are often used in calculations or compared with other substances to help get more information:
Creatinine levels in blood are often used to calculate how fast your kidneys filter waste out of your blood. This is called an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The calculation includes information about your age, weight, height, and sex. An eGFR is a more accurate way to measure kidney health than creatinine levels in blood or urine alone. An eGFR can also help show how serious kidney disease may be.
Creatinine levels in blood and urine maybe be compared with each other. This is called a creatinine clearance calculation. Like an eGFR, it estimates how fast your kidneys filter waste. But an eGFR is more accurate. A creatinine clearance may still be useful to help identify the cause of high or low levels of blood creatinine in people who have very high muscle mass or a loss of muscle mass from age, illness, or the loss of an arm and/or leg.
Creatinine levels in urine may be used to calculate a urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR), which is sometimes called a microalbumin creatinine ratio. Albumin is the main protein found in blood. Normally your kidneys filter out just a trace of albumin, or none at all. If larger amounts of albumin pass into your urine, it may be a sign of kidney damage. A UACR compares the amounts of creatinine and albumin in your urine to get a more accurate measurement of how much albumin is in your urine.
Creatinine blood levels measured as part of a CMP or a BMP may be compared with the level of BUN (blood urea nitrogen) that's measured in the same test. This can help find out the cause of a kidney problem.
Your provider may order a creatinine test:
To check your kidney health as part of a routine checkup.
If you have symptoms of kidney disease. Symptoms may include:
Swelling in the hands and feet or puffy eyelids
Dry skin, itching, or numbness
Fatigue
Increased or decreased need to urinate (pee)
Urine that is bloody or foamy
Loss of appetite and weight loss
Muscle cramps
Nausea and vomiting
Shortness of breath
Sleep problems
Trouble thinking clearly
If you have a high risk for developing kidney disease, even if you don't have symptoms now. Chronic (long-term) kidney disease (CKD) often doesn't have symptoms in the early stages. Your risk for kidney disease is increased if you:
Have diabetes
Have high blood pressure
Have a family health history of kidney disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure
Have heart disease
Are over 50 years old
Smoke
Have obesity
If you have kidney problems or possible kidney problems because you have:
Had an abnormal result on a kidney test in the past
Been diagnosed with kidney disease
Taken certain medicines that could affect your kidneys
Had a kidney transplant
For a creatinine blood test:
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a creatinine urine test:
You may need to provide all the urine you pass over 24 hours. That's because creatinine levels vary through the day. But your provider may use a urine sample from a shorter period of time.
For a 24-hour urine sample, you will be given a special container to collect your urine over a full day and instructions on how to collect and store your sample. Your provider will tell you what time to start. The test generally includes the following steps:
To begin, urinate in the toilet as usual. Do not collect this urine. Write down the time you urinated.
For the next 24 hours, collect all your urine in the container.
During the collection period, store the urine container in a refrigerator or in a cooler with ice.
24 hours after starting the test, try to urinate if you can. This is the last urine collection for the test.
Return the container with your urine to your provider's office or the laboratory as instructed.
If you have hemorrhoids that bleed or are having your menstrual period, tell your provider before your test.
Your provider will let you know how to prepare for your test. You may be told to not eat meat for 24 hours before your test. That's because meat can temporarily increase creatinine levels.
If creatinine is being measured as part of a CMP or a BMP test, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for up to 12 hours before your test.
Certain medicines and supplements can affect your test results. So be sure to tell your provider everything you're taking. But don't stop taking any medicine unless your provider tells you to stop.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is no risk to having a urine test.
Creatinine levels that are considered normal for you will depend on how much muscle you have, what you eat, your age, and how active you are. If you're healthy, your levels are usually fairly stable over time.
But a normal creatinine test result doesn't always mean that your kidneys are healthy. Sometimes, blood creatinine levels remain in a normal range during the early stages of kidney disease. They rise as the condition of your kidneys becomes more serious. If your provider suspects you have a kidney condition, you will likely have other kidney tests even if your creatinine results seem normal.
If your results are abnormal, a single high creatinine test can't diagnose a specific condition. You will likely need to be retested and/or have other tests, too.
In general, if your blood creatinine level is:
High for you, it may be a sign of:
Kidney disease or injury, including infection, poor blood flow to the kidneys, a blockage in the urinary system, or kidney failure
A condition that affects your kidneys, such as heart failure or diabetes
High blood creatinine levels don't always mean you have a kidney problem. They may be caused by dehydration, muscle disorders and injuries, muscular dystrophy, intense exercise, or a diet high in meat. Certain health problems in pregnancy can also cause increases in creatinine.
Low for you, it may be a sign of malnutrition or a condition that causes your muscles to get smaller, such as a long illness, a nerve disorder, or muscle loss from aging. Serious liver disease can also lead to low levels. Low levels of blood creatinine aren't common.
If your results from creatinine blood or urine tests were used to calculate an eGFR, creatinine clearance, and/or a urine albumin to creatinine ratio, ask your provider to explain what these measurements say about your kidney health.
If you have questions about any your results, talk with your provider.
Creatinine Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]
Creatinine blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 23, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (17)
Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
Video by NKN/YouTube
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
BUN and Creatinine
Video by PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube
Creatinine
Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test, and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Diagnosing CKD
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diagnosing CKD
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the standard means of expressing overall kidney function. Normal GFR is approximate; it is about 100-140 mL/min in men and 85-115 mL/min in women. Patients are divided into five stages of chronic kidney disease based on their GFR. In the first four stages the kidneys are still working, but function lessens with each successive stage. In stage 5, kidney failure, the kidneys stop functioning altogether.
Image by TheVisualMD
Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney
Image by Madhero88
Creatine 3D Molecule
An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.
Creatine Kinase (CK)
Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in striated muscle of the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The enzyme plays a role in energy production, and becomes more concentrated in muscle tissue in response to energy demands. When muscle is damaged or diseased, CK leaks into the bloodstream, where elevated levels can be detected. There are three different forms of CK in the body, existing in varying ratios. CK-MB is found mostly in cardiac muscle; CK-MM mostly in skeletal muscle; and CK-BB mostly in the brain. Identifying which form is elevated in blood tests is helpful in determining which kind of tissue has been damaged.
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Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Video by Alila Medical Media/YouTube
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Video by Medcrine Medical/YouTube
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Video by Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
CREATININE: LAB VALUES
Video by NursingSOS/YouTube
Creatinine levels: often misunderstood
Video by SelfTestable/YouTube
Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options
Video by DocMikeEvans/YouTube
3:10
Creatinine Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
8:29
✔✔✔ What is BUN and Creatinine - Kidney Function Test ✔✔✔
NKN/YouTube
3:01
Creatinine Clearance Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
5:26
BUN and Creatinine
PhysioPathoPharmaco/YouTube
Creatinine
TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Diagnosing CKD
TheVisualMD
Diagnosing CKD
TheVisualMD
Understanding GFR - Glomerular Filtration Rate
Madhero88
Creatine 3D Molecule
Creatine Kinase (CK)
TheVisualMD
6:50
Formation of Urine. See link for real voice update in description!
Alila Medical Media/YouTube
15:01
Kidney Function Tests and Interpretation of Results.
Medcrine Medical/YouTube
5:17
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
4:03
CREATININE: LAB VALUES
NursingSOS/YouTube
6:59
Creatinine levels: often misunderstood
SelfTestable/YouTube
10:32
Failing Kidneys and Different Treatment Options
DocMikeEvans/YouTube
Liver Function Tests
Liver Function Tests
Also called: Liver Panel, Liver Function Panel, Liver Profile, Hepatic Function Panel
Liver function tests are blood tests that measure different enzymes, proteins, and other substances made by the liver. Abnormal levels of any of these substances can be a sign of liver disease.
Liver Function Tests
Also called: Liver Panel, Liver Function Panel, Liver Profile, Hepatic Function Panel
Liver function tests are blood tests that measure different enzymes, proteins, and other substances made by the liver. Abnormal levels of any of these substances can be a sign of liver disease.
Liver function tests (also called a liver panel) use a sample of your blood to measure several substances made by your liver.
The most common liver function tests measure:
Albumin, a protein made in the liver.
Total protein. This test measures the total amount of protein in your blood, which includes albumin and globulins. These proteins are mainly made in your liver.
ALP (alkaline phosphatase), ALT (alanine transaminase), AST (aspartate aminotransferase), and GGT (gamma-glutamyl transferase). These are enzymes that are mainly made in your liver. Enzymes are proteins that speed up certain chemical reactions in your body.
Bilirubin, a waste product your body makes when it breaks down old red blood cells. Your liver removes most of the bilirubin from your body.
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), an enzyme found in most of the tissues in your body, but some of the largest amounts are found in your liver.
Prothrombin time (PT), how long it takes your blood to clot. Prothrombin is a protein involved in blood clotting. It's made in your liver.
Some of these tests can show how well your liver is working and others can show whether your liver may be damaged by liver disease or injury. But liver function tests alone usually can't diagnose specific diseases. So, if your results are abnormal, you'll usually need other tests to find the exact cause.
Other names: liver panel, liver function panel, liver profile hepatic function panel, LFT
Liver function tests are most often used to help:
Find out if liver disease or damage could be causing certain symptoms
Learn how serious liver disease is after it has been diagnosed
Monitor liver disease over time and/or find out how well treatment is working
Check for side effects of certain medicines that can affect the liver
Many liver function tests are included in a common blood test called a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP). Your provider often orders a CMP as part of your routine checkup to screen for liver and other diseases.
You may also need liver function tests if you have symptoms of liver disease or damage. These include:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Even if you don't have symptoms, you may need to be tested if you have a high risk for liver damage. Your risk may be high if you have:
A family history of liver disease
Alcohol use disorder (AUD)
Obesity
Diabetes
Been taking certain medicines that may cause liver damage
Hepatitis or have been exposed to hepatitis (swelling of the liver from infection or injury)
If you already have liver disease, you may need to be tested to monitor your condition and/or to see how well your treatment is working.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your provider will tell you how to prepare for your test. You will probably need to fast (not eat or drink) for 10-12 hours before the test. Certain medicines can affect your test results, so be sure to tell your provider about everything you take. But don't stop taking any medicines unless your provider tells you to.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Understanding abnormal liver function test results is often complicated. So, it's best to ask your provider to explain what your results say about your health.
If any of your liver function test results are abnormal, your provider will compare the results of all the substances that were measured. This is done to look for certain patterns of normal and abnormal results that suggest different types of liver conditions.
In general, the results of your liver function tests can tell you if:
Your liver is inflamed, which means you have hepatitis.
You have hepatitis from drinking alcohol or other causes, such as infection.
Your liver isn't working well and how weak it has become.
You have a problem with your bile ducts. Bile is a digestive "juice" that your liver makes. Bile ducts are the tubes that carry bile through your liver and out of your liver.
Medicines are harming your liver and how serious the damage is.
Abnormal results don't always mean you have a problem with your liver. Other conditions can cause high or low levels of certain substances that these tests measure. For example, high levels of ALP can be a sign of bone disease or liver disease. So, your provider will also consider your symptoms, medical history, risk for liver disease, and any medicines you take.
If you have been ill recently, certain types of abnormal results may be temporary. In this case, your provider may repeat the tests later to see if your results return to normal.
Liver Function Tests: MedlinePlus [accessed on Dec 10, 2023]
Liver Biopsy and Liver Function Tests - Diagnosing Liver Disease [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
Liver Function Tests: Purpose, Procedure, and Risk [accessed on Jan 14, 2019]
Additional Materials (16)
Healthy liver (left) versus alcoholic liver disease (right)
Image by TheVisualMD
Enlarged Liver, a Sign of Hemochromatosis
Enlarged Liver, a Sign of Hemochromatosis : Hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb too much iron. Because the body can't use or eliminate this extra iron, it's stored in organs, especially the liver, but also the heart and pancreas. Eventually, up to 20 times as much iron as normal can accumulate, which can lead to organ failure. Symptoms can include irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis, chronic fatigue, confusion, and hepatomegaly, the enlargement of the liver.
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Liver and Lipoproteins
Liver and Lipoproteins
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Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Female Digestive System Including Liver
Female Digestive System Including Liver
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Obesity is often a precursor to Fatty Liver Disease
Obesity is often a precursor to Fatty Liver Disease
Image by TheVisualMD
Drawing of a liver biopsy procedure
A liver is drawn within an outline of a male body. A needle pricks a piece of the liver tissue. An arrow points away from the spot where the needle touches the liver toward a slide with the tissue sample. The liver is labeled. In a liver biopsy, a doctor uses a needle to take a small piece of liver tissue to view with a microscope.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Healthy liver (left) vs unhealthy, fatty liver (right)
Liver function is typically evaluated by a panel of tests, including one for alanine aminotransferase (ALT), an enzyme made in liver cells, that help doctors distinguish among the many different possible causes of liver damage. Alcoholic liver disease is linked to the length of time alcohol is consumed, as well as quantity, though not all heavy drinkers develop it; genetics and sex also play roles. Symptoms include liver inflammation, enlargement, and eventually scarring (cirrhosis).
Image by TheVisualMD
Liver
The liver is a vital organ that has a wide range of functions; a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. It is the largest organ in the body and is critical to one's health. Some of the most common conditions involving damage to the liver include alcoholic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatitis. The liver's general role is in the body's metabolism, secreting hormones that moderate the storage and breakdown of sugar. Glucose is the body's form of energy gleaned from carbohydrates, and it is stored in body cells as glycogen until the liver determines it is needed. At this point, the liver secrets glucagon, a hormone that will signal to cells to convert glycogen into its usable form, glucose.
Image by TheVisualMD
What your Liver Function Test results can show
Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
Introduction to liver function tests
Video by Jaz Singh/YouTube
Liver Function Tests
Video by Rahul Patwari/YouTube
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Video by Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
LIVER FUNCTION TESTING! - AST, ALT, and ALP- Is your liver in SERIOUS TROUBLE?
In nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) fat accumulates in the liver cells. NAFLD is most often found in people who are middle-aged and overweight or obese. About half of all obese kids are also thought to have nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Healthy liver (left) versus alcoholic liver disease (right)
TheVisualMD
Enlarged Liver, a Sign of Hemochromatosis
TheVisualMD
Liver and Lipoproteins
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Female Digestive System Including Liver
TheVisualMD
Obesity is often a precursor to Fatty Liver Disease
TheVisualMD
Drawing of a liver biopsy procedure
NIDDK Image Library
Healthy liver (left) vs unhealthy, fatty liver (right)
TheVisualMD
Liver
TheVisualMD
3:39
What your Liver Function Test results can show
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
4:02
Introduction to liver function tests
Jaz Singh/YouTube
8:59
Liver Function Tests
Rahul Patwari/YouTube
5:17
Understanding Blood Test Video 2: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
Health in a Nutshell/YouTube
13:29
LIVER FUNCTION TESTING! - AST, ALT, and ALP- Is your liver in SERIOUS TROUBLE?
Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test
Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.
Albumin Blood Test
Also called: Albumin, ALB, Hypoalbuminemia Test, Hyperalbuminemia Test
Albumin is a protein made by the liver that makes up about 60% of the total protein in the blood. An albumin blood test can help diagnose, evaluate, and monitor kidney and liver conditions.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
3.5
5
Your result is Normal.
Albumin is the most abundant protein in the body. It is made by the liver and plays many important roles, including maintaining pressure in the blood vessels and transporting substances, such as hormones and medications.
Related conditions
An albumin blood test measures the amount of albumin in your blood. Low albumin levels can be a sign of liver or kidney disease or another medical condition. High levels may be a sign of dehydration.
Albumin is a protein made by your liver. Albumin enters your bloodstream and helps keep fluid from leaking out of your blood vessels into other tissues. It is also carries hormones, vitamins, and enzymes throughout your body. Without enough albumin, fluid can leak out of your blood and build up in your lungs, abdomen (belly), or other parts of your body.
An albumin blood test is used to check your general health and to see how well your liver and kidneys are working. If your liver is damaged or you're not well nourished, your liver may not make enough albumin. If your kidneys are damaged, they may let too much albumin leave your body in urine (pee).
An albumin blood test is often done as part of a group of blood tests that measure different enzymes, proteins, and other substances made in your liver. These tests are called liver function tests or liver panel. An albumin test may also be part of a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), a group of routine blood tests that measures several substances.
Your health care provider may order an albumin test as part your regular checkup. The test may be ordered as part of a group of liver function tests or a comprehensive metabolic panel. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of liver or kidney disease.
Symptoms of liver disease include:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
With some types of kidney disease, such as chronic kidney disease, you may not have symptoms until the later stages.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations to test for albumin in blood. If your provider ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow. Certain medicines may affect your test results, so tell your provider what you are taking. But don't stop taking any medicines without talking with your provider first.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An albumin blood test alone cannot diagnose a condition. Your provider will usually consider your albumin test results with the results of other tests to make a diagnosis.
Lower than normal albumin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease, including severe cirrhosis, hepatitis, and fatty liver disease
Kidney disease
Malnutrition
Infection
Digestive diseases that involve problems using protein from food, such as Crohn's disease and malabsorption disorders
Burns over a large area of your body
Thyroid disease
Higher than normal albumin levels may be a sign of dehydration, which may be caused by severe diarrhea or other conditions.
If your albumin levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Certain medicines, including steroids, insulin, and hormones, can increase albumin levels. Not eating can cause a large decrease in albumin after 24 to 48 hours. Other medicines, including birth control pills, can lower your albumin levels. Albumin levels are lower during pregnancy.
Your provider can explain what your test results mean.
Albumin Blood Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Albumin - blood (serum): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Albumin Blood Test - Testing.com. Nov 24, 2022 [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (8)
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
Urine Test for Albumin
If you are at risk for kidney disease, your provider may check your urine for albumin.
Albumin is a protein found in your blood. A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine. The less albumin in your urine, the better. Having albumin in the urine is called albuminuria.
A diagram showing a healthy kidney with albumin only found in blood, and a damaged kidney that has albumin in both blood and urine.
A healthy kidney doesn’t let albumin pass into the urine. A damaged kidney lets some albumin pass into the urine.
A health care provider can check for albumin in your urine in two ways:
Dipstick test for albumin. A provider uses a urine sample to look for albumin in your urine. You collect the urine sample in a container in a health care provider’s office or lab. For the test, a provider places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. The dipstick changes color if albumin is present in the urine.
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR). This test measures and compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in your urine sample. Providers use your UACR to estimate how much albumin would pass into your urine over 24 hours. A urine albumin result of
30 mg/g or less is normal
more than 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease
If you have albumin in your urine, your provider may want you to repeat the urine test one or two more times to confirm the results. Talk with your provider about what your specific numbers mean for you.
If you have kidney disease, measuring the albumin in your urine helps your provider know which treatment is best for you. A urine albumin level that stays the same or goes down may mean that treatments are working.
Image by The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
Video by NKN/YouTube
Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin
The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin
The albumins (formed from Latin: albumen \"(egg) white; dried egg white\") are a family of globular proteins, the most common of which is serum albumin. The albumin family consists of all proteins that are water-soluble, are moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins, such as egg white, are called albuminoids. A number of blood transport proteins are evolutionarily related, including serum albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein and afamin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin, Kidney Disease
Proteins are normally filtered out of the blood and recycled by the kidneys, including the blood protein albumin, which is produced by the liver and helps maintain the fluid balance of blood as well as transport hormones, vitamins, and other substances throughout the body. When kidneys are diseased or damaged, however, their ability to filter out proteins is compromised, which allows proteins like albumin to then leak into urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin: Kidney Disease
Kidney disease can result in abnormal albumin levels because diseased or damaged kidneys are not able to effectively filter out and recycle albumin in the blood; instead, albumin leaks into the urine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Albumin: Blood Serum
The serum is the clear, liquid portion of the blood. There are two classes of proteins, albumin and globulin, found in the blood. Albumin is the most abundant protein; its main purpose is to keep fluid from leaking out of blood vessels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy vs Damaged Kidney
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases/NIH
3:51
Albumin Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
7:55
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
NKN/YouTube
Electrophoresis - concentration - Albumin
TheVisualMD
Electrophoresis - total protein - Albumin
TheVisualMD
Albumin, Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Albumin: Kidney Disease
TheVisualMD
Albumin: Blood Serum
TheVisualMD
Total Protein
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio
Also called: TP and A/G Ratio, Hypoproteinemia Test, Hyperproteinemia Test
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures total protein levels in your blood. The two major proteins are albumin and globulin. It also compares the amount of albumin to the amount of globulin. The results can show if you have liver or kidney disease.
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio
Also called: TP and A/G Ratio, Hypoproteinemia Test, Hyperproteinemia Test
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures total protein levels in your blood. The two major proteins are albumin and globulin. It also compares the amount of albumin to the amount of globulin. The results can show if you have liver or kidney disease.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
6
8
Your result is Normal.
Proteins are important building blocks of all cells and tissues; they are important for body growth and health. Total protein level may reflect your nutritional status, the presence of kidney or liver disease, as well as many other conditions.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
g/dL
1
2.5
Your result is Normal.
An imbalance of albumins to globulins ratio gives insight into your nutritional status and immune function. The normal range for albumin/globulin ratio is approximately 1 to 2. That’s because there’s a bit more albumin than globulin in serum protein.
Related conditions
A total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio test measures the total amount of protein in your blood. There are two major types of protein in the blood:
Albumin, which helps keep blood from leaking out of blood vessels. It also helps move hormones, medicines, vitamins, and other important substances throughout the body. Albumin is made in the liver.
Globulins, which help fight infection and move nutrients throughout the body. Some globulins are made by the liver. Others are made by the immune system.
The test also compares the amount of albumin in your blood to the amount of globulin. The comparison is called the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio.
If your total protein levels or A/G ratio results are not normal, it can be a sign of a serious health problem.
A total protein and A/G ratio test is often included as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel, a test that measures proteins and other substances in the blood. It may also be used to help diagnose kidney disease, liver disease, or nutritional problems.
You may get this test as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms that indicate abnormal protein levels. These include:
Swelling in the feet, ankles, legs, and/or abdomen, which is caused by extra fluid in your tissues
Fatigue
Unexplained weight loss
Loss of appetite
Nausea and vomiting
Jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes). This is a common symptom of liver disease.
Blood in the urine, a common symptom of kidney disease
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a total protein and A/G ratio test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have normal, low, or high total protein levels. They will also show if you have a normal, low, or high albumin to globulin (A/G) ratio.
If your total protein levels were low, it may mean you have one of the following conditions:
Liver disease
Kidney disease
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
A malabsorption syndrome, a type of disorder in which your small intestine can't absorb enough nutrients from food. Malabsorption syndromes include celiac disease and Crohn's disease.
If your total protein levels were high, it may mean you have one of the following conditions:
An infection such as HIV or viral hepatitis
Multiple myeloma, a type of blood cancer
If your A/G ratio was low, it may be caused by:
An autoimmune disease, such as lupus
Liver disease, including cirrhosis
Kidney disease
If your A/G ratio was high, it may be caused by:
Certain types of genetic disorders
Leukemia
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
In addition to total protein levels, your provider may order a separate blood test for albumin and/or a test for globulins. The globulins test is called serum electrophoresis. It is a blood test that measures the levels of four different types of globulins.
These results may show the following:
Low albumin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease, including cirrhosis
Kidney disease
Malnutrition
Thyroid disease
High albumin levels may be a sign of:
Severe dehydration
Diarrhea
Low globulin levels may be a sign of:
Liver disease
Kidney disease
High globulin levels may be a sign of:
Certain types of blood cancers, such as multiple myeloma, Hodgkin disease, or leukemia
Hemolytic anemia
An autoimmune disease, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
Tuberculosis
Total Protein and Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio : MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Total protein: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Total Protein and A/G Ratio - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (4)
Serum Total Protein: Protein
Serum protein levels can reflect nutritional status in cases of malnutrition or malabsorption, but a high-protein diet does not raise serum levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Excess Renin
The kidneys produce the hormone renin, which helps to control blood pressure. High blood pressure can lead to edema, a swelling caused by excess fluid trapped in the body's tissues, most commonly noticed in the hands, arms, feet, ankles, and legs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney with Visible Blood Vessel
This is a cross-section of the left kidney showing only its dense vasculature. Blood flows in through the renal artery, and continues through the segmental, lobar, arcuate, and interlobular arteries, ending up in the cortex of the kidneys, where the filtering process takes place in the glomerular capillaries.
Image by TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Kidney
Abnormalities of serum protein most often indicate kidney or liver problems; serum protein levels often rise before other symptoms appear.
Image by TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Protein
TheVisualMD
Symptoms of CKD, Excess Renin
TheVisualMD
Kidney with Visible Blood Vessel
TheVisualMD
Serum Total Protein: Kidney
TheVisualMD
ALP
Alkaline Phosphatase Test
Also called: ALP, ALK, PHOS, Alkp, ALK PHOS
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, but it's most abundant in the liver and bone. The test measures the amount of ALP in the blood. It is used to diagnose liver damage or bone disorders.
Alkaline Phosphatase Test
Also called: ALP, ALK, PHOS, Alkp, ALK PHOS
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, but it's most abundant in the liver and bone. The test measures the amount of ALP in the blood. It is used to diagnose liver damage or bone disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
44
147
Your result is Normal.
ALP is an enzyme found throughout the body, but it is mostly found in the liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system. When ALP leaks into the bloodstream it may be a sign of a serious health issue.
Related conditions
An alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test measures the amount of ALP in your blood. ALP is an enzyme found in many parts of your body. Each part of your body produces a different type of ALP. Most ALP is found in your liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system.
Abnormal levels of ALP in your blood may be a sign of a wide range of health conditions, including liver disease, bone disorders, and chronic kidney disease. But an alkaline phosphatase test alone can't identify the source of ALP in your blood, so other tests are usually needed to make a diagnosis.
An alkaline phosphatase test is often used to screen for or help diagnose diseases of the liver or bones. The test may also help diagnose or monitor other health conditions.
Your health care provider may order an alkaline phosphatase test as part of a routine checkup. Many conditions may affect ALP levels, so the test is often done with other blood tests. These other tests include a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) or liver function tests that check how well your liver is working.
An alkaline phosphatase test may also be ordered if you have symptoms of liver damage or a bone disorder. Symptoms of liver disease include:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
An alkaline phosphatase test is a type of blood test. During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Preparations for an alkaline phosphatase test depend on the lab doing the test. Some labs require you to fast (not eat or drink) for 6 to 12 hours before the test. Also, the ALP test is usually ordered with other blood tests. You usually need to fast for several hours before these tests. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
High alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels may be a sign of a liver problem or a bone disorder. Liver problems and bone disorders cause different types of ALP. But your test results can't tell which type of ALP is high.
If your test results show high ALP levels, your provider may order other tests to help figure out what's causing the problem. These tests may include:
An ALP isoenzyme test. This test can tell which part of your body is making the ALP. But this test may not available everywhere.
Liver function tests. If the results of these tests are also high, then your high ALP level is likely from a problem in your liver.
High alkaline phosphatase levels from your liver may be a sign of:
Blockages in the bile ducts
Cirrhosis
Hepatitis
Mononucleosis, which can sometimes cause swelling in the liver
If alkaline phosphatase levels are high and the results of liver tests are normal, the problem may be a bone disorder, such as Paget's disease of bone. This disease makes your bones unusually large and weak, causing them to break more easily.
Moderately high levels of ALP may be a sign of a many different types of conditions, including Hodgkin lymphoma, heart failure, or certain infections.
It's possible to have higher than normal levels of ALP and not have a medical condition that needs treatment. Your provider will consider your symptoms, medical history, and other test results to make a diagnosis.
Low levels of ALP are less common. They may be a sign of a lack of zinc, malnutrition, pernicious anemia, thyroid disease, Wilson disease or hypophosphatasia, a rare genetic disease that affects bones and teeth.
Many things can affect ALP levels. Pregnancy can cause higher than normal ALP levels. Children and teens may have high levels of ALP because their bones are growing. Birth control pills and certain medicines may lower ALP levels, while other medicines can cause the levels to increase. Even eating a fatty meal before an alkaline phosphatase test may also cause a small increase in ALP.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Alkaline Phosphatase: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
ALP - blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (5)
Alkaline Phosphatase Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Alkaline Phosphatase Test
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme made in liver cells. Elevated levels of ALP can be caused by many types of liver damage, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver cancer or drug toxicity. Heart bypass surgery or blood transfusions can cause temporary drops in ALP; persistently low levels of ALP may be caused by zinc deficiency or a rare genetic bone disorder.
Image by TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, filtering blood and removing toxins, storing sugars, lipids, and vitamins, and producing important blood proteins. Liver function is typically evaluated by a panel of tests, including one for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an enzyme made in liver cells, that help doctors distinguish among the many different possible causes of liver damage. Many types of liver damage, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver cancer or drug toxicity, can elevate ALP levels.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bilirubin, Gallbladder
When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. Bilirubin is eliminated from the body by the liver as a component of bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and then released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase Test for Bone Growth
In bone, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is produced by the cells (called osteoblasts) that are responsible for bone formation, which is why the test can be used to diagnose Paget's disease or detect cancers that have spread to the bone, both of which raise ALP blood levels. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme made in liver cells. Children and adolescents normally have higher blood ALP levels because their bones are still growing and levels of the enzyme can spike during growth spurts. Fetal bone growth is the reason that pregnancy can elevate ALP blood levels, particularly in the 3rd trimester.
Image by TheVisualMD
3:25
Alkaline Phosphatase Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
Alkaline Phosphatase Test
TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase, Liver
TheVisualMD
Bilirubin, Gallbladder
TheVisualMD
Alkaline Phosphatase Test for Bone Growth
TheVisualMD
ALT
Alanine Transaminase Test
Also called: ALT, Alanine Aminotransferase, ALT Blood Test, Serum Glutamic-Pyruvic Transaminase, SGPT
Alanine transaminase (ALT) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, especially in the liver. When your liver is damaged, this enzyme gets released; therefore, an ALT test can be used to help diagnose liver disorders.
Alanine Transaminase Test
Also called: ALT, Alanine Aminotransferase, ALT Blood Test, Serum Glutamic-Pyruvic Transaminase, SGPT
Alanine transaminase (ALT) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, especially in the liver. When your liver is damaged, this enzyme gets released; therefore, an ALT test can be used to help diagnose liver disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
10
40
300
Your result is Normal.
ALT, or alanine aminotransferase, is one of the two liver enzymes. It is a protein made only by liver cells. When ALT leaks out into the bloodstream it indicates that liver cells are damaged.
Related conditions
ALT stands for alanine transaminase. It is an enzyme found mostly in the liver. An ALT test measures the amount of ALT in the blood.
When liver cells are damaged, they release ALT into the bloodstream. High levels of ALT in your blood may be a sign of a liver injury or disease. Some types of liver disease cause high ALT levels before you have symptoms of the disease. So, an ALT blood test may help diagnose certain liver diseases early.
An ALT blood test is often part of a routine blood screening to check the health of your liver. The test may also help diagnose or monitor liver problems.
Your health care provider may order an ALT blood test, as part of a routine checkup. An ALT test is usually done with a group of other liver function tests that check how well your liver is working. These tests may also be ordered if you have symptoms of liver damage, such as:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Your provider may also order an ALT blood test if you have a high risk for liver damage because of:
A family history of liver disease
Alcohol abuse disorder (AUD)
Obesity
Diabetes
Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Hepatitis or exposure to hepatitis
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an ALT blood test. But an ALT test is usually ordered with other blood tests. You usually need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before these tests. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An ALT blood test is often done as part of a group of liver function tests. Liver function tests measure several different proteins, substances, and enzymes that show how well your liver is working. Your provider usually compares your ALT results with the results of the other liver tests to evaluate your liver health and to decide if you need other tests to make a diagnosis.
In general, high levels of ALT may be a sign of liver damage from hepatitis, infection, cirrhosis, liver cancer, or other liver diseases. The damage may also be from a lack of blood flow to the liver or certain medicines or poisons.
If your results show you have a high level of ALT, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Many things can affect your results, such as your age, sex, certain medicines and dietary supplements, intense exercise, how much you weigh, and having a menstrual period.
To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider. And be sure tell your provider about all the medicines and supplements you take.
ALT test results may help tell the difference between damage from acute (sudden) liver problems and chronic (long-term) liver problems. But the amount of ALT in your blood isn't related to how much your liver may be damaged.
ALT used to be called SGPT, which stands for serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase. The ALT blood test was formerly known as the SGPT test.
ALT Blood Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Alanine transaminase (ALT) blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
ALT: Liver Function Test - Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (5)
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Liver lobule
The liver produce key proteins such as albumin and those involved in blood clotting, as well as half of the body's cholesterol (food provides the rest). The liver also filters harmful substances from the blood, digests fats, and stores sugar for later use.
Image by TheVisualMD
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Liver and Intestines
The liver is the body's central chemical plant, removing toxins, storing sugars and lipids and producing a wide range of proteins that play key roles as enzymes. The liver also produces most of body's supply of cholesterol (the rest comes from food).
Image by TheVisualMD
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Alcoholism
Cirrhosis is scarring of the liver and it can have many causes; among the most common are hepatitis and chronic alcoholism. Scarring of the liver is irreversible, but treating the cause (or eliminating alcohol) can keep it from getting worse.
Image by TheVisualMD
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
Video by NKN/YouTube
Alanine Aminotransferase Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Liver lobule
TheVisualMD
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Liver and Intestines
TheVisualMD
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT): Alcoholism
TheVisualMD
7:55
Important Liver Values Albumin, ALT, ALP & AST
NKN/YouTube
2:58
Alanine Aminotransferase Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
AST
Aspartate Aminotransferase Test
Also called: AST, Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase, SGOT
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, especially in the liver. When your liver is damaged, this enzyme gets released; therefore, an AST test can be used to help diagnose liver disorders.
Aspartate Aminotransferase Test
Also called: AST, Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase, SGOT
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme that can be found throughout the body, especially in the liver. When your liver is damaged, this enzyme gets released; therefore, an AST test can be used to help diagnose liver disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
10
40
Your result is Normal.
AST, or aspartate aminotransferase, is one of the two liver enzymes. AST is a protein made by liver cells. AST is also found in parts of the body other than the liver—including the heart, kidneys, muscles, and brain. When AST leaks out into the bloodstream it means that cells in any of those parts of the body are damaged.
Related conditions
AST (aspartate aminotransferase) is an enzyme that is found mostly in the liver, but it's also in muscles and other organs in your body. When cells that contain AST are damaged, they release the AST into your blood. An AST blood test measures the amount of AST in your blood. The test is commonly used to help diagnose liver damage or disease.
An AST blood test is often part of a routine blood screening to check the health of your liver. The test may help diagnose or monitor liver problems. It may also help diagnose other health conditions.
You may get an AST blood test as part of your routine checkup or if you have symptoms of liver damage. These may include:
Nausea and vomiting
Lack of appetite
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Even if you don't have symptoms, your health care provider may order an AST blood test if you're more likely to develop liver disease because of:
A family history of liver disease
Alcohol use disorder
Obesity
Diabetes
Taking certain medicines that can cause liver damage
Hepatitis or exposure to hepatitis
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an AST blood test. But an AST test is usually ordered with other blood tests. You usually need to fast (not eat or drink) for up to 12 hours before these tests. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
High levels of AST in the blood may be a sign of hepatitis, cirrhosis, mononucleosis, or other liver diseases. High AST levels may also be a sign of heart problems or pancreatitis.
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Many things can affect your results, such as certain medicines and your age, sex, and diet. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Your health care provider may order an ALT blood test with your AST blood test. ALT stands for alanine transaminase, which is another type of liver enzyme. If you have high levels of AST and/or ALT, it may mean that you have some type of liver damage.
You may also have an AST test as part of a group of liver function tests that measure ALT, and other enzymes, proteins, and substances in the liver.
AST Test: MedlinePlus Lab Test Information [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
AST (SGOT): Liver Function Test - Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Additional Materials (2)
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST): Liver
The liver is one of the body's most important chemical plants, producing proteins such as albumin and those that are involved in blood clotting. The liver also produces about half of the total cholesterol in the body (the other half comes from food), as well as filters harmful substances from the blood, digests fats and stores sugar for later use.
Image by TheVisualMD
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST): Diabetic
Many people have more than one cause of liver damage. Obesity and diabetes are increasingly common causes of liver disease, especially in combination with alcohol, hepatitis C, or both.
Image by TheVisualMD
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST): Liver
TheVisualMD
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST): Diabetic
TheVisualMD
GGT
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase Test
Also called: GGT, Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, GGTP, Gamma-GT, GTP
A gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) test measures the amount of GGT in the blood. GGT is a liver enzyme. High levels of GGT are a sign of liver damage. GGT can't diagnose the cause of liver damage, so it's usually done with other liver tests.
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase Test
Also called: GGT, Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, GGTP, Gamma-GT, GTP
A gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) test measures the amount of GGT in the blood. GGT is a liver enzyme. High levels of GGT are a sign of liver damage. GGT can't diagnose the cause of liver damage, so it's usually done with other liver tests.
{"label":"GGT reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":8},"text":"Low or normal GGT levels show no existing liver condition and show that there has been no alcohol consumption.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":8,"max":61},"text":"GGT is an enzyme found mainly in the liver and is normally present in low levels in the blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":61,"max":200},"text":"An elevated GGT level suggests that a condition or disease is damaging the liver; and usually, the higher the level, the greater the damage to the liver.","conditions":["Alcoholism","Diabetes","Cholestasis","Heart failure","Hepatitis","Lack of blood flow to the liver","Death of liver tissue","Liver cancer or tumor","Lung disease","Pancreas disease","Cirrhosis","Use of nephrotoxic drugs"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"U\/L","code":"U\/L","name":"enzyme unit per liter"}],"value":34.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
U/L
8
61
Your result is Normal.
GGT is an enzyme found mainly in the liver and is normally present in low levels in the blood.
Related conditions
A gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) test measures the amount of GGT in the blood. GGT is an enzyme found throughout the body, but it is mostly found in the liver. When the liver is damaged, GGT may leak into the bloodstream. High levels of GGT in the blood may be a sign of liver disease or damage to the bile ducts. Bile ducts are tubes that carry bile in and out of the liver. Bile is a fluid made by the liver. It is important for digestion.
A GGT test can't diagnose the specific cause of liver disease. So it is usually done along with or after other liver function tests, most often an alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test. ALP is another type of liver enzyme. It's often used to help diagnose bone disorders as well as liver disease.
A GGT test is most often used to:
Help diagnose liver disease
Figure out if liver damage is due to liver disease or a bone disorder
Check for blockages in the bile ducts
Screen for or monitor alcohol use disorder
You may need a GGT test if you have symptoms of liver disease. Symptoms include:
Fatigue
Weakness
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Loss of appetite
Abdominal pain or swelling
Nausea and vomiting
You may also need this test if you had abnormal results on an ALP test and/or other liver function tests.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a GGT test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show higher than normal levels of GGT, it may be a sign of liver damage. The damage may be due to one of the following conditions:
Hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Alcohol use disorder
Pancreatitis
Diabetes
Congestive heart failure
Side effect of a drug. Certain medicines can cause liver damage in some people.
The results can't show which condition you have, but it can help show how much liver damage you have. Usually, the higher the level of GGT, the greater the level of damage to the liver.
If your results show you have low or normal levels of GGT, it means you probably don't have liver disease.
Your results may also be compared with the results of an ALP test. ALP tests help diagnose bone disorders. Together your results may show one of the following:
High levels of ALP and high levels of GGT means your symptoms are likely due to liver disorder and not a bone disorder.
High levels of ALP and low or normal GGT means it's more likely you have a bone disorder.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
In addition to an ALP test, your provider may order liver function tests along with or after the GGT test. These include:
Alanine aminotransferase, or ALT
Aspartate aminotransferase, or AST
Lactic dehydrogenase, or LDH
Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Sep 13, 2018]
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) - Understand the Test & Your Results [accessed on Sep 13, 2018]
What Is the Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT) Test? [accessed on Sep 13, 2018]
http://www.irondisorders.org/Websites/idi/files/Content/1050668/ST%20four%20tests.pdf [accessed on Sep 13, 2018]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (3)
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Liver
The liver is one of the body's most important chemical plants, producing proteins such as albumin and those that are involved in blood clotting. The liver also produces about half of the total cholesterol in the body (the other half comes from food).
Image by TheVisualMD
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Alcoholism
Alcoholic liver disease is linked to the length of time alcohol is consumed, as well as quantity, though not all heavy drinkers develop it; genetics and gender also play roles. Symptoms include liver inflammation, enlargement, and eventually scarring (cirrhosis).
Image by TheVisualMD
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Biliary System
The biliary system consists of the organs and ducts that produce and transport bile. The function of bile is twofold: it drains wastes from the liver and aids in digestion. Bile is released into the duodenum (part of the small intestine) when a person eats.
Image by TheVisualMD
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Liver
TheVisualMD
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Alcoholism
TheVisualMD
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase: Biliary System
TheVisualMD
Bilirubin
Bilirubin Blood Test
Also called: Bilirubin, Hypobilirubinemia Test, Hyperbilirubinemia Test
A bilirubin blood test measures the levels of bilirubin in your blood. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance that is created by the breakdown (destruction) of hemoglobin, a major component of red blood cells. High bilirubin levels may be a sign of liver disease.
Bilirubin Blood Test
Also called: Bilirubin, Hypobilirubinemia Test, Hyperbilirubinemia Test
A bilirubin blood test measures the levels of bilirubin in your blood. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance that is created by the breakdown (destruction) of hemoglobin, a major component of red blood cells. High bilirubin levels may be a sign of liver disease.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
mg/dL
1.2
Your result is Normal.
Bilirubin is a yellowish substance that is created by the breakdown (destruction) of hemoglobin, a major component of red blood cells. As red blood cells age, they are broken down naturally in the body. Bilirubin is released from the destroyed red blood cells and passed on to the liver. The liver releases the bilirubin in into the bile.
Related conditions
A bilirubin blood test measures the levels of bilirubin in your blood. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance made during your body's normal process of breaking down old red blood cells. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid your liver makes that helps you digest food.
If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak out of your liver and into your blood. When too much bilirubin gets into the bloodstream, it can cause jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow. Signs of jaundice, along with a bilirubin blood test, can help your health care provider find out if you have liver disease.
A bilirubin blood test is used to check the health of your liver. The test is also commonly used to help diagnose newborn jaundice. Many healthy babies get jaundice because their livers aren't developed enough to get rid of enough bilirubin. Newborn jaundice is usually not harmful and clears up within a few weeks. But in some cases, high bilirubin levels can lead to brain damage, so infants are often tested as a precaution.
Your provider may order a bilirubin blood test:
If you have symptoms such as jaundice, dark urine, or stomach pain. These could be symptoms of hepatitis, cirrhosis, or other liver diseases. They may also be signs of gallbladder disease.
To find out if there is a blockage in the bile ducts, the tubes that carry bile from your liver.
To check on an existing liver disease or disorder.
To diagnose disorders related to problems with breaking down red blood cells. High bilirubin levels in the bloodstream may be a sign of a condition called hemolytic anemia. In this condition, the body destroys red blood cells faster than it makes them.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Your health care provider may tell you to fast (not eat or drink) for four hours before your blood test. If there are any other special instructions, your provider will let you know.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Normal results can vary, but high bilirubin levels may mean your liver isn't working right. However, abnormal results don't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Other things may cause higher than normal bilirubin levels, such as certain medicines and foods or strenuous exercise. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
A bilirubin blood test is only one measure of your liver health. If your provider thinks you might have a liver disease or a red blood cell disorder, you may need other tests. These tests may include:
Liver function tests, a group of tests that measure different substances in your blood.
Liver protein tests
Urine tests
An ultrasound
A liver biopsy to get a sample of your liver tissue to examine under a microscope.
Bilirubin Blood Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Bilirubin blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Bilirubin: Liver Function Test - Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease [accessed on Dec 20, 2023]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (6)
Bilirubin Metabolism
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
What is jaundice?
Video by Eugene Pediatric Associates/YouTube
Bilirubin Metabolism Simplified
Video by MEDSimplified/YouTube
BABY WITH JAUNDICE (Hyperbilirubinemia) | Dr. Paul
Video by paulthomasmd - Dr. Paul/YouTube
Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells
There are 20 to 30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult. Individual red blood cells live about 100 days, which means that about 2 million die (and an equal number replaced) every second. Bilirubin is left behind after these older blood cells are removed.
Image by TheVisualMD
Eye with Yellow Conjunctiva, Jaundice
When damaged or dying red blood cells are broken down in the spleen, bilirubin, a yellow pigment and component of hemoglobin, is released into the bloodstream. The waste bilirubin is usually efficiently eliminated from the body by the liver (the pigmented waste becomes a component of bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the duodenum of the small intestine to aid in digestion). Various diseases of the liver or bile ducts, however, can result in the accumulation of bilirubin in the body, causing jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes.
Image by TheVisualMD
8:44
Bilirubin Metabolism
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
2:20
What is jaundice?
Eugene Pediatric Associates/YouTube
2:35
Bilirubin Metabolism Simplified
MEDSimplified/YouTube
3:20
BABY WITH JAUNDICE (Hyperbilirubinemia) | Dr. Paul
paulthomasmd - Dr. Paul/YouTube
Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Eye with Yellow Conjunctiva, Jaundice
TheVisualMD
PT/INR
Prothrombin Time Test and INR
Also called: PT/INR, Prothrombin Time, Prothrombin Time/International Normalized Ratio, PT Protime
A prothrombin time test (PT) measures the time it takes for a clot to form in a blood sample. An INR is a calculation based on the results of a PT test. A PT/INR test is used to see if your blood is clotting normally and if warfarin is effective in treating clotting disorders.
Prothrombin Time Test and INR
Also called: PT/INR, Prothrombin Time, Prothrombin Time/International Normalized Ratio, PT Protime
A prothrombin time test (PT) measures the time it takes for a clot to form in a blood sample. An INR is a calculation based on the results of a PT test. A PT/INR test is used to see if your blood is clotting normally and if warfarin is effective in treating clotting disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
s
11
13.5
Your result is Normal.
The average time range for blood to clot is about 11 to 13.5 seconds. If you are taking blood thinning drugs, your results should be interpreted using the international normalized ratio (INR).
Related conditions
{"label":"INR reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":2},"text":"If the INR is below the target range there is an increased risk of clotting. The dose of blood thinner may be increased to get the PT\/INR blood test into the correct range.","conditions":["Early stages of disseminated intravascular coagulation","Cancer (except in the liver)","Severe tissue inflammation or trauma","Errors when taking or processing the blood sample"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Optimal","long":"Optimal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":2,"max":3},"text":"The target (optimal therapeutic) INR range depends on why you are taking the blood thinner. In most cases the target INR range will be between 2 and 3, although other ranges may be chosen if there are special circumstances.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":3,"max":6},"text":"If the INR is above the target range there is an increased risk of uncontrolled or dangerous bleeding. Close monitoring is needed until the risk of bleeding is reduced. The dose of blood thinner may be lowered to get the PT\/INR blood test into the correct range.","conditions":["Bleeding disorders","Liver disease","Low level of vitamin K","Insufficiency of one or more proteins involved in the coagulation cascade","Disseminated intravascular coagulation"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"{INR}","code":"{INR}","name":"international normalized ratio"}],"value":2.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
{INR}
2
3
Your result is Optimal.
The target (optimal therapeutic) INR range depends on why you are taking the blood thinner. In most cases the target INR range will be between 2 and 3, although other ranges may be chosen if there are special circumstances.
Related conditions
A prothrombin time (PT) test measures how long it takes for a clot to form in a blood sample. An INR (international normalized ratio) is a type of calculation based on PT test results.
Prothrombin is a protein made by the liver. It is one of several substances known as clotting (coagulation) factors. When you get a cut or other injury that causes bleeding, your clotting factors work together to form a blood clot. How fast your blood clots depends on the amount of clotting factors in your blood and whether they're working correctly. If your blood clots too slowly, you may bleed too much after an injury. If your blood clots too fast, dangerous clots may form in your arteries or veins.
A PT/INR test helps diagnose the cause of bleeding or clotting disorders. It also checks to see if a medicine that prevents blood clots is working the way it should.
Other names: prothrombin time/international normalized ratio, PT protime
A PT/INR test is most often used to:
See how well warfarin is working. Warfarin is a blood-thinning medicine that's used to treat and prevent dangerous blood clots. (Coumadin is a common brand name for warfarin.)
Find out the reason for abnormal blood clots
Find out the reason for unusual bleeding
Check clotting function before surgery
Check for liver problems
A PT/INR test is often done along with a partial thromboplastin time (PTT) test. A PTT test also checks for clotting problems.
You may need this test if you are taking warfarin on a regular basis. The test helps make sure you are taking the right dose.
If you are not taking warfarin, you may need this test if you have symptoms of a bleeding or clotting disorder.
Symptoms of a bleeding disorder include:
Unexplained heavy bleeding
Bruising easily
Unusually heavy nose bleeds
Unusually heavy menstrual periods in women
Symptoms of a clotting disorder include:
Leg pain or tenderness
Leg swelling
Redness or red streaks on the legs
Trouble breathing
Cough
Chest pain
Rapid heartbeat
In addition, you may need a PT/INR test if you are scheduled for surgery. It helps make sure your blood is clotting normally, so you won't lose too much blood during the procedure.
The test may be done on a blood sample from a vein or a fingertip.
For a blood sample from a vein:
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
For a blood sample from a fingertip:
A fingertip test may be done in a provider's office or in your home. If you are taking warfarin, your provider may recommend you test your blood regularly using an at-home PT/INR test kit. During this test, you or your provider will:
Use a small needle to puncture your fingertip
Collect a drop of blood and place it onto a test strip or other special instrument
Place the instrument or test strip into a device that calculates the results. At-home devices are small and lightweight.
If you are using an at-home test kit, you will need to review your results with your provider. Your provider will let you know how he or she would like to receive the results.
If you are taking warfarin, you may need to delay your daily dose until after testing. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any other special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If you were tested because you are taking warfarin, your results will probably be in the form of INR levels. INR levels are often used because they make it easier to compare results from different labs and different test methods. If you are not taking warfarin, your results may be in the form of INR levels or the number of seconds it takes for your blood sample to clot (prothrombin time).
If you are taking warfarin:
INR levels that are too low may mean you are at risk for dangerous blood clots.
INR levels that are too high may mean you are at risk for dangerous bleeding.
Your health care provider will probably change your dose of warfarin to reduce these risks.
If you are not taking warfarin and your INR or prothrombin time results were not normal, it may mean one of the following conditions:
A bleeding disorder, a condition in which the body can't clot blood properly, causing excessive bleeding
A clotting disorder, a condition in which the body forms excessive clots in arteries or veins
Liver disease
Vitamin K deficiency. Vitamin K plays an important role in blood clotting.
Sometimes certain liver tests are ordered along with a PT/INR test. These include:
Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)
Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)
Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Mar 06, 2024]
Prothrombin time (PT): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Mar 06, 2024]
PT/INR Test (Prothrombin Time and International Normalized Ratio) - Testing.com. Nov 9, 2021 [accessed on Mar 06, 2024]
Patient education: Warfarin (Beyond the Basics). UpToDate [accessed on Mar 06, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (10)
Prothrombin Time (PT): Pulmonary Embolism
The most dangerous complication of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is pulmonary embolism, which occurs when an embolism travels through the heart and into the lungs. There it lodges in an artery, typically where the artery forks, and blocks blood flow. During an episode of pulmonary embolism, the lungs may be showered with blood clots. The lungs are particularly vulnerable to embolisms because all the blood in the body passes through the lungs every time it circulates.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood clots
This medical illustration reveals how the SHELTERTM device traps and removes blood clots in the brain.
Image by Zina Deretsky, NSF
Blood clots
Red blood cells trapped in a fibrin network in a blood clot.
Image by Fuzis
Factors V, VII, KIF6: Thrombosis
Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. If the clot is large or persistent enough, it can obstruct blood flow, which can starve tissue or entire organs of oxygen-carrying blood. Most strokes are the result of thrombosis.
Image by TheVisualMD
Platelets: Thrombus Formation
Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel. If the clot is large or persistent enough, it can obstruct blood flow, which can starve tissue of oxygen-carrying blood. Most strokes are the result of thrombosis.
Image by TheVisualMD
Skin Cross Section with Razor Cut
When the skin is injured an inflammatory response is triggered to rid the body of harmful invaders. To begin this response mast cells and basophils secrete chemical signals that promote blood flow to the area.
Image by TheVisualMD
INR Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
A chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an imaging test that takes detailed pictures of the lungs and the inside of the chest. Computers combine the pictures to create a 3-D model showing the size, shape, and position of the lungs and structures in the chest.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Your result is Normal.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. A normal chest CT means your chest appears normal.
Related conditions
A chest CT scan is a more detailed type of chest X-ray. This painless imaging test takes many detailed pictures, called slices, of your lungs and the inside of your chest. Computers can combine these pictures to create three-dimensional (3D) models to help show the size, shape, and position of your lungs and structures in your chest.
This imaging test is often done to follow up on abnormal findings from earlier chest x rays. A chest CT scan also can help determine the cause of lung symptoms such as shortness of breath or chest pain, or check to see if you have certain lung problems such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs that is known as pleural effusion, pulmonary embolism, emphysema, tuberculosis, and pneumonia.
A chest CT scan provides detailed pictures of the size, shape, and position of your lungs and other structures in your chest. Doctors use this test to:
Follow up on abnormal results from standard chest x rays.
Find the cause of lung symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain.
Find out whether you have a lung problem, such as a tumor, excess fluid around the lungs, or a pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The test also is used to check for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if you have symptoms of lung problems, such as chest pain or trouble breathing. The scan can help find the cause of the symptoms.
A chest CT scan looks for problems such as tumors, excess fluid around the lungs, and pulmonary embolism (a blood clot in the lungs). The scan also checks for other conditions, such as tuberculosis, emphysema, and pneumonia.
Your doctor may recommend a chest CT scan if a standard chest x ray doesn't help diagnose the problem. The chest CT scan can:
Provide more detailed pictures of your lungs and other chest structures than a standard chest x ray
Find the exact location of a tumor or other problem
Show something that isn't visible on a chest x ray
Your chest CT scan may be done in a medical imaging facility or hospital. The CT scanner is a large, tunnel-like machine that has a table. You will lie still on the table and the table will slide into the scanner. Talk to your doctor if you are uncomfortable in tight or closed spaces to see if you need medicine to relax you during the test. You will hear soft buzzing or clicking sounds when you are inside the scanner and the scanner is taking pictures. You will be able to hear from and talk to the technician performing the test while you are inside the scanner. For some diagnoses, a contrast dye, often iodine-based, may be injected into a vein in your arm before the imaging test. This contrast dye highlights areas inside your chest and creates clearer pictures. You may feel some discomfort from the needle or, after the contrast dye is injected, you may feel warm briefly or have a temporary metallic taste in your mouth.
Wear loose-fitting, comfortable clothing for the test. Sometimes the CT scan technician (a person specially trained to do CT scans) may ask you to wear a hospital gown. You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the test. You may be asked to remove hearing aids and dentures as well. Let the technician know if you have any body piercing on your chest.
Tell your doctor whether you're pregnant or may be pregnant. If possible, you should avoid unnecessary radiation exposure during pregnancy. This is because of the concern that radiation may harm the fetus.
Chest CT scans have some risks. In rare instances, some people have an allergic reaction to the contrast dye. There is a slight risk of cancer, particularly in growing children, because the test uses radiation. Although the amount of radiation from one test is usually less than the amount of radiation you are naturally exposed to over three years, patients should not receive more CT scans than the number that clinical guidelines recommend. Another risk is that chest CT scans may detect an incidental finding, which is something that doesn’t cause symptoms but now may require more tests after being found.
Talk to your doctor and the technicians performing the test about whether you are or could be pregnant. If the test is not urgent, they may have you wait to do the test until after your pregnancy. If it is urgent, the technicians will take extra steps to protect your baby during this test. Let your doctor know if you are breastfeeding because contrast dye can pass into your breast milk. If you must have contrast dye injected, you may want to pump and save enough breast milk for one to two days after your test or you may bottle-feed your baby for that time.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-ct-scan [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003788.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Additional Materials (50)
Pleural empyema
CT chest showing large right sided hydro-pneumothorax from pleural empyema. Arrows A: air, B: fluid
Image by Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
CT with the identification of underlying lung lesion: an apical bulla.
Image by Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
Right-sided pneumothorax (right side of image) on CT scan of the chest with chest tube in place.
Image by en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
3D reconstruction of the thin multislice CT, covering human heart and lungs
Image by Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
Open-chest bypass surgery requires the surgeon to make an incision down the center of the chest, along the breastbone. The rib cage is spread open to expose the heart.
Image by TheVisualMD
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
Video by The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Researchers have found that anti-inflammatory biologic therapies used to treat moderate to severe psoriasis can significantly reduce coronary inflammation in patients with the chronic skin condition. Scientists said the findings are particularly notable because of the use of a novel imaging biomarker, the perivascular fat attenuation index (FAI), that was able to measure the effect of the therapy in reducing the inflammation.
The study published online in JAMA Cardiology, has implications not just for people with psoriasis, but for those with other chronic inflammatory diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. These conditions are known to increase the risk for heart attacks and strokes. The study was funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health.
In this image: Coronary CT angiography image of the coronary arteries depicting the perivascular fat attenuation index before and after biologic therapy at one-year follow-up for patients with excellent response to biologic therapy.
Image by Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Coronary CT
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Image by Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
chest CT: diagnosis is pulmonary sequestration
Image by RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Image by Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Video by Oxford AHSN/YouTube
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
Protocoling chest CTs
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Video by Lee Health/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Video by Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
Video by MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Video by Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
How I Read a Chest CT
Video by Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Video by Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
Video by RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
How to prepare for a CT scan
Video by Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
Video by UConn Health/YouTube
Cardiac CT scan
Video by UHP_NHS/YouTube
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Video by Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
Video by STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
3D visualization based on scanned human data of a healthy heart in the thorax.
Image by TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
The heart and lungs are the primary contents of the thorax. They are interconnected with very large blood vessels. The heart sends oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, which oxygenate it and return it to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary arteries arise from one large pulmonary trunk, and then begin branching exponentially once they enter the lungs in order to reach the functional respiratory units and pick up oxygen. The smallest pulmonary veins then take the oxygenated blood backwards through the lungs and empty into the back of the heart through four larger pulmonary veins. The oxygen-rich blood is then pumped by the heart out into the body through the aorta. Deoxygenated blood from body tissues returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava and the cardiac cycle repeats continuously. The pulmonary veins and arteries are the only case where arteries carry deoxygenated blood and veins carry blood that has been oxygenated.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an anterior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhale occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
3D visualization of an inferior view of the muscles involved in respiration. The primary job of the thorax is to promote movements necessary for breathing. Three muscles of the thorax assist in this function; the external intercostals, internal intercostals and diaphragm. The intercostals do the job of lifting the ribs up and pulling them outward, which in turn enlarges the lungs. As the lungs expand, the pressure inside them is reduced, and they suck in air. During extreme inhalation, the neck muscles also contract. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downward; during exhalation, it relaxes and is pushed up into a dome shape by the lower digestive organs, compressing the lungs. As pressure rises in the chest cavity, exhalation occurs, pressure is equalized and the cycle restarts.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
3D visualization of a posterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
Visualization based on scanned human data of an anterior view of female breast.
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
Visualization of male heart. The nerve supply of the heart is emphasized specifically the cardiac plexus. The plexus which rest around the base of the heart, mainly in the epicardium, is formed by cardiac branches from the vagus nerves and the sympathetic trunks and ganglia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. The cone-shaped lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity. Each lung is suspended in its own pleural cavity and connected to the mediastinum (which houses the heart) by its root which is made up of vascular and bronchial attachments. The anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the lung are in close contact with the ribs and form a continuously curving surface called the costal surface. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
Image by TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
3D visualization of an anterior view of the lungs and heart reconstructed from scanned human data. De-oxygenated red blood cells are sent by the right side of the heart through the pulmonary artery into the vessels of the lungs to be refilled with oxygen for their next circuit through the body. The blood is carried through the lung tissues, where it exchanges its carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli. It is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and sent out to the rest of the body. The pulmonary artery carries away the deoxygenated blood, which returns fully oxygenated through the pulmonary vein.
Image by TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
Aneurysms that occur in the part of the aorta that is higher in the chest are called thoracic aortic aneurysms. Aortic aneurysms often grow slowly and usually without any symptoms therefore making them difficult to detect
Image by TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
subFusion processing applied to a SPECT lung ventilation-perfusion scan.
Image by KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
3D visualization of an inferior view of a transverse section of the thorax, highlighting the lungs, reconstructed from scanned human data. The trachea, cardiac impression, and transverse sections of the thoracic aorta and esophagus are clearly illustrated. The bronchial tree is also visible. When air is inhaled into the lungs, it flows through large tubes called bronchi, branches into smaller tubes known as bronchioles, and ends up in the thousands of small pouches that are the alveoli. This is where the oxygen is transferred from the air into the bloodstream. Each alveolar sac, or air sac, is surrounded by a bed of capillaries, and the walls between the lung and the capillary are extremely thin. The walls are so delicate, in fact, that the inhaled oxygen can seep from the air sacs to bind to the hemoglobin in the blood, while the carbon dioxide and other waste gasses leave the blood and diffuse into the lungs where they can be exhaled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Angina
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
Chest Pain
Image by TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
Image by TheVisualMD
CT scanner
A view of the CT scanner in the new Fort Belvoir Community Hospital. The hospital, still under construction, is a 2005 Base Realignment and Closure project, and is scheduled to open later this year.
Image by Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
Radiation can be dangerous, but it can also save lives. When you’re faced with a medical test that uses radiation, don’t let fear get in your way. Learn about the risks and benefits, and know what questions to ask.
Image by NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
CT scan.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
An NIH Clinical Center study participant receives a scan in the Photon-Counting CT scanner.
Image by NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
A computer-assisted tomographic (CAT) scanner, with a Caucasian female technician working at a screen and behind a glass wall. A patient is on a table and being tested by the CAT scanner. The lighting is very subdued. This new technology revolutionized detection of brain tumors.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
Virtual colonoscopy is a new imaging technology that uses computed tomography (CT) images to look for polyps and cancer in the colon. A computed tomography scanner takes cross-sectional images of the patient's colon, after the colon has been inflated with gas. A three-dimensional model is created from the CT slices and evaluated by a radiologist for abnormalities.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural empyema
Amit Banga, GC Khilnani, SK Sharma1, AB Dey, Naveet Wig and Namrata Banga
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Diagnosed?
Robertolyra
How Are Pleurisy and Other Pleural Disorders Treated?
en:User:Clinical Cases
Chest Radiograph
TheVisualMD
What To Expect During a Coronary Calcium Scan
Semnic
Incision for Open-Chest Bypass Surgery
TheVisualMD
4:22
A child's guide to hospital: CT Chest
The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne/YouTube
1:50
What is it like to have a CT scan? | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Coronary CT angiography of coronary arteries
Oxford Academic Cardiovascular CT Core Lab and Lab of Inflammation and Cardiometabolic Diseases at NHLBI
Coronary CT
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
CT of the blood vessels and heart
Bác sĩ Nguyễn Minh Đức
Chest CT showing pulmonary sequestration
RadsWiki
Scimitar syndrome chest CT
Matthew Cham, MD
/Wikimedia
4:59
Having a Cardiac CT Scan in Hospital
Oxford AHSN/YouTube
2:33
What to Expect from a CT Exam with Contrast
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
7:48
Protocoling chest CTs
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
1:44
Low Dose CT Scans to Look for Lung Cancer
Lee Health/YouTube
8:27
Lung Cancer Screening (LCS)
Cleveland Clinic/YouTube
5:10
CT Scan of the Chest Explained Clearly - High Resolution CT Scan (HRCT)
MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained CLEARLY/YouTube
3:29
What to Expect: CT Scan | Cedars-Sinai
Cedars-Sinai/YouTube
17:21
How I Read a Chest CT
Thoracic Radiology/YouTube
8:46
Introduction to Computed Tomographic imaging of the Chest
Yale Radiology and Biomedical Imaging/YouTube
3:09
Lung Cancer Screening: The Life-saving CT Scan
RAYUS Radiology™/YouTube
2:19
How to prepare for a CT scan
Sunnybrook Hospital/YouTube
2:07
Using CT Scans to Screen for Lung Cancer
UConn Health/YouTube
5:04
Cardiac CT scan
UHP_NHS/YouTube
6:28
Real look at Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT Scan from Start to Finish.
Dumb Old Dad/YouTube
2:52
What is it like to get a CT Scan with Contrast?
STRIDE Project/YouTube
Thorax with Healthy Heart
TheVisualMD
Heart and Lungs
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Muscle Involved in Respiration
TheVisualMD
Thorax with visible Lung and Heart
TheVisualMD
Female Thorax Showing Breast
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax with Visible Heart
TheVisualMD
Thorax with Heart and Lung
TheVisualMD
Cross Section of Human Thorax. Liver in bottom Left
TheVisualMD
Male Thorax Showing Trachea and Lung
TheVisualMD
Thoracic Aneurysm in the Aorta
TheVisualMD
Ventilation/perfusion scan
KieranMaher at English Wikibooks
Bronchi and Bronchiole of Lung
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain
TheVisualMD
Chest Pain or Tightness
TheVisualMD
CT scanner
Official Navy Page from United States of America MC2 Todd Frantom/U.S. Marine Corps
Illustration of 3 X-ray images and a patient entering a CT scanner
NIH News in Health
Drawing of a computerized tomography scanner with a health care professional looking on a computer screen as a patient lies inside the scanner
NIDDK Image Library
Advanced CT Scanning
NIH Clinical Center
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
CAT Scan
National Cancer Institute / Linda Bartlett (Photographer)
Virtual Colonoscopy Slice of CT Data
TheVisualMD
Chest X-Ray Test
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
Chest X-Ray Test
Also called: CXR, Chest X Ray, Chest Radiograph, Chest Radiography, Chest Film
A chest X-ray is an imaging test that uses electromagnetic waves to create pictures of the structures in and around the chest. The test can help diagnose and monitor conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
X rays are electromagnetic waves. They use ionizing radiation to create pictures of the inside of your body. A chest x ray takes pictures of the inside of your chest. The different tissues in your chest absorb different amounts of radiation. Your ribs and spine are bony and absorb radiation well. They normally appear light on a chest x ray. Your lungs, which are filled with air, normally appear dark.
Related conditions
A chest x ray is a painless, noninvasive test that creates pictures of the structures inside your chest, such as your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. "Noninvasive" means that no surgery is done and no instruments are inserted into your body. This test is done to find the cause of symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), and fever.
Chest x rays help doctors diagnose conditions such as pneumonia (nu-MO-ne-ah), heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, and sarcoidosis (sar-koy-DO-sis). Doctors also may use chest x rays to see how well treatments for certain conditions are working. Also, doctors often use chest x rays before surgery to look at the structures in the chest.
Chest x rays are the most common x-ray test used to diagnose health problems.
Doctors may recommend chest x rays for people who have symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, chronic cough (a cough that lasts a long time), or fever. The test can help find the cause of these symptoms.
Chest x rays look for conditions such as pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis. The test also is used to check how well treatments for certain conditions are working.
Chest x rays also are used to evaluate people who test positive for tuberculosis (tu-ber-kyu-LO-sis) exposure on skin tests.
Sometimes, doctors recommend more chest x rays within hours, days, or months of an earlier chest x ray. This allows them to follow up on a condition.
People who are having certain types of surgery also may need chest x rays. Doctors often use the test before surgery to look at the structures inside the chest.
Depending on your doctor's request, you'll stand, sit, or lie for the chest x ray. The technician will help position you correctly. He or she may cover you with a heavy lead apron to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The x-ray equipment usually consists of two parts. One part, a box-like machine, holds the x-ray film or a special plate that records the picture digitally. You'll sit or stand next to this machine. The second part is the x-ray tube, which is located about 6 feet away.
Before the pictures are taken, the technician will walk behind a wall or into the next room to turn on the x-ray machine. This helps reduce his or her exposure to the radiation.
Usually, two views of the chest are taken. The first is a view from the back. The second is a view from the side.
For a view from the back, you'll sit or stand so that your chest rests against the image plate. The x-ray tube will be behind you. For the side view, you'll turn to your side and raise your arms above your head.
If you need to lie down for the test, you'll lie on a table that contains the x-ray film or plate. The x-ray tube will be over the table.
You'll need to hold very still while the pictures are taken. The technician may ask you to hold your breath for a few seconds. These steps help prevent a blurry picture.
Although the test is painless, you may feel some discomfort from the coolness of the exam room and the x-ray plate. If you have arthritis or injuries to the chest wall, shoulders, or arms, you may feel discomfort holding a position during the test. The technician may be able to help you find a more comfortable position.
When the test is done, you'll need to wait while the technician checks the quality of the x-ray pictures. He or she needs to make sure that the pictures are good enough for the doctor to use.
You don't have to do anything special to prepare for a chest x ray. However, you may want to wear a shirt that's easy to take off. Before the test, you'll be asked to undress from the waist up and wear a gown.
You also may want to avoid wearing jewelry and other metal objects. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, eyeglasses, and metal objects that might interfere with the x-ray picture. Let the x-ray technician (a person specially trained to do x-ray tests) know if you have any body piercings on your chest.
Let your doctor know if you're pregnant or may be pregnant. In general, women should avoid all x-ray tests during pregnancy. Sometimes, though, having an x ray is important to the health of the mother and fetus. If an x ray is needed, the technician will take extra steps to protect the fetus from radiation.
Chest x rays have few risks. The amount of radiation used in a chest x ray is very small. A lead apron may be used to protect certain parts of your body from the radiation.
The test gives out a radiation dose similar to the amount of radiation you're naturally exposed to over 10 days.
Chest x rays show the structures in and around the chest. The test is used to look for and track conditions of the heart, lungs, bones, and chest cavity. For example, chest x-ray pictures may show signs of pneumonia, heart failure, lung cancer, lung tissue scarring, or sarcoidosis.
Chest x rays do have limits. They only show conditions that change the size of tissues in the chest or how the tissues absorb radiation. Also, chest x rays create two-dimensional pictures. This means that denser structures, like bone or the heart, may hide some signs of disease. Very small areas of cancer and blood clots in the lungs usually don't show up on chest x rays.
For these reasons, your doctor may recommend other tests to confirm a diagnosis.
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/chest-x-ray [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003804.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/chestrad [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
https://www.emedicinehealth.com/chest_x-ray/article_em.htm [accessed on Aug 25, 2021]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (50)
Chest X-Ray Basics in 5 min
Video by Nick Smith/YouTube
How X-rays see through your skin - Ge Wang
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
What causes Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and who is at Risk?
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Image by Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Tuberculosis X-ray
An anteroposterior X-ray of a patient diagnosed with advanced bilateral pulmonary tuberculosis. This AP X-ray of the chest reveals the presence of bilateral pulmonary infiltrate (white triangles), and caving forma.
Image by CDC / Der Lange
Respiratory Syncytial Virus
This highly-magnified, 1981 transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image, reveals some of the morphologic traits exhibited by a human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). The virion is variable in shape, and size, with an average diameter between 120-300nm. RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and children, under 1-year of age.
Image by CDC/ E. L. Palmer
Q Fever Pneumonia X-ray
Combination of two x-rays (A) normal chest x-ray (B) x-ray documenting Q fever pneumonia.
Image by US Gov
Chest X Ray
A Lateral Chest X-Ray with the heart shadow outlined.
Image by US Army
Projectional radiography
Image relating focal spot size to geometric unsharpness in projectional radiography.
Image by Source images by Blausen Medical and LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal) Derivative by Mikael Haggstrom
Chest Radiograph
Chest X-Ray : Specialized test, like a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, may be needed to confirm the presence of an aneurysm.
Image by TheVisualMD
X-ray of Healthy Lung
This image shows an x-ray of healthy lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cancer screening
Cancer Imaging: X-Rays : Chest X-rays can be used to show the presence of tumors, as for lung cancer, but they may also indicate problems associated with cancer. An X-ray may produce images suggestive of fluid accumulation, masses, or enlarged lymph nodes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lung Cancer
Chest X-ray (Cancer): This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute
Chest X Ray
Mediastinal structures on a chest radiograph.
Image by Mikael Haggstrom, from source images by ZooFari, Stillwaterising and Gray's Anatomy creators
CT Chest Scan of Pleura effusion
CT scan of chest showing loculated pleural effusion in left side. Some thickening of pleura is also noted. From my personal collection. Permission obtained from patient.
Image by Drriad
Chest X-ray (Cancer)
This is an x-ray image of a chest. Both sides of the lungs are visible with a growth on the left side of the lung, which could possibly be lung cancer.
Image by National Cancer Institute / Unknown Photographer
This browser does not support the video element.
CT Scans (VIDEO)
This video shows how modern science of scanning can expose the health condition of the patient. The video starts with a patient undergoing CT scanning, an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Visible are the heart, lungs, and arteries of a patient.
Video by TheVisualMD
Chest X-Ray
Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings
Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Gallstones
Gallstones as seen on plain x-ray.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Hemoptysis x-ray
Hemoptysis can be discovered with the help of radiology.
Image by Aidan Jones from Oxford, U.K.
X-ray of Lung with Pulmonary Edema
Within the lungs, the main airways (bronchi) branch off into smaller passageways, the smallest of which are called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs (alveoli). Pulmonary edema is a condition caused when excess fluid collects in these air sacs, making it difficult to breathe. Fluid in the lungs can be caused by pneumonia, acute respiratory distress and other conditions, but in most cases, the cause of pulmonary edema is heart problems (when a damaged heart can't pump enough blood and fluid leaks into the lungs).
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect During and After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Surgery
A normal chest X-ray after placement of an ICD, showing the ICD generator in the upper left chest and the ICD lead in the right ventricle of the heart. Note the 2 opaque coils along the ICD lead.
Image by Gregory Marcus, MD, MAS, FACC
This browser does not support the video element.
Chest X-ray: NCI B-roll [video]
NCI B-roll of a patient receiving a Chest X-ray. This video is silent.
Video by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
X-Ray of Aneurysm within Chest frontal view
Most aneurysms are detected in the course of an exam, such as a physical exam or a chest X-ray, being performed for a different reason.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pleural Effusion: Tests
Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.Pleural effusion Chest x-ray of a pleural effusion. The arrow A shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity. A pleural effusion: as seen on chest X-ray. The A arrow indicates fluid layering in the right chest. The B arrow indicates the width of the right lung. The volume of the lung is reduced because of the collection of fluid around the lung.
Image by CDC InvictaHOG
Coccidioidomycosis
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed pulmonary changes indicative of pulmonary fibrosis in a case of coccidioidomycosis, caused by fungal organisms of the genus, Coccidioides. Because these changes also resemble those seen in other lung infections including tuberculosis, the findings uncovered with a chest x-ray needs to be coupled with serologic testing, as well as possible tissue biopsy. The degree of fibrotic changes, indicative of scarring found on x-ray, can be directly correlated to the severity of the fungal infection.
Image by CDC/ Dr. Lucille K. Georg
How Is Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Diagnosed?
Chest X-Ray: Acute respiratory distress syndrome on plain Xray
Image by James Heilman, MD
How Are Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Diagnosed?
Early Asbestosis in a Retired Pipe Fitter : Chest X-ray in asbestosis shows plaques above diaphragm
Image by Clinical Cases
Aspergillosis
This was a photomicrograph of a lung tissue specimen, harvested from a caged, sulfur-crested cockatoo, that depicted some of the histopathologic changes that had been caused by the fungal organism, Aspergillus fumigatus, in a case of avian pulmonary aspergillosis. Here, you are able see how the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, revealed A. fumigatus ultrastructural morphology including conidial heads and mycelium.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
Pleural Effusion - Defined
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by Drriad
Pleural Effusion: Tests
A large left sided pleural effusion as seen on an upright chest X-ray
Image by James Heilman MD
Breast implants
Chest X-ray showing breast implants
Image by James Heilman
Living With Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
No cure is available for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) yet. Your symptoms may get worse over time. As your symptoms worsen, you may not be able to do many of the things that you did before you had IPF.
However, lifestyle changes and ongoing care can help you manage the disease.
If you're still smoking, the most important thing you can do is quit. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. Ask family members and friends not to smoke in front of you or in your home, car, or workplace.
Image by Drriad
Symptoms and Spread of SARS (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)
A chest x-ray showing increased opacity in both lungs, indicative of pneumonia, in a patient with SARS.
Image by CDC
Chilaiditi syndrome
Chest X-ray showing obvious Chilaiditi's sign, or presence of gas in the right colic angle between the liver and right hemidiaphragm (left side of the image).
Piper's Sign: In days gone by the lateral chest x-ray (demonstrating greater opacity in the aortic arch and descending aorta than the thoracic spine) gave an indication to the degree of calcified plaque burden a patient had. This has been known as Piper's sign and can often be seen in elderly persons particularly those with concomitant osteoporosis.
Image by U4077905
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Image by Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Image by Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Chest X-ray of a 76 year old woman, who developed cough and labored breathing. First testing showed influenza B virus, and later a nasopharyngeal swab detected Haemophilus influenzae. The H influenzae presumably developed as an opportunistic infection secondary to the flu. This X-ray was taken 2 weeks after cultures and start of antibiotics, showing delayed pneumonic infiltrates that were only vaguely visible on initial (not shown) X-rays.
Image by Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
(a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on skin; (b) Trichophyton violaceum, shown in this bright field light micrograph, causes superficial mycoses on the scalp; (c) Histoplasma capsulatum is an ascomycete that infects airways and causes symptoms similar to influenza. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit b: modification of work by Dr. Lucille K. Georg, CDC; credit c: modification of work by M. Renz, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
Pneumocystis jirovecii is the causative agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), one of the most frequent and severe opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Pneumocystis organisms represent a large group of species of atypical fungi with universal distribution and pulmonary tropism, and each species has a strong specificity for a given mammalian host species.
Image by CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Image by Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
PA view Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child. Released per permission of mother.
Image by Samir (talk)
Chest X Ray
Structures shown: Air-filled trachea and lungs Diaphragmatic domes Mediastinal structures Vascular markings. Arrows indicate costophrenic angles
Image by US Army
Thoracic diaphragm
X-ray of chest, showing top of diaphragm.
Image by OpenStax College
Chest X Ray
Roentgenogram or Medical X-ray image. May not be to scale.
Aspect of a bulky thymoma (red circle) on the chest x-ray.
Stockholm
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome-Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)
Lange123 at German Wikipedia
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenza
Mikael Häggström
Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae, lateral
Mikael Häggström
Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
CNX Openstax
This anteroposterior (AP) chest x-ray revealed radiologic evidence of pulmonary pneumocystosis in the form of bilateral pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This infection was due to the presence of an opportunistic fungal infection by the fungal organism Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii. (This image was provided by Jonathan W.M. Gold. M.D., Assoc. Dir. Special Microbiology Lab, Assist. Attending Physician, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Assist. Prof. of Medicine, Cornell Univ. Med. College, New York.)
CDC/ Jonathan W.M. Gold, MD
Chest X-ray PA inverted and enhanced
Stillwaterising
Chest X-Ray of Canadian dollar coin in esophagus of child
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; C. Carl Jaffe, MD, cardiologist.
7:02
Reading a chest X-ray
Osmosis/YouTube
Chest X-ray of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI syndrome) compared to chest X-ray of the same subject afterwards.
Altaf Gauhar Haji, Shekhar Sharma, DK Vijaykumar and Jerry Paul
Ultrasound
Ultrasound
Also called: Sonogram
An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create pictures of structures inside the body. It's often used during pregnancy to check the health of an unborn baby. It's also used to diagnose certain medical conditions.
Ultrasound
Also called: Sonogram
An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create pictures of structures inside the body. It's often used during pregnancy to check the health of an unborn baby. It's also used to diagnose certain medical conditions.
An ultrasound is an imaging test that uses sound waves to create a picture (also known as a sonogram) of organs, tissues, and other structures inside the body. Unlike x-rays, ultrasounds don’t use any radiation. An ultrasound can also show parts of the body in motion, such as a heart beating or blood flowing through blood vessels.
There are two main categories of ultrasounds: pregnancy ultrasound and diagnostic ultrasound.
Pregnancy ultrasound is used to look at an unborn baby. The test can provide information about a baby’s growth, development, and overall health.
Diagnostic ultrasound is used to view and provide information about other internal parts of the body. These include the heart, blood vessels, liver, bladder, kidneys, and female reproductive organs.
An ultrasound can be used in different ways, depending on the type of ultrasound and which part of the body is being checked.
A pregnancy ultrasound is done to get information about the health of an unborn baby. It may be used to:
Confirm that you are pregnant.
Check the size and position of the unborn baby.
Check to see you are pregnant with more than one baby.
Estimate how long you have been pregnant. This is known as gestational age.
Check for signs of Down syndrome, which include thickening in the back of the baby's neck.
Check for birth defects in the brain, spinal cord, heart, or other parts of the body.
Check the amount of amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid is a clear liquid that surrounds an unborn baby during pregnancy. It protects the baby from outside injury and cold. It also helps promote lung development and bone growth.
Diagnostic ultrasound may be used to:
Find out if blood is flowing at a normal rate and level.
See if there is a problem with the structure of your heart.
Look for blockages in the gallbladder.
Check the thyroid gland for cancer or non-cancerous growths.
Check for abnormalities in the abdomen and kidneys.
Help guide a biopsy procedure. A biopsy is a procedure that removes a small sample of tissue for testing.
In women, diagnostic ultrasound may be used to:
Look at a breast lump to see if it might be cancer. (The test may also be used to check for breast cancer in men, though this type of cancer is far more common in women.)
Help find the cause of pelvic pain.
Help find the cause of abnormal menstrual bleeding.
Help diagnose infertility or monitor infertility treatments.
In men, diagnostic ultrasound may be used to help diagnose disorders of the prostate gland.
You may need a ultrasound if you are pregnant. There is no radiation used in the test. It offers a safe way of checking the health of your unborn baby.
You may need diagnostic ultrasound if you have symptoms in certain organs or tissues. These include the heart, kidneys, thyroid, gallbladder, and female reproductive system. You may also need ultrasound if you are getting a biopsy. The ultrasound helps your health care provider get a clear image of the area that is being tested.
A ultrasound usually includes the following steps:
You will lie on a table, exposing the area that’s being viewed.
A health care provider will spread a special gel on the skin over that area.
The provider will move a wand-like device, called a transducer, over the area.
The device sends sound waves into your body. The waves are so high pitched that you can’t hear them.
The waves are recorded and turned into images on a monitor.
You may be able to view the images as they are being made. This often happens during a pregnancy ultrasound, allowing you to look at your unborn baby.
After the test is over, the provider will wipe the gel off your body.
The test takes about 30 to 60 minutes to complete.
In some cases, a pregnancy ultrasound may be done by inserting the transducer into the vagina. This is most often done early in pregnancy.
The preparations will depend on which type of ultrasound you are having. For ultrasounds of the abdominal area, including pregnancy ultrasounds and ultrasounds of the female reproductive system, you may need to fill up your bladder before the test. This involves drinking two to three glasses of water about an hour before the test, and not going to the bathroom. For other ultrasounds, you may need to adjust your diet or to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before your test. Some types of ultrasounds require no preparation at all.
Your health care provider will let you know if you need to do anything to prepare for your ultrasound.
There are no known risks to having an ultrasound. It is considered safe during pregnancy.
If your pregnancy ultrasound results were normal, it doesn’t guarantee you’ll have a healthy baby. No test can do that. But normal results may mean:
Your baby is growing at a normal rate.
You have the right amount of amniotic fluid.
No birth defects were found, though not all birth defects will show up on an ultrasound.
If your pregnancy ultrasound results were not normal, it may mean:
The baby is not growing at a normal rate.
You have too much or too little amniotic fluid.
The baby is growing outside the uterus. This is called an ectopic pregnancy. A baby can’t survive an ectopic pregnancy, and the condition can be life threatening for the mother.
There is a problem with the baby’s position in the uterus. This could make delivery more difficult.
Your baby has a birth defect.
If your pregnancy ultrasound results were not normal, it doesn’t always mean your baby has a serious health problem. Your provider may suggest more tests to help confirm a diagnosis.
If you had diagnostic ultrasound, the meaning of your results will depend on which part of the body was being looked at.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
Additional Materials (21)
Pregnancy week by week: 25 to 29 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
How an Ultrasound Works
Video by preciouspeeks/YouTube
What is 4D ultrasound scan?
Video by ultrasoundlink/YouTube
9 Months In The Womb: A Remarkable Look At Fetal Development Through Ultrasound By PregnancyChat.com
Video by PregnancyChat/YouTube
Pregnancy week by week: 30 to 34 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Pregnancy week by week: 35 to 40 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
Pregnancy week by week: 10 to 14 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
The Facts on Miscarriages (Getting Pregnant #6)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
Pregnancy week by week: 15 to 19 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
Pregnancy week by week: 20 to 24 - Pancitas.com
Video by Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
How to use ultrasound in pregnancy
Video by Medical Aid Films - Films For Life/YouTube
Is Your Baby a Boy or a Girl? (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Video by Healthguru/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Embryo at Carnegie Stage 23 Inside Womb
Video footage of a doctor and a woman discussing an image of a sonogram. Camera zooms down a hallway and into the woman's belly. Cut to womb environment showing a developing embryo at about Carnegie stage 23. Skin is translucent and shows some underlying structures. Camera zooms in to the face and there is subtle movement of the mouth.
Video by TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
Medical ultrasound examination of a pregnant woman.
Image by Scott
Twins
Monoamniotic twins at 15 weeks : Abdominal ultrasonography of monoamniotic twins at a gestational age of 15 weeks. A coronal plane is shown of the twin at left, and a sagittal plane of parts of the upper thorax and head is shown of the twin at right.
Image by Haggstrom, Mikael. Medical gallery of Mikael Haggstrom 2014
Fetal Ultrasound
Ultrasound image (sonogram) of a fetus in the womb.
Image by BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
Colorized Ultrasound of Possible Breast Tumor
Colorized ultrasound of possible breast tumor (center, with irregular edges). Ultrasound alone isn't used for screening because it can't produce an accurate picture of the entire breast. However, mammograms and ultrasound together catch more tumors than mammograms alone. Ultrasound is very good at telling if a lump is solid, and possibly cancerous, or a harmless cyst. It is particularly useful for women with dense breast tissue.
Image by TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
3D Ultrasound of Fetus at 20 weeks
Image by Staecker
What unique challenges do pregnant women with disabilities face?
Sonogram Projected on belly
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Photo of a photo
Annalisa McCormick, spouse of Airman 1st Class Kristopher McCormick, a 35th Civil Engineer Squadron pavement and equipment journeyman, takes a photo of her baby during an ultra sound appointment at Misawa Air Base, Japan, April 10, 2019. An ultrasound, also called a sonogram, monitors fetal development and screens for any potential medical concerns. (U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Collette Brooks)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Collette Brooks
2:20
Pregnancy week by week: 25 to 29 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
0:54
How an Ultrasound Works
preciouspeeks/YouTube
2:47
What is 4D ultrasound scan?
ultrasoundlink/YouTube
4:37
9 Months In The Womb: A Remarkable Look At Fetal Development Through Ultrasound By PregnancyChat.com
PregnancyChat/YouTube
2:21
Pregnancy week by week: 30 to 34 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
2:42
How Pregnancy Tests Work (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Healthguru/YouTube
2:48
Pregnancy week by week: 35 to 40 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
2:37
Pregnancy week by week: 10 to 14 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
3:41
The Facts on Miscarriages (Getting Pregnant #6)
Healthguru/YouTube
3:18
Pregnancy week by week: 15 to 19 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
2:31
Pregnancy week by week: 20 to 24 - Pancitas.com
Little Bellies Ultrasound & Pregnancy Spa/YouTube
12:31
How to use ultrasound in pregnancy
Medical Aid Films - Films For Life/YouTube
1:29
Is Your Baby a Boy or a Girl? (Pregnancy Health Guru)
Healthguru/YouTube
0:38
Embryo at Carnegie Stage 23 Inside Womb
TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
Scott
Twins
Haggstrom, Mikael. Medical gallery of Mikael Haggstrom 2014
Fetal Ultrasound
BruceBlaus/Wikimedia
Colorized Ultrasound of Possible Breast Tumor
TheVisualMD
Obstetric ultrasonography
Staecker
What unique challenges do pregnant women with disabilities face?
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Photo of a photo
U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Collette Brooks
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
Also called: CSF Analysis, Spinal Fluid Analysis
A cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a group of tests that help diagnose diseases and conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
Also called: CSF Analysis, Spinal Fluid Analysis
A cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a group of tests that help diagnose diseases and conditions affecting the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid found in your brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up your central nervous system. Your central nervous system controls and coordinates everything you do including, muscle movement, organ function, and even complex thinking and planning. CSF helps protect this system by acting like a cushion against sudden impact or injury to the brain or spinal cord. CSF also removes waste products from the brain and helps your central nervous system work properly.
A CSF analysis is a group of tests that look at your cerebrospinal fluid to help diagnose diseases and conditions that affect the brain and spinal cord.
A CSF analysis may include tests to diagnose:
Infectious diseases of the brain and spinal cord, including meningitis and encephalitis. CSF tests for infections look at white blood cells, bacteria, and other substances in the cerebrospinal fluid
Autoimmune disorders, such as Guillain-Barré Syndrome and multiple sclerosis (MS). CSF tests for these disorders look for high levels of certain proteins in the cerebrospinal fluid. These tests are called albumin protein and igG/albumin.
Bleeding in the brain
Brain tumors
You may need a CSF analysis if you have symptoms of an infection of the brain or spinal cord, or of an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis (MS).
Symptoms of a brain or spinal cord infection include:
Fever
Severe headache
Seizures
Stiff neck
Nausea and vomiting
Sensitivity to light
Double vision
Changes in behavior
Confusion
Symptoms of MS include:
Blurred or double vision
Tingling in the arms, legs, or face
Muscle spasms
Weak muscles
Dizziness
Bladder control problems
Symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome include weakness and tingling in the legs, arms, and upper body.
You may also need a CSF analysis if you've had an injury to your brain or spinal cord, or have been diagnosed with cancer that has spread to the brain or spinal cord.
Your cerebrospinal fluid will be collected through a procedure called a spinal tap, also known as a lumbar puncture. A spinal tap is usually done in a hospital. During the procedure:
You will lie on your side or sit on an exam table.
A health care provider will clean your back and inject an anesthetic into your skin, so you won't feel pain during the procedure. Your provider may put a numbing cream on your back before this injection.
Once the area on your back is completely numb, your provider will insert a thin, hollow needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small backbones that make up your spine.
Your provider will withdraw a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. This will take about five minutes.
You'll need to stay very still while the fluid is being withdrawn.
Your provider may ask you to lie on your back for an hour or two after the procedure. This may prevent you from getting a headache afterward.
You don't need any special preparations for a CSF analysis, but you may be asked to empty your bladder and bowels before the test.
There is very little risk to having a spinal tap. You may feel a little pinch or pressure when the needle is inserted. After the test, you may get a headache, called a post-lumbar headache. About one in 10 people will get a post-lumbar headache. This can last for several hours or up to a week or more. If you have a headache that lasts longer than several hours, talk to your health care provider. He or she may be able to provide treatment to relieve the pain.
You may feel some pain or tenderness in your back at the site where the needle was inserted. You may also have some bleeding at the site.
Your CSF analysis results may indicate that you have an infection, an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis, or another disease of the brain or spinal cord. Your provider will likely order more tests to confirm your diagnosis.
Some infections, such as meningitis caused by bacteria, are life-threatening emergencies. If your provider suspects you have bacterial meningitis or another serious infection, he or she may give you medicine before your diagnosis is confirmed.
005256: Cell Count, Cerebrospinal Fluid | LabCorp [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
CSF Analysis [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis - - American Family Physician [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Cerebrospinal Fluid | Lab Tests | GLOWM [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
CSF Analysis - Neurology - Michigan Medicine Confluence [accessed on Oct 01, 2018]
Additional Materials (17)
Ventricular system
The Human en:Ventricular system colored and animated
Image by en:Anatomography
Lumbar puncture
Image by BruceBlaus
What is hydrocephalus and what are the different types?
Illustration showing different effects of hydrocephalus on the brain and cranium.
Image by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hydrocephalus - Who gets it and what causes it?
Image by Vimont, Engelmann /Scan by NLM
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Images from a patient with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH)
Image by Nevit Dilmen
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus _ Animated MRI Images from a patient with normal pressure hydrocephalus
Image by Nevit Dilmen
4 vials of human cerebrospinal fluid
4 vials of human cerebral spinal fluid of normal appearance, collected via lumbar puncture from the L3/L4 disk space.
Image by James Heilman, MD
Epidural blood patch
Illustration of Epidural blood patch
Image by Gurch
Lumbar puncture
Lumbar puncture procedure in a new born infant in a Neonatal Medium Care Unit, Maracay, Venezuela.
Image by Bobjgalindo
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Image by OpenStax College
Lumbar Vertebrae
3D visualization based on scanned human data of lumbar vertebrae. Strong and wide lumbar vertebrae bear weight of the body and provide stability.
Image by TheVisualMD
Lumbar Puncture
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Lumbar Spine Anatomy
Video by Randale Sechrest/YouTube
Lumbar Puncture
Lumbar Puncture
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Healthy Brain cross section
Brain with Ischemic Stroke cross section
Brain with Hemorrhagic Stroke, cross section
1
2
3
Types of Stroke
Cross Section
1) Healthy Brain - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. The vertebral arteries enter the skull through the foramen magnum. They meet to form the basilar artery, then ultimately branch into the posterior cerebral arteries. The Circle of Willis is a pattern of arteries in the center of the brain, surrounding the pituitary gland. The ventricles are fluid-filled cavities in the brain continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord, housing cells that produce and secrete cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid lubricates and has an immunological function.
2) Ischemic Stroke - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. A portion of dead brain tissue can be seen on the individual's left side of the brain near the surface. The dead tissue is due to an ischemic stroke, most likely a result of blockage in an artery to the brain. The blockage can also occur elsewhere in the body, but break apart and travel through the bloodstream, getting caught in the smaller arteries in the brain. Blood is unable to reach the tissue destination, and therefore that tissue becomes necrotic. The cause of blockage in the first place is likely due to fatty deposits in arterial walls, or atherosclerosis.
3) Hemorrhagic Stroke - This cross-sectional image through the frontal plane of the head of a healthy individual reveals the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain, along with some major structures visible at this level. A hemorrhagic stroke has occurred, as indicated by the area of bleeding on the individual's left side of the brain. A hemorrhagic stroke can occur when a vessel weakened by conditions such as an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation (AVM) ruptures, allowing blood to leak out into the surrounding tissues. These conditions can be congenital, but risks may increase due to high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, and atherosclerosis.
Interactive by TheVisualMD
Ventricular system
en:Anatomography
Lumbar puncture
BruceBlaus
What is hydrocephalus and what are the different types?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hydrocephalus - Who gets it and what causes it?
Vimont, Engelmann /Scan by NLM
Cerebrospinal fluid and System
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Diagram showing how you have a lumbar puncture.
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Nevit Dilmen
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
Nevit Dilmen
4 vials of human cerebrospinal fluid
James Heilman, MD
Epidural blood patch
Gurch
Lumbar puncture
Bobjgalindo
Spinal Cord Cross Section
OpenStax College
Lumbar Vertebrae
TheVisualMD
4:06
Lumbar Puncture
DrER.tv/YouTube
5:32
Lumbar Spine Anatomy
Randale Sechrest/YouTube
Lumbar Puncture
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Types of Stroke
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow Tests
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative bone marrow biopsy results indicates that the bone marrow didn’t have any significant findings with all of the testing that was done. This may mean that certain diseases were not found. It may also mean that the bone marrow is functioning normally.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells, including:
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
Platelets, which help with blood clotting
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer.
There are two types of procedures used to collect bone marrow samples for testing:
Bone marrow aspiration removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid and cells
Bone marrow biopsy removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy are usually done at the same time.
Other names: bone marrow examination
Bone marrow tests are used to:
Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets
Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as:
Anemia (when the cause is unknown)
Polycythemia vera
Thrombocytopenia
Diagnose bone marrow disorders
Diagnose and monitor treatment for certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
Diagnose the cause of an unexplained fever, which could be from an infection in the bone marrow
Your health care provider may order a bone marrow aspiration and a bone marrow biopsy if other blood tests show your levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are not normal.
Too many or too few blood cells may mean you have a medical condition, such as cancer that starts in your blood or bone marrow. If you are being treated for another type of cancer, these tests can find out if the cancer has spread to your bone marrow.
Bone marrow tests may also be used to see how well cancer treatment is working.
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy procedures are usually done at the same time. A health care provider will collect the marrow samples for testing. Usually, the samples can be collected in about ten minutes.
Before the procedure, you may be asked to put on a hospital gown. Your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature will be checked.
You may choose to have a mild sedative, which is medicine to help you relax. You may also have the choice to use stronger medicine that will make you sleep. Your provider can help you decide which option is best for you.
During the procedure:
You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used to get the samples. Most bone marrow samples are taken from the back of the hip bone, called the iliac crest. But other bones may be used.
An area of skin over the bone will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
You will get an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the skin and the bone underneath. It may sting.
When the area is numb, the provider will make a very small incision (cut) in your skin and insert a hollow needle. You will need to lie very still during the procedure:
The bone marrow aspiration is usually done first. The provider will push the needle into the bone and use a syringe attached to the needle to pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a brief, sharp pain. The aspiration takes only a few minutes.
The bone marrow biopsy uses a special hollow biopsy needle inserted through the same skin opening. The provider will twist the needle into the bone to take out a small piece, or core, of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
After the test, the health care provider will cover your skin with a bandage.
If you didn't use medicine to relax or sleep, you'll usually need to stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure that the bleeding has stopped. Afterwards, you can do your usual activities as soon as you are able. If you used medicine to relax or sleep, you'll need to stay longer before you can go home. You may also need to rest the next day.
Your provider will tell you whether you need to fast (not eat or drink) for a few hours before the procedure.
Plan to have someone take you home after the test, because you may be drowsy if you are given medicine to help you relax or sleep during the procedure.
You'll receive instructions for how to prepare, but be sure to ask your provider any questions you have about the procedure.
After a bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days.
Your provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Don't take any pain medicine your provider hasn't approved. Certain pain relievers, such as aspirin, could increase your risk of bleeding.
Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
Increased pain or discomfort where the sample was taken
Redness, swelling, bleeding, or other fluids leaking from at the site
Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your provider.
It may take several days or even weeks to get your bone marrow test results. Your provider may have ordered many different types of tests on your marrow sample, so the results often include a lot of complex information. Your provider can explain what your results mean.
In certain cases, if your test results are not normal, you may need to have more tests to confirm a diagnosis or to decide which treatment would be best.
If you have cancer that affects your bones and marrow, your test results may provide information about your cancer stage, which is how much cancer you have in your body and how fast it may be growing.
If you are already being treated for cancer, your test results may show:
How well your treatment is working
Whether your treatment is affecting your bone marrow
Bone Marrow Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 16, 2024]
Additional Materials (22)
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Video by Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
Image by doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.
Image by CNX Openstax
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Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue
Video by TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.
Image by CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.
Image by Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
3:24
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
2:12
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
5:56
Having a bone marrow test
Design Science/YouTube
2:20
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:38
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
4:03
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
0:06
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immunophenotyping Test
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Your result is Normal.
No significant immunophenotypic abnormality detected.
Related conditions
Immunophenotyping | NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Immunophenotyping | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
480260: Leukemia/Lymphoma Immunophenotyping Profile | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (3)
Burkitts lymphoma
Burkitt's lymphoma histology image
Image by Ed Uthman, MD.
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
Video by BMH learning/YouTube
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Video by Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
Burkitts lymphoma
Ed Uthman, MD.
2:21
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
BMH learning/YouTube
1:51
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
FISH Test
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. It is utilized to diagnose genetic diseases, gene mapping, and identification of chromosomal abnormalities, and may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomes' arrangements of genes.
FISH Test
Also called: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization, FISH, FISH Test for Cancer, FISH Study
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. It is utilized to diagnose genetic diseases, gene mapping, and identification of chromosomal abnormalities, and may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomes' arrangements of genes.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal FISH study indicates the amount of cells counted and analyzed and that no gene rearrangements were observed.
Related conditions
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (abbreviated FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. In this technique, the full set of chromosomes from an individual is affixed to a glass slide and then exposed to a “probe”—a small piece of purified DNA tagged with a fluorescent dye. The fluorescently labeled probe finds and then binds to its matching sequence within the set of chromosomes. With the use of a special microscope, the chromosome and sub-chromosomal location where the fluorescent probe bound can be seen.
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) provides researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic material in an individual's cells, including specific genes or portions of genes. This may be used for understanding a variety of chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations.
FISH is useful, for example, to help a researcher or clinician identify where a particular gene falls within an individual's chromosomes. The first step is to prepare short sequences of single-stranded DNA that match a portion of the gene the researcher is looking for. These are called probes. The next step is to label these probes by attaching one of a number of colors of fluorescent dye.DNA is composed of two strands of complementary molecules that bind to each other like chemical magnets. Since the researchers' probes are single-stranded, they are able to bind to the complementary strand of DNA, wherever it may reside on a person's chromosomes. When a probe binds to a chromosome, its fluorescent tag provides a way for researchers to see its location.
Scientists use three different types of FISH probes, each of which has a different application:
Locus specific probes bind to a particular region of a chromosome. This type of probe is useful when scientists have isolated a small portion of a gene and want to determine on which chromosome the gene is located, or how many copies of a gene exist within a particular genome.
Alphoid or centromeric repeat probes are generated from repetitive sequences found in the middle of each chromosome. Researchers use these probes to determine whether an individual has the correct number of chromosomes. These probes can also be used in combination with "locus specific probes" to determine whether an individual is missing genetic material from a particular chromosome.
Whole chromosome probes are actually collections of smaller probes, each of which binds to a different sequence along the length of a given chromosome. Using multiple probes labeled with a mixture of different fluorescent dyes, scientists are able to label each chromosome in its own unique color. The resulting full-color map of the chromosome is known as a spectral karyotype. Whole chromosome probes are particularly useful for examining chromosomal abnormalities, for example, when a piece of one chromosome is attached to the end of another chromosome.
For many applications, FISH has largely been replaced by the use of microarrays. However, FISH remains useful for some tests. FISH may also be used to study comparisons among the chromosomal arrangements of genes across related species.
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization Fact Sheet | National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH). Genome.gov [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
510669: Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH), Oncology | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (41)
FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (abbreviated FISH) is a laboratory technique used to detect and locate a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome. In this technique, the full set of chromosomes from an individual is affixed to a glass slide and then exposed to a “probe”—a small piece of purified DNA tagged with a fluorescent dye. The fluorescently labeled probe finds and then binds to its matching sequence within the set of chromosomes. With the use of a special microscope, the chromosome and sub-chromosomal location where the fluorescent probe bound can be seen.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Image by Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
Indian Muntjac cultured cells; DAPI nuclei, Alexa Fluor 488 Phalloidin actin, Mitotracker Red CMXRos; 63x/1.4. Imaged with ZEISS ApoTome.2, Axiocam 702 mono and Axio Imager www.zeiss.com/axiocam Sample courtesy of Michael W. Davidson, Florida State University
Image by ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
Under a magnification of 562X, this photomicrograph, stained using a fluorescent antibody (FA) staining technique, and NOT stained using a Candida conjugate, revealed the presence of Aspergillus sp. organisms, in a case of aspergillosis.
Image by CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M./Wikimedia
FISH (Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization)
Scheme of the principle of the FISH (Fluorescent in situ hybridization) Experiment to localize a gene in the nucleus.
Image by MrMatze/Wikimedia
FISH for Bacterial Pathogen Identification
This figure outlines the process of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) used for bacterial pathogen identification. First, a sample of the infected tissue is taken from the patient. Then an oligonucleotide that is complementary to the suspected pathogen’s genetic code is synthesized and chemically tagged with a fluorescent probe. The collected tissue sample must then be chemically treated in order to make the cell membranes permeable to the fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide. After the tissue sample is treated, the tagged complementary oligonucleotide is added. The fluorescently tagged oligonucleotide will only bind to the complementary DNA of the suspected pathogen. If the pathogen is present in the tissue sample, then the pathogen’s cells will glow/fluoresce after treatment with the tagged oligonucleotide. All other cells will not glow after treatment.
Image by Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes. (A) Dual color hybridization showing highly specific signals on the X (red) and Y (green) chromosomes in metaphase cells. The two diploid interphase cell nuclei from a normal male donor show the expected pair of single signals. (B) The approximate locations of the hybridization targets shown along ideograms of the human X and Y chromosomes.
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Staining of chromosome Hordeum vulgare by Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
Image by Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Fluorescence in situ hybridization versus chromogenic in situ hybridization
Image by Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Fluorescent in-situ hybridization is a process which vividly paints chromosomes or portions of chromosomes with fluorescent molecules. This technique is useful for identifying chromosomal abnormalities and for gene mapping.
Image by Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe on metaphase spreads of ‘normal’ cells. (A) The dual color FISH results showing a normal diploid metaphase spread. The DAPI DNA counterstain is shown in gray; (B) Schematic diagram illustrating the relative positions of the chromosome 16 whole chromosome painting probe (Coatasome-16, Oncor) and the biotinylated DNA repeat probe prepared from BAC RP11-486E19 (detected with avidin-FITC, green).
Image by Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Obraz fluorescencyjny jądra ludzkiego limfocytu barwionego diaminofenyloindolem (DAPI) z sygnałami sond swoistych dla chromosomów 13 (zielony, sonda znakowana fluoresceiną) i 21 (czerwony, sonda znakowana rodaminą), uzyskany w wyniku zastosowania techniki FISH
Image by Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
ViewRNA assay for detection of miR-133 microRNA (green) and myogenin mRNA (red) in differentiating C2C12 cells.
Image by Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
Her2 gene amplification by FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) in breast cancer cells
Image by IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Human metaphase chromosomes were subjected to fluorescence in situ hybridization with a probe to the Alu Sequence (green signals)and counterstained for DNA (red).
Image by Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
General workflow for Q-FISH with cultured cells.
Image by Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Video by Abnova/YouTube
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Video by ПИМУ - Приволжский исследовательский мед.универ./YouTube
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
Video by biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory technique for detecting and locating a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
Hybridization is the process of combining two complementary single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules and allowing them to form a single double-stranded molecule through base pairing.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA array CGH
(A) Human duplication of a cluster of genes at Chromosome 5q13.3. is shown by two separate, and sometimes multiple, red BAC probe (CTD-2288G5) signals in interphase cells, with only one green BAC probe signal (RP11-1077O1) for a flanking region. Metaphase FISH shows both probes at band 5q13. The third nucleus in (A) shows four signals of the control probe (green) and eight copies of the BAC probe duplicated in the aCGH assay, consistent with the pattern expected in an S/G2 nucleus.
(B–E) Bonobo (B), chimpanzee (C), gorilla (D), and orangutan (E) interphase FISH studies all show no increased signal for the human duplicated gene cluster, with signals of comparable size for the CTD-2288G5 (red) and the flanking RP11-107701 (green) probes. Metaphase FISH analyses show the gene cluster to be in the p arm of Chromosomes 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in both the bonobo and chimpanzee, in the q arm of Chromosome 4 (corresponding to the human Chromosome 5) in the orangutan, and in the p arm of the gorilla Chromosome 19 (syntenic regions to human Chromosomes 5 and 17).
Image by Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
In situ hybridization. 18p (green) and 18q (red) with subtelomeric probes showing 18p deletion in the patient with De Grouchy syndrome type I (deletion 18p)
Image by /Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
Kidney section. IHC stained with Cy3 (red), anti-GFP antibody stained with Alexa 488(green), nuclei stained with DAPI (blue). Fluorescence microscopy with ZEISS Axio Observer, Axiocam, Colibri 7. www.zeiss.com/axioobserver
Image by ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Figure 2. Result of FISH analysis using LSI probe (TUPLE 1) from DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome critical region. TUPLE 1 (HIRA) probe was labeled in Spectrum Orange and Arylsulfatase A (ARSA) in SpectrumGreen as control. Absence of the orange signal indicates deletion of the TUPLE 1 locus at 22q11.2. Tonelli et al. Journal of Medical Case Reports 2007 1:167 doi:10.1186/1752-1947-1-167
Image by Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
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Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
Visualization of the enormous degree of chromosomal instability in primary breast cancers using fluorescence in situ hybridization to identify copy number changes of specific chromosomes and oncogenes.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
Mapping the position of genes in the cell nucleus sheds light on basic principles governing the genome. Here, a single gene called Pem (purple) has been localized using fluorescence in situ hybridization. DNA is stained blue; the cell cytoplasm is stained green.
This image was originally submitted as part of the 2015 NCI Cancer Close Up project and selected for exhibit. This image is part of the NCI Cancer Close Up 2015 collection.
See also https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/closeup.
Image by NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
This (a) microbial mat, about one meter in diameter, grows over a hydrothermal vent in the Pacific Ocean in a region known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire.” The mat helps retain microbial nutrients. Chimneys such as the one indicated by the arrow allow gases to escape. (b) In this micrograph, bacteria are visualized using fluorescence microscopy. (credit a: modification of work by Dr. Bob Embley, NOAA PMEL, Chief Scientist; credit b: modification of work by Ricardo Murga, Rodney Donlan, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Image by CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system. A biofilm is a highly organized community of microorganisms that develops naturally on certain surfaces. These communities are common in natural environments and generally do not pose any danger to humans. Many microbes in biofilms have a positive impact on the planet and our societies. Biofilms can be helpful in treatment of wastewater, for example. This dime-sized biofilm, however, was formed by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Under some conditions, this bacterium can infect wounds that are caused by severe burns. The bacterial cells release a variety of materials to form an extracellular matrix, which is stained red in this photograph. The matrix holds the biofilm together and protects the bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system.
Image by Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
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Biofilm blocking fluid flow
This time-lapse movie shows that bacterial communities called biofilms can create blockages that prevent fluid flow in devices such as stents and catheters over a period of about 56 hours. This video was featured in a news release from Princeton University.
Video by NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
Stage 1, initial attachment; stage 2, irreversible attachment; stage 3, maturation I; stage 4, maturation II; stage 5, dispersion. Each stage of development in the diagram is paired with a photomicrograph of a developing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. All photomicrographs are shown to same scale
Image by D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
This digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather; revealed the presence of unidentified organisms; which included bacteria; protozoa; and algae. In this particular view; a microorganism is featured; the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pin cushion; was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm; within which many bacteria; and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
Under a magnification of 2500X, this digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of an untreated water specimen extracted from a wild stream mainly used to control flooding during inclement weather, revealed the presence of unidentified organisms, which included bacteria, protozoa, and algae. In this particular view, a microorganism is featured, the exterior of which is covered by numerous projections, imparting an appearance of a sea urchin. This microscopic pincushion was tethered to its surroundings by a biofilm, within which many bacteria and amoeboid protozoa could be seen enmeshed as well. See PHIL 11781 for a greater magnification of this organism’s exterior.
Image by CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
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confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
Using a confocal laser scanning microscope, microbiologist Maria Brandl examines a mixed biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green) in soft rot lesions on cilantro leaves (blue).
Image by USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) provides researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic material in an individual's cells, including specifc genes or portions of genes. This is important for understanding a variety of chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations. Unlike most other techniques used to study chromosomes, FISH does not have to be performed on cells that are actively dividing. This makes it a very versatile procedure. Credit: Darryl Leja, NHGRI.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
FISH method. The chromosomes are blue in the fluorescence microscope , except for a point on one of the chromosomes, which is green and red. This is where the sequence causing one of the types of leukemia is located
Image by Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
The image shows nuclei of neoplastic cells of a breast cancer with a normal number of copies of the Her2 gene (red signals) (in green, centromere labeling signals). Technique: in situ hybridization of interphase nuclei obtained from paraffin-embedded material from breast cancer.
Image by Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
A probe is a single-stranded sequence of DNA or RNA used to search for its complementary sequence in a sample genome.
Image by National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute
HER2 FISH on Breast Cancer
Anistalista
Indian Muntjac fibroblast cells
ZEISS Microscopy/Flickr
Aspergillosis
CDC/ Dr. William Kaplan
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3 Detected by Interspecies cDNA aCGH - journal.pbio.0020207.g003
Pepetps
Togopic
Ivan Akira
Magnus Manske
Timothy W. Ford/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of chromosome X and Y BAC probes
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
Hordeum vulgare stained by fluorescent in situ hybridization
Karol007 and Marcello002/Wikimedia
FISH versus CISH Detection
Escott16/Wikimedia
FISH (technique)
Thomas Ried/Wikimedia
Results of in situ hybridization of a chromosome 16 BAC probe
Joanne H. Hsu, Hui Zeng, Kalistyn H. Lemke, Aris A. Polyzos, Jingly F. Weier, Mei Wang, Anna R. Lawin-O’Brien, Heinz-Ulrich G. Weier and Benjamin O’Brien/Wikimedia
FISH human lymphocyte nucleus stained with DAPI with chromosome 13 (green) and 21 (red) centromere probes hybrydized (fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)
Gregor1976/Wikimedia
MicroRNA and mRNA visualization in differentiating C1C12 cells
Ryan Jeffs/Wikimedia
FISH Her2
IrinaPav/Wikimedia
PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish
Andreas Bolzer, Gregor Kreth, Irina Solovei, Daniela Koehler, Kaan Saracoglu, Christine Fauth, Stefan Müller, Roland Eils, Christoph Cremer, Michael R. Speicher, Thomas Cremer/Wikimedia
Q-FISH workflow
Jclam at English Wikipedia/Wikimedia
3:22
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society/YouTube
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Hybridization (microarray) | Biomolecules | MCAT | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
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Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Abnova/YouTube
1:44
FISH Technique Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization HD Animation 1
Microbiology: Immunofluorescence Detection of Bacteria
biologycourses/YouTube
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Hybridization
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
FISH Confirmation of a Human-Specific Duplication of a Gene Cluster on Chromosome 5q13.3
Fortna, A.; Kim, Y.; MacLaren, E.; Marshall, K.; Hahn, G.; Meltesen, L.; Brenton, M.; Hink, R.; Burgers, S.; Hernandez-Boussard, T.; Karimpour-Fard, A.; Glueck, D.; McGavran, L.; Berry, R.; Pollack, J.; Sikela, J. M.
FISH18
/Wikimedia
Kidney section, fluorescence microscopy
ZEISS Microscopy
Fish analysis di george syndrome
Adriano R Tonelli1 , Kalyan Kosuri1 , Sainan Wei2 and Davoren Chick1/Wikimedia
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Chromosomal Instability in Breast Cancer Cells
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Thomas Ried
Mapping a Gene
NCI Center for Cancer Research / Tom Misteli
Prokaryotic Diversity
CNX Openstax
Biofilm formed by a pathogen
Scott Chimileski, Ph.D., and Roberto Kolter, Ph.D., Harvard Medical School.
0:08
Biofilm blocking fluid flow
NIGMS/Knut Drescher, Princeton University
5 stages of biofilm development
D. Davis
Toxins under microscope
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
Toxins
CDC/ Janice Haney Carr
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confocal laser scanning microscope of biofilm of Salmonella enterica (pink) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (green)
USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo by Peggy Greb.
Flourescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA/Wikimedia
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) image of bcr/abl positive rearranged metaphase
Pmx
In situ hybridization of the Her2 gene (unamplified)
Manuel Medina Pérez/Wikimedia
Probe
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
Cytogenetic Analysis
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
510999: Chromosome Analysis, Leukemia/Lymphoma | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Ozkan E, Lacerda MP. Genetics, Cytogenetic Testing And Conventional Karyotype. [Updated 2021 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Cytogenetic Analysis | NewsMedical [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
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Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
Video by UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
3:43
Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
Immunohistochemistry
Chromogenic immunohistochemistry staining of a cell with two antibodies: A cell contains a large number of antigens.
Image by Itayba
Chromogenic immunohistochemistry staining of a cell with two antibodies: A cell contains a large number of antigens.
Chromogenic immunohistochemistry staining of a cell with two antibodies: A cell contains a large number of antigens. The cell is exposed to a primary antibody (red) that binds to a specific antigen (purple square). The primary antibody binds a secondary (green) antibody that is chemically coupled to an enzyme (blue). The enzyme changes the color of the substrate to a more pigmented one (brown star).
Image by Itayba
Immunohistochemistry
A laboratory method that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens (markers) in a sample of tissue. The antibodies are usually linked to an enzyme or a fluorescent dye. After the antibodies bind to the antigen in the tissue sample, the enzyme or dye is activated, and the antigen can then be seen under a microscope. Immunohistochemistry is used to help diagnose diseases, such as cancer. It may also be used to help tell the difference between different types of cancer.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (4)
Immunohistochemistry | How to perform immunohistochemistry? | application of immunohistochemistry
Video by Animated biology With arpan/YouTube
ImmunoHistoChemistry (IHC) - Video Protocol Series
PD-L1 Testing and Developmental Process for Companion Diagnostic Tests
RocheDiagnosticsUSA/YouTube
Stages
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Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
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Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Diagram showing the lymph nodes lymphoma most commonly develops
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Stages of Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
KEY POINTS
After childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
The following stages are used for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
After childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the lymph system or to other parts of the body is called staging. The results of tests and procedures used to diagnose non-Hodgkin lymphoma may also be used for staging. See the General Information section for a description of these tests and procedures. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.
The following procedure also may be used to determine the stage:
Bone scan : A procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, in the bone. A very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material collects in the bones with cancer and is detected by a scanner.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
Cancer can spread through tissue, the lymph system, and the blood:
Tissue. The cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas.
Lymph system. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system. The cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body.
Blood. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood. The cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body.
The following stages are used for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma:
Stage I
Stage I childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in one group of lymph nodes or one area outside the lymph nodes, but no cancer is found in the abdomen or mediastinum (area between the lungs).
In stage I childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer is found:
in one group of lymph nodes; or
in one area outside the lymph nodes.
No cancer is found in the abdomen or mediastinum (area between the lungs).
Stage II
Stage II childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in one area outside the lymph nodes and in nearby lymph nodes (a); or in two or more areas above (b) or below (c) the diaphragm; or cancer started in the stomach, appendix, or intestines (d) and can be removed by surgery.
In stage II childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer is found:
in one area outside the lymph nodes and in nearby lymph nodes; or
in two or more areas either above or below the diaphragm, and may have spread to nearby lymph nodes; or
to have started in the stomach or intestines and can be completely removed by surgery. Cancer may have spread to certain nearby lymph nodes.
Stage III
Stage III childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in at least one area above and below the diaphragm (a); or cancer started in the chest (b); or cancer started in the abdomen and spread throughout the abdomen (c); or in the area around the spine (not shown).
In stage III childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer is found:
in at least one area above the diaphragm and in at least one area below the diaphragm; or
to have started in the chest; or
to have started in the abdomen and spread throughout the abdomen; or
in the area around the spine.
Stage IV
Stage IV childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer is found in the bone marrow, brain, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Cancer may also be found in other parts of the body.
In stage IV childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cancer is found in the bone marrow, brain, or cerebrospinal fluid. Cancer may also be found in other parts of the body.
Recurrent Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Recurrent childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated. Childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma may come back in the lymph system or in other parts of the body.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Treatment
young girl receiving chemotherapy
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer) / National Cancer Institute
young girl receiving chemotherapy
young girl receiving chemotherapy
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer) / National Cancer Institute
There are different types of treatment for children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating childhood cancer.
Eight types of standard treatment are used:
Chemotherapy
Radiation therapy
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
Targeted therapy
Other drug therapy
Phototherapy
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
Immunotherapy
Treatment for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma may cause side effects.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
There are different types of treatment for children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Different types of treatment are available for children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment.
Taking part in a clinical trial should be considered for all children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors who are experts in treating childhood cancer.
Treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist works with other health care providers who are experts in treating children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:
Pediatrician.
Radiation oncologist.
Pediatric hematologist.
Pediatric surgeon.
Pediatric nurse specialist.
Rehabilitation specialist.
Psychologist.
Social worker.
Treatment for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma may cause side effects.
For information about side effects that begin during treatment for cancer, see our Side Effects page.
Side effects from cancer treatment that begin after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Late effects of cancer treatment may include the following:
Physical problems.
Changes in mood, feelings, thinking, learning, or memory.
Second cancers (new types of cancer).
Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on your child. (See the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)
Six types of standard treatment are used:
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (intrathecal chemotherapy), an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas. Combination chemotherapy is treatment using two or more anticancer drugs.
The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.
Intrathecal chemotherapy may be used to treat childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma that has spread, or may spread, to the brain. When used to lessen the chance cancer will spread to the brain, it is called CNS prophylaxis. Intrathecal chemotherapy is given in addition to chemotherapy by mouth or vein. Higher than usual doses of chemotherapy may also be used as CNS prophylaxis.
Intrathecal chemotherapy. Anticancer drugs are injected into the intrathecal space, which is the space that holds the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). There are two different ways to do this. One way, shown in the top part of the figure, is to inject the drugs into an Ommaya reservoir (a dome-shaped container that is placed under the scalp during surgery; it holds the drugs as they flow through a small tube into the brain). The other way, shown in the bottom part of the figure, is to inject the drugs directly into the CSF in the lower part of the spinal column, after a small area on the lower back is numbed.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy:
External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer.
Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.
The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma being treated. External radiation therapy may be used to treat childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma that has spread, or may spread, to the brain and spinal cord. Internal radiation therapy is not used to treat non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
High doses of chemotherapy are given to kill cancer cells. Healthy cells, including blood -forming cells, are also destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cell transplant is a treatment to replace the blood-forming cells. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the patient completes chemotherapy, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
Stem cell transplant. (Step 1): Blood is taken from a vein in the arm of the donor. The patient or another person may be the donor. The blood flows through a machine that removes the stem cells. Then the blood is returned to the donor through a vein in the other arm. (Step 2): The patient receives chemotherapy to kill blood-forming cells. The patient may receive radiation therapy (not shown). (Step 3): The patient receives stem cells through a catheter placed into a blood vessel in the chest.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do. Types of targeted therapy include the following:
Monoclonal antibody therapy: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies may be used in combination with chemotherapy as adjuvant therapy.
Types of monoclonal antibodies include:
Rituximab is used to treat several types of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Pembrolizumab is used to treat primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred (come back). Treatment with pembrolizumab has been mostly studied in adults.
Brentuximab vedotin is a monoclonal antibody combined with an anticancer drug that is used to treat anaplastic large cell lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred.
A bispecific monoclonal antibody is made up of two different monoclonal antibodies that bind to two different substances and kills cancer cells. Bispecific monoclonal antibody therapy is used in the treatment of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma that have not responded to treatment or have recurred.
Nivolumab is being studied in the treatment of anaplastic large cell lymphoma with a certain gene change that has not responded to treatment or has recurred.
ALK inhibitor therapy: ALK inhibitors block the activity of a protein called anaplastic lymphoma kinase. Blocking this protein may help keep cancer cells from growing and spreading. Crizotinib, alectinib, and ceritinib may be used to treat anaplastic large cell lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred. Crizotinib is also being studied in the treatment of newly diagnosed anaplastic large cell lymphoma.
Proteasome inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks the actions of proteasomes in cancer cells. Proteasomes remove proteins no longer needed by the cell. When the proteasomes are blocked, the protons build up in the cell and may cause the cancer cell to die. Bortezomib may be used to treat lymphoblastic lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred.
Immunotoxins: This treatment can bind to cancer cells and kill them. Denileukin diftitox is an immunotoxin used to treat cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Other targeted therapies are being studied for the treatment of childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred (come back).
Other drug therapy
Retinoids are drugs related to vitamin A. Retinoid therapy with bexarotene is used to treat several types of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Steroids are hormones made naturally in the body. They can also be made in a laboratory and used as drugs. Steroid therapy that is applied to the skin is used to treat cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Dexamethasone and prednisone are steroids used with other drugs to treat certain types of lymphoma.
Antibiotics are drugs used to treat infections and cancer caused by bacteria or other microorganisms. Antibiotics have been used to treat mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. Treatment with antibiotic therapy has been mostly studied in adults.
Phototherapy
Phototherapy is a cancer treatment that uses a drug and a certain type of laser light to kill cancer cells. A drug that is not active until it is exposed to light is injected into a vein. The drug collects more in cancer cells than in normal cells. For skin cancer in the skin, laser light is shined onto the skin and the drug becomes active and kills the cancer cells. Phototherapy is used in the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient's condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change.
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patient’s immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body’s natural defenses against cancer. This cancer treatment is a type of biological therapy.
CAR T-cell therapy: This treatment changes the patient's T cells (a type of immune system cell) so they will attack certain proteins on the surface of cancer cells. T cells are taken from the patient and special receptors are added to their surface in the laboratory. The changed cells are called chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. The CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells multiply in the patient's blood and attack cancer cells. CAR T-cell therapy is being studied in the treatment of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma that has not responded to treatment or has recurred (come back).
CAR T-cell therapy. A type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells (a type of immune cell) are changed in the laboratory so they will bind to cancer cells and kill them. Blood from a vein in the patient’s arm flows through a tube to an apheresis machine (not shown), which removes the white blood cells, including the T cells, and sends the rest of the blood back to the patient. Then, the gene for a special receptor called a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is inserted into the T cells in the laboratory. Millions of the CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and then given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells are able to bind to an antigen on the cancer cells and kill them.
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are a type of immune cell that can kill certain cells, including foreign cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with the EBV. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes can be separated from other blood cells, grown in the laboratory, and then given to the patient to kill cancer cells. EBV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are being studied to treat post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease.
Treatment for childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma may cause side effects.
Side effects from cancer treatment that begin after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Late effects of cancer treatment may include the following:
Physical problems, including problems with the heart, bones, and fertility.
Changes in mood, feelings, thinking, learning, or memory.
Second cancers (new types of cancer), such as brain tumors, acute myeloid leukemia, and myelodysplastic syndrome.
Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on your child.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your child's condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
Treatment for high-grade NHL
Video by Blood Cancer UK/YouTube
Lymphoma
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
1:47
Treatment for high-grade NHL
Blood Cancer UK/YouTube
Lymphoma
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
Burkitt Lymphoma/Leukemia
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Burkitts Lymphoma
Image by Louis M. Staudt (Photographer)
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Burkitts Lymphoma
Malignant B-cell lymphocytes seen in Burkitt's lymphoma
Image by Louis M. Staudt (Photographer)
Treatment Options for Burkitt Lymphoma/Leukemia
Treatment options for newly diagnosed Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia
Treatment options for newly diagnosed Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma /leukemia may include:
Surgery to remove as much of the tumor as possible, followed by combination chemotherapy.
Combination chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (rituximab).
Treatment options for recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like lymphoma/leukemia
Treatment options for recurrent Burkitt and Burkitt-like non-Hodgkin lymphoma /leukemia may include:
Combination chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (rituximab).
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant with the patient's own cells or cells from a donor.
Targeted therapy with a bispecific antibody.
A clinical trial that checks a sample of the patient's tumor for certain gene changes. The type of targeted therapy that will be given to the patient depends on the type of gene change.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
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Burkitt's lymphoma
This Nigerian child presented with a large facial tumor due to malignant Burkitt's lymphoma, a non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). Very similar to leukemia, Burkitt's lymphoma is a very aggressive, malignant cancer. The solid tumor is composed predominantly of aberrant B-cells, which are integral to a normally healthy immune system.
Image by CDC / Rober S. Craig
Burkitt’s Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
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Burkitt's lymphoma
CDC / Rober S. Craig
4:50
Burkitt’s Lymphoma Diagnosis and Treatment
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma
Malignant lymphoma, high grade B cell 2
Image by /Wikimedia
Malignant lymphoma, high grade B cell 2
This is the same case shown in Image:Malignant lymphoma, high grade B cell 1.jpg
To illustrate the difference in color quality between different types of lighting, I shot the same frame under tungsten light (last picture) and window light (this picture). My copy stand is up against a large, bright window, so all I had to do was turn off the Photofloods, raise the miniblinds, and remove the 80B blue compensation filter normally used with daylight film under tungsten illumination. Nature accommodated me with a uniform bright overcast sky (a clear sky gives too blue a picture, and direct sunlight is too harsh and shadow-producing).
Photograph by Ed Uthman, MD. Public domain. Posted 19 May 00
Image by /Wikimedia
Treatment Options for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma may include:
Surgery to remove as much of the tumor as possible, followed by combination chemotherapy.
Combination chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (rituximab).
Treatment options for recurrent diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for recurrent diffuse large B-cell lymphoma may include:
Combination chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (rituximab).
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant with the patient's own cells or cells from a donor.
Targeted therapy with a bispecific antibody.
A clinical trial that checks a sample of the patient's tumor for certain gene changes. The type of targeted therapy that will be given to the patient depends on the type of gene change.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (5)
Thyroid CT with diffuse thyroid large B-cell lymphoma
For context, see Computed tomography of the thyroid.
Image by Mnahi Bin Saeedan, Ibtisam Musallam Aljohani, Ayman Omar Khushaim, Salwa Qasim Bukhari, and Salahudin Tayeb Elnaas/Wikimedia
Diffuse large B cell lymphoma - cytology low mag
Micrograph of a diffuse large B cell lymphoma, abbreviated DLBCL. Lymph node FNA specimen. Field stain.
See also
Image:Large b cell lymphoma - cytology small.jpg
Image by Nephron/Wikimedia
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DNA-Microarray Analysis
A DNA-microarray analysis of Burkitt's lymphoma and Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) is shown and identifies differences in gene expression patterns.
Image by Molecular Diagnosis of Burkitt's Lymphoma, New England Journal of Medicine, June 8, 2006, Vol. 354 (23), 2431-2442 / Bill Branson (Photographer)
Spleen, Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma
Elderly man who presented with abdominal pain. On laparotomy, the spleen had a tumor that had invaded through the capsule and was adherent to the diaphragm.
Pathological and histological images courtesy of Ed Uthman at flickr.
Image by Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA
Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma with Dr. Ann Lacasce | Everything You Need to Know
Video by Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
Thyroid CT with diffuse thyroid large B-cell lymphoma
Mnahi Bin Saeedan, Ibtisam Musallam Aljohani, Ayman Omar Khushaim, Salwa Qasim Bukhari, and Salahudin Tayeb Elnaas/Wikimedia
Diffuse large B cell lymphoma - cytology low mag
Nephron/Wikimedia
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DNA-Microarray Analysis
Molecular Diagnosis of Burkitt's Lymphoma, New England Journal of Medicine, June 8, 2006, Vol. 354 (23), 2431-2442 / Bill Branson (Photographer)
Spleen, Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma
Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA
3:58
Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma with Dr. Ann Lacasce | Everything You Need to Know
Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
Primary Mediastinal B-cell Lymphoma
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - intermed mag
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - high mag
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - very high mag
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Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Nephron
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - intermed mag
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - high mag
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma - very high mag
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Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma
Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma
Interactive by Nephron
Treatment Options for Primary Mediastinal B-Cell Lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma may include:
Combination chemotherapy and targeted therapy (rituximab).
Treatment options for recurrent primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for recurrent primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma may include:
Targeted therapy (pembrolizumab).
A clinical trial that checks a sample of the patient's tumor for certain gene changes. The type of targeted therapy that will be given to the patient depends on the type of gene change.
Use our clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are accepting patients. You can search for trials based on the type of cancer, the age of the patient, and where the trials are being done. General information about clinical trials is also available.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
BONE MARROW: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP).
BONE MARROW: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA
Bone marrow lymphoblasts show block and coarse granular staining. Lymphoblasts in approximately 75 percent of cases of ALL are PAS positive and manifest the characteristic pattern illustrated. The percentage of positive-staining blasts is variable. (Periodic acid-Schiff stain)
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP).
Treatment Options for Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed lymphoblastic lymphoma
Lymphoblastic lymphoma may be classified as the same disease as acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Treatment options for lymphoblastic lymphoma may include:
Combination chemotherapy. CNS prophylaxis with radiation therapy may also be given if cancer has spread to the brain or spinal cord.
A clinical trial of chemotherapy with different regimens for CNS prophylaxis.
A clinical trial of combination chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (bortezomib).
Treatment options for recurrent lymphoblastic lymphoma
Treatment options for recurrent lymphoblastic lymphoma may include:
Chemotherapy.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant with cells from a donor.
A clinical trial that checks a sample of the patient's tumor for certain gene changes. The type of targeted therapy that will be given to the patient depends on the type of gene change.
Use our clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are accepting patients. You can search for trials based on the type of cancer, the age of the patient, and where the trials are being done. General information about clinical trials is also available.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
T-Cell Lymphoma with Barbara Pro, MD | Everything You Need to Know
Video by Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
Julia - South Carolina - T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
Video by TeenCancerAmerica/YouTube
7:31
T-Cell Lymphoma with Barbara Pro, MD | Everything You Need to Know
Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
1:05
Julia - South Carolina - T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Lymphoma
TeenCancerAmerica/YouTube
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma
SkinTumors-P6091339
Image by LWozniak&KWZielinski/Wikimedia
SkinTumors-P6091339
Cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL)
Image by LWozniak&KWZielinski/Wikimedia
Treatment Options for Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma
Treatment options for newly diagnosed anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Treatment options for anaplastic large cell lymphoma may include:
Surgery followed by combination chemotherapy.
Combination chemotherapy.
Intrathecal and systemic chemotherapy, for patients with cancer in the brain or spinal cord.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy (crizotinib or brentuximab) and combination chemotherapy.
Treatment options for recurrent anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Treatment options for recurrent anaplastic large cell lymphoma may include:
Chemotherapy, brentuximab, and/or crizotinib.
Stem cell transplant with the patient's own cells or cells from a donor.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy (crizotinib or brentuximab) and combination chemotherapy.
A clinical trial that checks a sample of the patient's tumor for certain gene changes. The type of targeted therapy that will be given to the patient depends on the type of gene change.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
FDA Advises Health Care Providers about Breast Implants and ALCL
Video by U.S. Food and Drug Administration/YouTube
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma: Everything You Need to Know
Video by Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
3:14
FDA Advises Health Care Providers about Breast Implants and ALCL
U.S. Food and Drug Administration/YouTube
4:10
Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma: Everything You Need to Know
Lymphoma Research Foundation/YouTube
Lymphoproliferative Disease Associated With Immunodeficiency in Children
Castleman Disease
Image by Libertas Academica
Castleman Disease
Castleman's Disease - A Study of A Rare Lymphoproliferative Disorder In A University Hospital Published in Clinical Medicine Insights: Blood Disorders
Image by Libertas Academica
Treatment Options for Lymphoproliferative Disease Associated With Immunodeficiency in Children
Treatment options for lymphoproliferative disease associated with primary immunodeficiency
Treatment options for lymphoproliferative disease in children and adolescents with weakened immune systems may include:
Chemotherapy with or without rituximab.
Stem cell transplant with cells from a donor.
Treatment options for non-Hodgkin lymphoma associated with DNA repair defect syndromes
Treatment options for non-Hodgkin lymphoma associated with DNA repair defect syndromes in children may include:
Chemotherapy.
Treatment options for HIV-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy or HAART (a combination of antiretroviral drugs) lowers the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Treatment options for HIV-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in children may include:
Chemotherapy with or without rituximab.
For treatment of recurrent disease, treatment options depend on the type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Treatment options for post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease
Treatment options for post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease may include:
Surgery to remove the tumor. If possible, lower doses of immunosuppressive drugs after a stem cell or organ transplant may be given.
Targeted therapy (rituximab).
Chemotherapy with or without targeted therapy (rituximab).
A treatment of immunotherapy using donor lymphocytes or the patient's own T cells to target Epstein-Barrinfection is being studied. This treatment is only available at a few centers in the United States.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Rare NHL Occurring in Children
Follicular lymphoma, CD10
Image by User:Patho/Wikimedia
Follicular lymphoma, CD10
Follicular lymphoma.
Image by User:Patho/Wikimedia
Treatment Options for Rare NHL Occurring in Children
Treatment options for pediatric-type follicular lymphoma
Treatment options for follicular lymphoma in children may include:
Surgery.
Combination chemotherapy with or without rituximab.
For children whose cancer has certain changes in the genes, treatment is similar to that given to adults with follicular lymphoma.
Treatment options for marginal zone lymphoma
Treatment options for marginal zone lymphoma (including mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma) in children may include:
Surgery.
Radiation therapy.
Rituximab with or without chemotherapy.
Antibiotic therapy, for MALT lymphoma.
Treatment options for primary CNS lymphoma
Treatment options for primary CNS lymphoma in children may include:
Chemotherapy.
Treatment options for peripheral T-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for peripheral T-cell lymphoma in children may include:
Chemotherapy.
Radiation therapy.
Stem cell transplant with the patient's own cells or cells from a donor.
Treatment options for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma
Treatment options for subcutaneous panniculitis-like cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in children may include:
Watchful waiting.
High-dose steroids.
Targeted therapy (denileukin diftitox).
Combination chemotherapy.
Retinoid therapy.
Stem cell transplant.
Treatment options for cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma may include:
Surgery, radiation therapy, or both.
In children, treatment options for mycosis fungoides may include:
Steroids applied to the skin.
Retinoid therapy.
Radiation therapy.
Phototherapy (light therapy using ultraviolet B radiation).
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
Follicular lymphoma
LYMPH NODES-SPLEEN: SPLENIC INVOLVEMENT BY FOLLICULAR LYMPHOMA, This illustration depicts the classic appearance of spleen involved by follicular lymphoma, namely the presence of discrete, miliary, small, white "pearly" nodules throughout the whole parenchyma.
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
Distribution patterns of CD21 and CD23 in follicular lymphoma
Patterns of CD21 and CD23 expression by the follicular dendritic cells. Pattern 1 describes diffuse staining of follicular dendritic cells in the germinal center while pattern 2 demonstrates the peripheral staining in a “crescetic” fashion. Pattern 3 shows broken networks of the FDCs while the follicular outline is preserved. In pattern 4, the follicular outline is lost. Pattern 5 shows lack of stain and, in pattern 6, there is staining of follicular dendritic cell extensions around the individual mantle zone B cells.
Image by Fisnik Kurshumliu, Fatlinda Sadiku-Zehri, Ardita Qerimi, Zana Vela, Fisnik Jashari, Samir Bytyci, Vlore Rashiti and Shemsedin Sadiku/Wikimedia
Follicular lymphoma
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
Distribution patterns of CD21 and CD23 in follicular lymphoma
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Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Childhood non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which cancer cells form in the lymph system. The three major types are aggressive mature B-cell NHL, lymphoblastic lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Learn about the symptoms, diagnosis, staging, and treatment.