Every day, around the clock, people who work in the health care industry provide care for millions of people, from newborns to the very ill. In fact, the health care industry is one of largest providers of jobs in the United States. Many health jobs are in hospitals. Others are in nursing homes, doctors' offices, dentists' offices, outpatient clinics and laboratories.

To work in a health occupation, you often must have special training. Some, like doctors, must have more than 4 years of college.

Workers in these occupations help clients maintain and improve wellbeing.

Overall employment in healthcare occupations is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations from 2022 to 2032. About 1.8 million openings are projected each year, on average, in these occupations due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave the occupations permanently.

The median annual wage for healthcare practitioners and technical occupations (such as dental hygienists, physicians and surgeons, and registered nurses) was $77,760 in May 2022, which was higher than the median annual wage for all occupations of $46,310. Healthcare support occupations (such as home health and personal care aides, medical transcriptionists, and occupational therapy assistants) had a median annual wage of $33,600 in May 2022, which was lower than the median annual wage for all occupations.

BLS employment projections, wage, and other data for related occupations not shown in the following table are available on the Data for Occupations Not Covered in Detail page. Information highlighting physical demands, cognitive and mental requirements, and other qualifications for workers in the healthcare practitioners and technical and healthcare support groups are available in BLS Occupational Requirements Survey (ORS) profiles.

Athletic trainers specialize in preventing, diagnosing, and treating muscle and bone injuries and illnesses.

Duties

Athletic trainers typically do the following:

• Apply protective or injury-preventive devices, such as tape, bandages, and braces
• Recognize and evaluate injuries
• Provide first aid or emergency care
• Develop and carry out rehabilitation programs for injured athletes
• Plan and implement comprehensive programs to prevent injury and illness among athletes
• Perform administrative tasks, such as keeping records and writing reports on injuries and treatment programs

Athletic trainers work with people of all ages and all skill levels, from young children to soldiers and professional athletes. Athletic trainers are usually one of the first healthcare providers on the scene when injuries occur on the field. They work under the direction of a licensed physician and with other healthcare providers, often discussing specific injuries and treatment options or evaluating and treating patients, as directed by a physician. Some athletic trainers meet with a team physician or consulting physician regularly.

An athletic trainer’s administrative responsibilities may include regular meetings with an athletic director or another administrative officer to deal with budgets, purchasing, policy implementation, and other business-related issues. Athletic trainers plan athletic programs that are compliant with federal and state regulations; for example, they may ensure a football program adheres to laws related to athlete concussions.

Athletic trainers should not be confused with fitness trainers and instructors, which include personal trainers.

Audiologists diagnose, manage, and treat patients who have hearing, balance, or related problems.

Duties

Audiologists typically do the following:

• Examine patients who have conditions related to the outer, middle, or inner ear
• Assess the results of the examination and diagnose problems
• Create treatment plans to meet patients’ goals
• Provide care for routine procedures, such as testing
• Fit and dispense hearing aids and other assistive listening devices
• Counsel patients and their families on ways to listen and communicate, such as by lip reading or through technology
• Evaluate patients regularly to monitor their condition and modify treatment plans, as needed
• Record patient progress
• Research the causes and treatment of hearing and balance disorders
• Educate patients on ways to prevent hearing loss

Audiologists diagnose conditions such as hearing loss and tinnitus (ringing in the ear). They use a variety of devices to identify the extent and underlying cause of hearing loss. For example, with audiometers they measure the volume and frequency at which a person hears.

Treatment depends on the type and severity of a patient’s hearing loss and may range from cleaning wax out of ear canals to fitting and checking hearing aids. (Audiologists’ ability to diagnose as well as treat patients distinguishes their work from that of hearing aid specialists.) Audiologists work with physicians and surgeons treating patients whose hearing may be improved with cochlear implants, small devices that are surgically embedded near the ear to deliver electrical impulses to the auditory nerve.

Audiologists also counsel patients and their families on adapting to hearing loss, such as through use of technology, and may refer them to resources and other support.

In addition to their work related to hearing conditions, audiologists help patients who have vertigo or other balance problems. For example, they may demonstrate exercises involving head movement or positioning to relieve some symptoms.

Some audiologists work with specific age groups, such as older adults or children. Other audiologists may fit patients for products that help protect their hearing on the job.

Chiropractors evaluate and treat patients' neuromusculoskeletal system, which includes nerves, bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. They use spinal adjustments and manipulation, as well as other clinical interventions, to manage patients’ health concerns, such as back and neck pain.

Duties

Chiropractors typically do the following:

• Review a patient's medical history and listen to their concerns
• Perform a physical examination to analyze the patient's posture, spine, and reflexes
• Provide neuromusculoskeletal therapy, which involves adjusting a patient’s spinal column and other joints
• Give additional treatments, such as applying heat or cold to a patient’s injured areas
• Advise patients on health and lifestyle issues, such as exercise and nutrition
• Refer patients to other healthcare professionals if needed

Chiropractors treat a variety of problems related to the neuromusculoskeletal system. They focus on pain in the back, neck, and joints and how relieving this pain can improve patients’ overall health. The goal is to improve the body’s motion and function.

In diagnosing a patient's condition, chiropractors often use both external and internal assessments. For example, a chiropractor may observe the patient's range of motion related to shoulder pain and then follow up with x rays to provide more detailed information.

Some chiropractors treat patients using procedures such as massage therapy, rehabilitative exercise, and electrical muscle stimulation in addition to spinal adjustments and manipulation. They also may apply supports, such as braces or tape, to treat patients and relieve pain.

In addition to operating a general chiropractic practice, chiropractors may specialize in areas such as sports, neurology, or nutrition. Chiropractors who are self-employed or work in private practice may have additional responsibilities that include marketing their business, hiring staff, and keeping records.

Dental assistants have many tasks, including patient care, recordkeeping, and appointment scheduling. Their duties vary by state and by the dentists’ offices in which they work.

Duties

Dental assistants typically do the following:

• Ensure that patients are comfortable in the dental chair
• Prepare patients and the work area for treatments and procedures
• Sterilize dental instruments
• Hand instruments to dentists during procedures
• Dry patients’ mouths using suction hoses and other equipment
• Instruct patients in proper oral hygiene
• Process x rays and complete lab tasks, under the direction of a dentist
• Keep records of dental treatments
• Schedule patient appointments
• Work with patients on billing and payment

Dental assistants often spend much of their day working closely with patients and dentists. For example, dental assistants might take a patient’s medical history, blood pressure, and pulse before a procedure; explain what will be done; and talk to patients about oral care. They help dentists during a procedure by passing instruments and holding equipment such as suction hoses, matrix bands, and dental curing lights. Other tasks include preparing the treatment room and making sure that instruments and equipment are sterile. Dental assistants also may document the procedure that is done and schedule followup appointments.

Some dental assistants are specially trained to take x rays of teeth and the surrounding areas. They place a protective apron over patients’ chest and lap, position the x-ray machine, place the x-ray sensor or film in patients’ mouths, and take the x rays. Afterward, dental assistants ensure that the images are clear.

Assistants who perform lab tasks, such as taking impressions of a patient’s teeth, work under the direction of a dentist. They may prepare materials for dental impressions or temporary crowns.

Each state regulates the scope of practice for dental assistants. Some states let dental assistants polish teeth to remove stains and plaque from the enamel or apply sealants, fluoride, or topical anesthetic.

Dental hygienists examine patients for signs of oral diseases, such as gingivitis, and provide preventive care, including oral hygiene. They also educate patients about oral health.

Duties

Dental hygienists typically do the following:

• Remove tartar, stains, and plaque from teeth
• Apply sealants and fluorides to help protect teeth
• Take and develop dental x rays
• Assess patients’ oral health and report findings to dentists
• Document patient care and treatment plans
• Educate patients about oral hygiene techniques, such as how to brush and floss correctly

Dental hygienists use many types of tools—including hand, power, and ultrasonic tools—in their work. In some cases, they use lasers. Hygienists remove stains with an air-polishing device, which sprays a combination of air, water, and baking soda. They polish teeth with a power tool that works like an automatic toothbrush. Hygienists also use x-ray machines to take pictures to check for tooth or jaw problems.

Dental hygienists talk to patients about ways to keep their teeth and gums healthy. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health. They may also advise patients on how to select toothbrushes and other oral care devices.

The tasks hygienists may perform, and the extent to which they must be supervised by a dentist, vary by state and by the setting in which the dental hygienist works. A few states allow hygienists with additional training, sometimes called dental therapists, to provide some restorative services, such as extracting primary teeth and placing temporary crowns.

Dentists diagnose and treat problems with patients’ teeth, gums, and related parts of the mouth. They provide advice and instruction on taking care of the teeth and gums and on diet choices that affect oral health.

Duties

Dentists typically do the following:

• Remove decay from teeth and fill cavities
• Repair or remove damaged teeth
• Place sealants or whitening agents on teeth
• Administer anesthetics to keep patients from feeling pain during procedures
• Prescribe antibiotics or other medications
• Examine x rays of teeth, gums, the jaw, and nearby areas in order to diagnose problems
• Make models and measurements for dental appliances, such as dentures
• Teach patients about diets, flossing, the use of fluoride, and other aspects of dental care

Dentists use a variety of equipment, including x-ray machines, drills, mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. They also use lasers, digital scanners, and other technologies.

In addition, dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping and buying equipment and supplies. They employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and receptionists.

Most dentists are general practitioners and handle a variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in a specialty area, such as one of the following:

Dental anesthesiologists administer drugs (anesthetics) to reduce or eliminate pain during a dental procedure, monitor sedated patients to keep them safe, and help patients manage pain afterward.

Dental public health specialists promote good dental health and the prevention of dental diseases in specific communities.

Endodontists perform root canal therapy, removing the nerves and blood supply from injured or infected teeth.

Oral and maxillofacial radiologists diagnose diseases in the head and neck through the use of imaging technologies.

Oral and maxillofacial surgeons operate on the mouth, jaws, teeth, gums, neck, and head, performing procedures such as surgically repairing a cleft lip and palate or removing impacted teeth.

Oral pathologists diagnose conditions in the mouth, such as bumps or ulcers, and oral diseases, such as cancer.

Orthodontists straighten teeth by applying pressure to the teeth with braces or other appliances.

Pediatric dentists focus on dentistry for children and special-needs patients.

Periodontists treat the gums and bones supporting the teeth.

Dentists also may do research. Or, they may teach part time, including supervising students in dental school clinics. For more information, see the profiles on medical scientists and postsecondary teachers.

Diagnostic medical sonographers and cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate special equipment to create images or conduct tests. They work closely with physicians and surgeons, who view the images and test results to assess and diagnose medical conditions.

Duties

Diagnostic medical sonographers and cardiovascular technologists and technicians typically do the following:

• Prepare patients by explaining the procedure to them and answering their questions
• Prepare exam rooms and maintain diagnostic imaging equipment
• Properly situate patients for imaging
• Operate equipment to obtain diagnostic images or to conduct tests
• Review images or test results to check for quality and adequate coverage of the areas needed for diagnoses
• Analyze results for abnormalities and other diagnostic information and provide a summary of findings to physicians
• Record findings and keep track of patients’ records

Diagnostic medical sonographers specialize in creating images, known as sonograms or ultrasounds, that depict the body’s organs and tissues. Sonography is often the first imaging test performed when disease is suspected.

Sonography uses high-energy sound waves to produce images of the inside of the body. The sonographer uses an instrument called a transducer to scan parts of the patient’s body that are being examined. The transducer emits pulses of sound that bounce back, causing echoes. The echoes form an image on a computer that physicians use for diagnosis.

The following are examples of types of medical sonographers:

• Abdominal sonographers specialize in imaging a patient’s abdominal cavity and nearby organs, such as the kidney, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen. Abdominal sonographers may assist with biopsies or other examinations requiring ultrasound guidance.
• Breast sonographers specialize in imaging a patient’s breast tissue. Sonography can confirm the presence of cysts and tumors that may have been detected by the patient, the physician, or a mammogram. Breast sonographers assist with procedures that track tumors and help to provide information that will aid physicians in making decisions about treatment options for breast cancer patients.
• Cardiac sonographers (echocardiographers) specialize in imaging a patient’s heart. They use ultrasound equipment to examine the heart’s chambers, valves, and vessels. An echocardiogram may be performed either while the patient is resting or after the patient has been physically active. Cardiac sonographers also may take echocardiograms of fetal hearts so that physicians can diagnose cardiac conditions during pregnancy.
• Musculoskeletal sonographers specialize in imaging muscles, ligaments, tendons, and joints. These sonographers may assist with ultrasound guidance for injections, or during surgical procedures, that deliver medication or treatment directly to affected tissues.
• Pediatric sonographers specialize in imaging of children and infants. Many of the medical conditions they image are associated with premature births or birth defects. Pediatric sonographers may work closely with pediatricians and other caregivers.
• Obstetric and gynecologic sonographers specialize in imaging the female reproductive system. For example, many pregnant women receive sonograms to track the baby’s growth and health.
• Vascular technologists (vascular sonographers) create images of blood vessels and collect data that help physicians diagnose disorders affecting blood flow. Vascular technologists often evaluate blood flow and identify blocked arteries or blood clots.

Cardiovascular technologists and technicians create images and conduct tests involving the heart and lungs. The following are examples of types of cardiovascular technologists and technicians:

• Cardiovascular invasive specialists, also known as cardiac catheterization technologists or cardiovascular technologists, monitor patients’ heart rates and help physicians in diagnosing and treating heart problems. They assist with cardiac catheterization, which involves threading a catheter through a patient’s artery to the heart. They also prepare and monitor patients during open-heart surgery and during insertion of pacemakers, defibrillators, and stents. Technologists may prepare patients for procedures by shaving and cleansing the area into which the catheter will be inserted and by administering topical anesthesia. During the procedure, they monitor the patient’s blood pressure and heart rate.
• Cardiographic or electrocardiogram (EKG) technicians specialize in EKG testing. EKG machines monitor the heart’s performance through electrodes attached to a patient’s chest, arms, and legs. Tests record heart metrics while the patient is at rest or is physically active, such as walking on a treadmill.
• Pulmonary function technologists monitor and test patients’ lungs and breathing. For example, they use a spirometer to measure how much and how fast patients can inhale or exhale. These technologists help physicians in diagnosing and treating problems of the pulmonary system.

Dietitians and nutritionists are experts in the use of food and nutrition to promote health and manage disease. They plan and conduct food service or nutritional programs to help people lead healthy lives.

Duties

Dietitians and nutritionists typically do the following:

• Assess clients’ nutritional and health needs
• Counsel clients on nutrition issues and healthy eating habits
• Develop meal and nutrition plans, taking clients’ preferences and budgets into account
• Evaluate and monitor the effects of nutrition plans and practices and make changes as needed
• Promote healthy lifestyles by speaking to groups about diet, nutrition, and the relationship between good eating habits and preventing or managing specific diseases
• Create educational materials about healthy food choices and lifestyle
• Keep up with or contribute to the latest food and nutritional science research
• Document clients’ progress

Dietitians and nutritionists evaluate the health of their clients through nutrition assessment and diagnostic laboratory testing. Based on their findings, dietitians and nutritionists advise clients on behavior modifications and intervention plans, including which foods to eat—and which to avoid—to improve their health.

Dietitians and nutritionists help prevent or support treatment of health conditions such as heart disease, autoimmune disease, and obesity. Many dietitians and nutritionists provide personalized information for individuals. For example, a dietitian or nutritionist might teach a client with diabetes how to plan meals to improve and balance the person’s blood sugar. Other dietitians and nutritionists work with groups of people who have similar needs. For example, a dietitian or nutritionist might plan a diet with healthy fat and limited sugar to help clients who are at risk for heart disease. Dietitians and nutritionists may work as part of a team with other healthcare staff to coordinate client care.

Dietitians and nutritionists who are self-employed may meet with clients, or they may work as consultants for a variety of organizations. Self-employed workers may need to spend time on marketing and other business-related tasks, such as scheduling appointments and keeping records.

Although many dietitians and nutritionists do similar tasks, there are several specialties within the occupations. The following are examples of types of dietitians and nutritionists:

Clinical dietitians and clinical nutritionists provide medical nutrition therapy. They create customized nutritional programs based on the health needs of clients and counsel clients on how to improve their health through nutrition. Clinical dietitians and clinical nutritionists may further specialize, such as by working only with people who have kidney disease, diabetes, digestive disorders, or other specific conditions. They work in institutions such as hospitals, long-term care facilities, and clinics, as well as in private practice.

Community dietitians and community nutritionists develop programs and counsel the public on topics related to food, health, and nutrition. They often work with specific groups of people, such as adolescents or the elderly. They work in public health clinics, government and nonprofit agencies, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), and other settings.

Management dietitians plan food programs. They may be responsible for buying food and for carrying out other business-related tasks, such as budgeting. Management dietitians may oversee kitchen staff or other dietitians. They work in food service settings such as cafeterias, hospitals, prisons, and schools.

Emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics assess injuries and illnesses, provide emergency medical care, and may transport patients to medical facilities.

Duties

EMTs and paramedics typically do the following:

• Respond to calls for medical assistance, such as at the scene of a car accident in which someone is injured
• Assess people’s condition and determine what treatment, if any, is needed
• Provide treatment, such as first aid or life support care, to sick or injured patients
• Prepare patients for and safely transport them to the emergency department of a hospital or other healthcare facility
• Document and report observations and any treatment provided, to physicians, nurses, or other healthcare staff
• Inventory and replace medical supplies and clean equipment after use

When transporting a patient in an ambulance, one EMT or paramedic may drive the ambulance while another monitors the patient’s vital signs and provides emergency medical care. Some paramedics work as part of a helicopter’s or an airplane’s flight crew to transport critically ill or injured patients to a hospital.

In addition to transporting patients from the scene of an emergency, EMTs and paramedics transfer patients from one medical facility to another. Some patients may need to be transferred to a hospital that specializes in treating their particular injury or illness or to a facility that provides long-term care, such as a nursing home.

EMTs and paramedics must decontaminate the interior of an ambulance after treating a patient who has a contagious disease. They also may need to report the case to the proper authorities.

The specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of certification and the state in which they work. EMTs and paramedics sometimes begin with emergency medical responder (EMR) certification and advance to other levels of certification as they gain competency. The following are some of the duties at each of these EMT or paramedic certification levels.

An EMT, also known as an EMT-Basic, cares for patients at the scene of an incident and while taking patients by ambulance to a hospital. An EMT has the skills to assess a patient’s condition and to manage emergencies such as those related to respiratory, cardiac, or trauma incidents.

An Advanced EMT, also known as an EMT-Intermediate, has completed both requirements for the EMT-Basic level and instruction that allows them to perform more advanced medical procedures, such as administering intravenous fluids and some medications.

Paramedics provide more extensive prehospital care than do EMTs. In addition to doing the tasks of EMTs, they are able to administer a wider range of medications, such as through intravenous methods. Paramedics also perform advanced airflow management and interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs)—which monitor heart function—and other types of equipment.

EMTs and paramedics typically interact with other public safety and support personnel. For example, a 911 operator sends EMTs and paramedics to the scene of an emergency, where they often work with police and firefighters.

Exercise physiologists develop fitness and exercise programs that help patients recover from chronic diseases and improve cardiovascular function, body composition, and flexibility.

Duties

Exercise physiologists typically do the following:

• Analyze a patient’s medical history to assess their risk during exercise and to determine the best possible exercise and fitness regimen for the patient
• Perform fitness and stress tests with medical equipment and analyze the resulting patient data
• Measure blood pressure, oxygen usage, heart rhythm, and other key patient health indicators
• Develop exercise programs to improve patients’ health

Exercise physiologists work to improve overall patient health. Many of their patients suffer from health problems such as cardiovascular disease or pulmonary (lung) disease. Exercise physiologists provide health education and exercise plans to improve key health indicators.

Some physiologists work closely with primary care physicians, who may prescribe exercise regimens for their patients and refer them to exercise physiologists. The physiologists then work with patients to develop individualized treatment plans that will help the patients meet their health and fitness goals.

Exercise physiologists should not be confused with fitness trainers and instructors (including personal trainers) or athletic trainers.

Genetic counselors assess clients’ risk for a variety of inherited conditions, such as birth defects. They review genetic test results with individuals and families and support them in making decisions based on those results. They also offer information to other healthcare providers.

Duties

Genetic counselors typically do the following:

• Collect comprehensive family and medical histories through means such as interviews, discussions with physicians, and reviewing medical records
• Evaluate genetic information to identify clients at risk for specific hereditary disorders
• Document information from counseling sessions to send to clients or to referring physicians
• Discuss testing options and the associated risks, benefits, and limitations with clients and other healthcare providers
• Educate clients and provide information about genetic risks and inherited conditions
• Provide psychological, emotional, or other support to clients distressed by test results
• Research hereditary disorders and developments in the field of genetics

Genetic counselors identify hereditary risks through the study of genetics. Specifically, they study genetic disorders or syndromes that are inherited from one’s family. Prospective parents may consult genetic counselors to assess the risk of having children with hereditary disorders, such as cystic fibrosis. Genetic counselors also assess the risk for an individual to develop a disease, such as certain forms of cancer.

Counselors use DNA testing to identify clients’ inherited conditions. Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians perform lab tests, which genetic counselors then evaluate and use for counseling clients. They share this information with other healthcare providers, such as physicians.

Genetic counselors may focus on a particular area of genetic counseling, such as prenatal, cancer, or pediatric. They also may work in one or more specialty fields, such as cardiovascular health, genomic medicine, or psychiatry.

Health information technologists and medical registrars advise organizations on computerized healthcare systems and analyze clinical data.

Duties

Health information technologists and medical registrars typically do the following:

• Help to determine requirements for computerized healthcare systems
• Evaluate and support implementation of health information systems
• Organize and update information in clinical databases or registries
• Compile data and generate reports, such as for disease registry or treatment
• Track patient outcomes for quality assessment
• Validate the integrity of patient data
• Ensure privacy, security, and confidentiality of patients' health information

Health information technologists and medical registrars help to design and develop electronic healthcare systems. They abstract, collect, and analyze clinical data related to medical treatment, followup, and results. Their work supports the delivery and improvement of patient care.

Health information technologists apply their knowledge of information technology (IT) and healthcare concepts in a variety of ways. Some specialize in the electronic health records systems used for storing and retrieving patient data, which may include implementing the systems and educating staff on their use. Others analyze healthcare data for a range of purposes, such as for research or to evaluate programs and services.

Medical registrars create and maintain databases of information, such as those used to track a particular disease or condition. For example, cancer registrars collect and analyze information for facility, regional, and national databases of cancer patients. They review patients’ records and pathology reports to verify completeness and accuracy; assign classification codes to represent the diagnosis and treatment of cancers and benign tumors; and track treatment, survival, and recovery.

Home health and personal care aides monitor the condition of people with disabilities or chronic illnesses and help them with daily living activities. They often help older adults who need assistance. Under the direction of a nurse or other healthcare practitioner, home health aides may be allowed to give a client medication or to check the client’s vital signs.

Duties

Home health and personal care aides typically do the following:

• Assist clients in their daily personal tasks, such as bathing or dressing
• Perform housekeeping tasks, such as laundry, washing dishes, and vacuuming
• Help to organize a client’s schedule and plan appointments
• Arrange transportation to doctors’ offices or other outings
• Shop for groceries and prepare meals to meet a client’s dietary specifications
• Keep clients engaged in their social networks and communities

Home health aides may provide some basic health-related services—such as checking a client’s pulse, temperature, and respiration rate—depending on the state in which they work. They also may help with simple prescribed exercises and with giving medications. Occasionally, they change bandages or dressings, give massages, care for skin, or help with braces and artificial limbs. With special training, experienced home health aides also may help with medical equipment, such as ventilators to help clients breathe.

Home health aides are supervised by medical practitioners, usually nurses, and may work with therapists and other medical staff. These aides keep records on the client, such as services received, condition, and progress. They report changes in the client’s condition to a supervisor or case manager.

Personal care aides, sometimes called caregivers or personal attendants, are generally limited to providing nonmedical services, including companionship, cleaning, cooking, and driving. Some of these aides work specifically with people who have developmental or intellectual disabilities to help create a behavior plan and teach self-care skills, such as doing laundry or cooking meals.

Clinical laboratory technologists (also known as medical laboratory technologists) and clinical laboratory technicians (also known as medical laboratory technicians) perform medical laboratory tests for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.

Duties

Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians typically do the following:

• Test and analyze body fluids, such as blood, urine, and tissue samples
• Operate laboratory equipment, such as microscopes and automated cell counters
• Use automated equipment that analyzes multiple samples at the same time
• Record data from medical tests and enter results into a patient’s medical record
• Discuss results and findings of laboratory tests and procedures with physicians

Both technicians and technologists perform tests and procedures that physicians and surgeons or other healthcare practitioners order. However, technologists perform more complex tests and laboratory procedures than technicians do. For example, technologists may prepare specimens and perform detailed manual tests, whereas technicians perform routine tests that may be more automated. Clinical laboratory technicians usually work under the general supervision of clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers.

Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians set up, calibrate, and maintain the microscopes, cell counters, and other equipment they use. Maintenance includes troubleshooting, cleaning, and testing sterility to ensure quality control. Technologists have more responsibilities related to overall quality assurance in laboratories than do technicians.

Some technologists specialize in a certain type of test. The following are examples of types of specialized clinical laboratory technologists:

Blood bank technologists collect blood, classify it by type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions.

Clinical chemistry technologists prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids.

Cytotechnologists prepare and examine slides of body cells under a microscope. They look for abnormalities that may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth.

Hematology technologists examine blood to identify conditions or diseases, such as blood clots or cancer.

Histotechnologists perform tests on human tissue to identify diseases.

Microbiology technologists examine and identify bacteria and other microorganisms.

Molecular biology technologists perform protein and nucleic acid tests, such as gene sequencing, on cell samples.

Like technologists, clinical laboratory technicians may work in several areas or specialize in one area. For example, histotechnicians are a type of clinical laboratory technician who cut and stain tissue specimens for pathologists—doctors who study the cause and development of diseases.

Licensed practical nurses (LPNs) and licensed vocational nurses (LVNs) provide basic medical care to ill, injured, or convalescing patients or to persons with disabilities. Responsibilities for LPNs and LVNs are nearly identical; their title depends on the state in which they work.

Duties

Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses typically do the following:

• Monitor patients’ health by checking their blood pressure, body temperature, and other vital signs
• Provide basic patient care and comfort, including changing bandages and helping with bathing or dressing
• Discuss care with patients and listen to their concerns
• Report patients’ status and concerns to registered nurses, advanced practice nurses, or physicians
• Document patient care and maintain health records

Responsibilities of LPNs and LVNs vary by work setting. For example, in private homes, they may reinforce registered nurses’ instruction regarding how family members should care for a relative. In hospitals, they might collect samples for testing and do routine laboratory tests. In nursing and residential care facilities, they may feed patients who need help eating.

LPN and LVN duties also may depend on the state in which they work. For example, in some states, LPNs with proper training may give medication or start intravenous (IV) drips.

LPNs and LVNs typically work under the supervision of registered nurses and doctors. States determine the extent to which LPNs and LVNs must be directly supervised. Some states allow experienced LPNs and LVNs to oversee other LPNs and LVNs or unlicensed medical staff.

Marriage and family therapists help people manage problems with their family and other relationships.

Duties

Marriage and family therapists typically do the following:

• Encourage clients to discuss their emotions and experiences
• Help clients process their reactions and adjust to difficult changes in their life, such as divorce and layoffs
• Guide clients through the process of making decisions about their future
• Help clients develop strategies and skills to change their behavior and to cope with difficult situations
• Refer clients to other resources or services in the community, such as support groups or inpatient treatment facilities
• Complete and maintain confidential files and mandated records

Marriage and family therapists use a variety of techniques and tools to help their clients. Many apply cognitive behavioral therapy, a goal-oriented approach that helps clients understand harmful thoughts, feelings, and beliefs and teaches how to replace them with positive, life-enhancing ones.

Many marriage and family therapists work in private practice. They must market their practice to prospective clients and work with insurance companies and clients to get payment for their services.

Marriage and family therapists work with individuals, couples, and families. They bring a family-centered perspective to treatment, even when treating individuals. They evaluate family roles and development, to understand how clients’ families affect their mental health. They treat the clients’ relationships, not just the clients themselves. They address issues, such as low self-esteem, stress, addiction, and substance abuse.

Marriage and family therapists coordinate patient treatment with other professionals, such as psychologists and social workers.

Massage therapists treat clients by applying pressure to manipulate the body's soft tissues and joints. This treatment may help to relieve pain, heal injuries, relieve stress, and aid in the general wellness of clients.

Duties

Massage therapists typically do the following:

• Talk with clients about their symptoms, medical history, and treatment goals
• Evaluate clients prior to and during the massage to locate painful or tense areas of the body
• Manipulate muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other soft tissues of the body
• Increase range of motion through joint mobilization techniques
• Provide guidance on stretching, strengthening, overall relaxation, and improving their posture
• Document clients’ conditions and progress
• Clean their workspace and sanitize equipment

Massage therapists manipulate clients’ soft tissues and joints to treat injuries and promote general wellness. They may use their hands, fingers, forearms, elbows, and feet as tools during the session.

Massage therapists may use lotions and oils and massage tables or chairs when treating a client. The length of a session varies based on type of massage. For example, a chair massage may be as short as 5 to 10 minutes, whereas a table massage typically lasts between 30 and 90 minutes.

Massage therapists talk with clients about what the desired outcome of massage. They may suggest personalized treatment plans for the client, including information about additional relaxation techniques to practice between sessions.

Massage therapists may specialize in different massage modalities, or specialties, such as Swedish massage, deep-tissue massage, and sports massage. Massage therapists may specialize in several modalities.

The type of massage given typically depends on the client’s needs and physical condition. Different populations, such as athletes or pregnant women, require different techniques for their massages.

In addition to giving massages, therapists, especially those who are self-employed, may spend time recording notes on clients, marketing, booking clients, and conducting other business tasks.

Medical assistants complete administrative and clinical tasks, such as scheduling appointments and taking patients’ vital signs. Their duties vary by location, specialty, and employer.

Duties

Medical assistants typically do the following:

• Interview patients and record their medical history
• Measure patients' vital signs, such as their blood pressure and weight
• Help physicians with patient examinations
• Give patients injections or medications as directed by physicians and as permitted by state law
• Schedule patient appointments
• Collect and prepare samples of blood and other specimens for laboratory tests
• Enter patient information, such as their vital signs and test results, into medical records
• Maintain inventory of medical and office supplies

Medical assistants often focus on either clinical or administrative tasks, although some do both. Their primary clinical tasks involve taking and recording patients’ personal information and medical history. Other tasks that assistants are allowed to do vary by state and may include performing basic laboratory tests, disposing of contaminated supplies, and sterilizing medical instruments. Some assistants have additional responsibilities, such as instructing patients about medications or drawing blood.

Medical assistants may have a range of administrative tasks. They help patients understand and receive their insurance coverage, such as by completing forms, coding information, and contacting companies about billing. They also inventory, order, and restock medical and office supplies; answer telephones; and schedule appointments.

Some medical assistants specialize according to the type of medical practice in which they work. For example, medical assistants who help ophthalmologists and optometrists show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses.

Medical assistants must adhere to confidentiality standards when working with patients and patient information.

Medical assistants should not be confused with other healthcare occupations that may have similar titles or duties. For example, both medical assistants and physician assistants work under the direction of physicians; however, physician assistants practice medicine and can prescribe medication under a physician’s supervision.

Medical dosimetrists calculate doses of radiation and design and oversee treatment plans for patients with cancer and other serious diseases.

Duties

Medical dosimetrists typically do the following:

• Review a patient’s documents, such as their CT and MRI scans
• Calculate the proper dose of radiation to be administered to a patient
• Consult with other members of the radiation oncology team and design the radiation-delivery plan for patients
• May assist in designing molds, casts, and other immobilization devices to position patients during treatment
• Document treatment provided to a patient
• Perform quality assurance checks of treatment equipment

Medical dosimetrists develop and manage the radiation plans for patients receiving treatment for cancer or other diseases. They may begin by reviewing patient records, such as computer tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Then, based on a dosage range prescribed by the physician, medical dosimetrists calculate the exact dose and angle of radiation to be administered. They make these calculations both manually and with computers.

Medical dosimetrists’ calculations may vary based on the type of radiation treatment a physician prescribes. For example, external beam radiation angled at a tumor from outside the body may be administered at a higher dose than brachytherapy, which involves placing a radioactive device near the tumor inside the body.

In addition to overseeing radiation treatment, medical dosimetrists’ other responsibilities include helping to design immobilization devices that ensure patients remain motionless during procedures. They also keep records of each patient’s treatment, load or receive shipments, use radiation monitoring devices to measure radioactivity levels in patients, and calibrate equipment to ensure accuracy.

Dosimetrists are part of a radiation oncology team that usually includes medical physicists, oncology nurses, radiation oncologists and other physicians, and radiation therapists.

Medical records specialists compile, process, and maintain patient files. They also may classify and enter patients’ medical information into the healthcare industry's numerical coding system.

Duties

Medical records specialists typically do the following:

• Review patients’ records for timeliness, completeness, and accuracy
• Use classification systems to assign clinical codes for patients’ diagnoses, procedures, medical services, and related information
• Maintain and retrieve records for insurance reimbursement and data analysis
• Electronically record data for collection, storage, analysis, retrieval, and reporting
• Ensure confidentiality of patients’ records

Medical records specialists have a variety of data entry and recordkeeping tasks. They may gather patients’ medical histories, symptoms, test results, treatments, and other health information and enter the details into electronic health records (EHR) systems. Some workers categorize medical information for purposes such as insurance reimbursement and providing data to clinicians.

When handling medical records, these workers follow administrative, ethical, and legal requirements for safeguarding patient privacy. Medical records specialists also may serve as gatekeepers for access to patient files. They ensure access only to authorized people and retrieve, scan, and transmit files according to established protocols.   

Medical coders assign the diagnosis and procedure codes for patient care, population health statistics, and billing purposes. For example, they might review patient information for preexisting conditions, such as diabetes, to ensure proper coding of patient data. They also work as the liaison between healthcare providers and billing offices.

Although medical records specialists do not provide direct patient care, they work regularly with registered nurses and other healthcare workers. They meet with these workers to clarify diagnoses or to get additional information.

Medical transcriptionists, sometimes referred to as healthcare documentation specialists, use electronic devices to convert voice recordings from physicians and other healthcare workers into formal reports. Transcriptionists also may edit medical records for accuracy and return documents for review and approval.

Duties

Medical transcriptionists typically do the following:

• Listen to the recorded dictation of a physician or other healthcare worker
• Interpret and transcribe the dictation for medical reports, such as patient histories, discharge summaries, and physical examinations
• Review and edit drafts prepared by speech recognition software, making sure that the transcription is accurate, complete, and consistent in style
• Translate medical abbreviations and jargon into the appropriate long form
• Identify inconsistencies, errors, and missing information in a report that could compromise patient care
• Submit reports to physicians and other healthcare providers for review and approval
• Follow patient confidentiality guidelines and legal documentation requirements
• Enter medical reports into electronic health records (EHR) systems

Medical transcriptionists use a variety of equipment to produce reports. The most common is speech recognition technology, which involves specialized software that automatically prepares an initial draft of a report. The transcriptionist then listens to the voice file and reviews the draft for accuracy, identifying any errors and editing the report, as necessary. A less common technology requires these workers to use audio-playback equipment for listening to and transcribing dictation. Transcriptionists also use word-processing and other software to prepare the transcripts, as well as medical reference materials when needed.

Medical transcriptionists must be familiar with medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology. Additionally, they must have knowledge of English grammar in order to ensure that their transcriptions are correct. Transcriptionists’ ability to understand the healthcare worker's recording, to correctly transcribe that information, and to identify inaccuracies in the transcript is critical to preventing ineffective or even harmful treatment.

Medical transcriptionists who work in physicians’ offices may have other duties, such as answering phones and greeting patients.

Nuclear medicine technologists prepare radioactive drugs and administer them to patients for imaging or treatment. They provide technical support to physicians or others who diagnose, care for, and treat patients and to researchers who investigate uses of radioactive drugs. They also may act as emergency responders in the event of a nuclear disaster.

Duties

Nuclear medicine technologists typically do the following:

• Explain medical procedures to the patient and answer questions
• Follow safety procedures to protect themselves and the patient from unnecessary radiation exposure
• Prepare radioactive drugs and administer them to the patient
• Maintain and operate imaging equipment
• Keep detailed records of procedures
• Follow procedures for radiation disposal

Nuclear medicine technologists work with radioactive drugs, known as radiopharmaceuticals, to help physicians and surgeons diagnose a patient’s condition. For example, they may inject radiopharmaceuticals into the bloodstream of a patient with foot pain and then use special scanning equipment that captures images of the bones; a radiologist interprets the scan results, based on the concentration of radioactivity appearing in the image, to identify the source of the patient’s pain.

Nuclear medicine technologists also deliver radiopharmaceuticals in prescribed doses to specific areas, such as tumors, to treat medical conditions. Internal radiation treatment may be used in conjunction with, or as an alternative to, surgery.

In the event of a radioactive incident or nuclear disaster, some nuclear medicine technologists may be involved in emergency response efforts. These workers’ experience with radiation detection and monitoring equipment may be useful during a response to events that involve radiological materials.

The following are types of nuclear medicine technologists:

Nuclear cardiology technologists use radioactive drugs to obtain images of the heart. Patients may exercise during the imaging process while the technologist creates images of the heart and blood flow.

Nuclear medicine computed tomography (CT) technologists use radioactive isotopes in combination with x-ray imaging to create two-dimensional or three-dimensional pictures of the inside of the body.

Positron emission tomography (PET) technologists use a machine that creates a three-dimensional image of a part of the body, such as the brain. They also use radiopharmaceuticals to measure body functions, such as metabolism.

Some nuclear medicine technologists support researchers in developing nuclear medicine applications for imagery or treatment.

Nurse anesthetists, nurse midwives, and nurse practitioners, also referred to as advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs), coordinate patient care and may provide primary and specialty healthcare. The scope of practice varies from state to state.

Duties

Advanced practice registered nurses typically do the following:

• Take and record patients' medical histories and symptoms
• Perform physical exams and observe patients
• Create patient care plans or contribute to existing plans
• Perform and order diagnostic tests
• Operate and monitor medical equipment
• Diagnose various health problems
• Analyze test results or changes in a patient’s condition and alter treatment plans, as needed
• Give patients medicines and treatments
• Evaluate a patient’s response to medicines and treatments
• Consult with doctors and other healthcare professionals, as needed
• Counsel and teach patients and their families how to stay healthy or manage their illnesses or injuries
• Conduct research

APRNs work independently or in collaboration with physicians. In most states, they can prescribe medications, order medical tests, and diagnose health problems. APRNs may provide primary and preventive care and may specialize in care for certain groups of people, such as children, pregnant women, or patients with mental health disorders.

APRNs have some of the same duties as registered nurses, including gathering information about a patient’s condition and taking action to treat or manage the patient’s health. However, APRNs are trained to do other tasks, including ordering and evaluating test results, referring patients to specialists, and diagnosing and treating ailments. APRNs focus on patient-centered care, which means understanding a patient’s concerns and lifestyle before choosing a course of action.

Some APRNs also conduct research or teach staff about new policies or procedures. Others may provide consultation services based on a specific field of knowledge, such as oncology, which is the study of cancer.

The following are types of APRNs:

Nurse anesthetists (CRNAs) administer anesthesia and provide care before, during, and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic, and obstetrical procedures. They also provide pain management and some emergency services. Before a procedure begins, nurse anesthetists discuss with a patient any medications the patient is taking as well as any allergies or illnesses the patient may have, so that anesthesia can be safely administered. Nurse anesthetists then give a patient general anesthesia to put the patient to sleep so they feel no pain during surgery or administer a regional or local anesthesia to numb an area of the body. During the procedure, they monitor the patient’s vital signs and adjust the anesthesia as necessary.

Nurse midwives (CNMs) provide care to women, including gynecological exams, family planning services, and prenatal care. They deliver babies, manage emergency situations during labor, repair lacerations, and may provide surgical assistance to physicians during cesarean births. Nurse midwives may act as primary maternity care providers for women. They also provide wellness care, educating their patients on how to lead healthy lives by discussing topics such as nutrition and disease prevention. Nurse midwives also provide care to their patients’ partners for sexual or reproductive health issues.

Nurse practitioners (NPs) serve as primary and specialty care providers, delivering advanced nursing services to patients and their families. They assess patients, determine how to improve or manage a patient’s health, and discuss ways to integrate health promotion strategies into a patient’s life. Nurse practitioners typically care for a certain population of people. For instance, NPs may work in adult and geriatric health, pediatric health, or psychiatric and mental health.

Although the scope of their duties varies by state, many nurse practitioners work independently, prescribe medications, and order laboratory tests. Nurse practitioners consult with physicians and other health professionals when needed.

Nursing assistants, sometimes called nursing aides, provide basic care and help patients with activities of daily living. Orderlies transport patients and clean treatment areas.

Duties

Nursing assistants and orderlies work as part of a healthcare team under the supervision of licensed practical or licensed vocational nurses and registered nurses.

Nursing assistants provide basic care and help with activities of daily living. They typically do the following:

• Clean and bathe patients
• Help patients use the toilet and dress
• Turn, reposition, and transfer patients between beds and wheelchairs
• Listen to and record patients’ health concerns and report that information to nurses
• Measure patients’ vital signs, such as blood pressure and temperature
• Serve meals and help patients eat

Depending on their training level and the state in which they work, nursing assistants also may dispense medication.

Nursing assistants are often the principal caregivers in nursing and residential care facilities. Nursing assistants often develop relationships with their patients because some patients stay in these facilities for months or years.

Orderlies typically do the following:

• Help patients to move around the facility, such as by pushing their wheelchairs
• Clean equipment and facilities
• Change linens
• Stock supplies

Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians collect data on, analyze, and design improvements to many types of work environments and procedures. Specialists inspect workplaces and enforce adherence to regulations on safety, health, and the environment. Technicians work with specialists to implement and evaluate programs aimed at mitigating risks to workers, property, the environment, and the public.

Duties

Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians typically do the following:

• Inspect, test, and evaluate workplace environments, programs, equipment, and practices to ensure that they follow government safety regulations
• Design and implement workplace programs and procedures that control or prevent chemical, physical, or other risks to workers
• Educate employers and workers about maintaining workplace safety
• Demonstrate use of safety equipment and ensure proper use by workers
• Investigate incidents to determine the cause and possible prevention
• Prepare written reports of their findings

Occupational health and safety specialists examine worksites for environmental or physical factors that could harm employee health, safety, comfort, or performance. They then find ways to improve potential risk factors. For example, they may notice potentially hazardous conditions inside a chemical plant and suggest changes to lighting, equipment, materials, or ventilation.

Occupational health and safety technicians assist specialists by collecting data on work environments and implementing the worksite improvements that specialists plan. Technicians also may check to make sure that workers are using required protective gear, such as masks and hardhats.

Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians may develop and conduct employee training programs. These programs cover a range of topics, such as how to use safety equipment correctly and how to respond in an emergency.

In the event of a workplace safety incident, specialists and technicians investigate its cause. They then analyze data from the incident, such as the number of people impacted, and look for trends in occurrence. This evaluation helps them to recommend improvements to prevent future incidents.

Occupational therapists evaluate and treat people who have injuries, illnesses, or disabilities. They help clients meet goals to develop, recover, improve, and maintain skills needed for daily living and working.

Duties

Occupational therapists typically do the following:

• Evaluate clients' conditions by reviewing their medical history, interviewing them, and observing them perform various tasks
• Develop and implement treatment plans that have specific activities to help clients work toward their goals
• Help clients relearn and perform daily living tasks, such as teaching a person who has had a stroke how to get dressed
• Demonstrate exercises—for example, stretching the joints for arthritis relief—to help relieve clients’ pain
• Evaluate a client’s home, school, or workplace to identify potential accessibility improvements, such as labeling kitchen cabinets for an older person with poor memory
• Educate a client’s family about how to accommodate and care for them
• Recommend special equipment, such as mobility aids and eating aids, and instruct clients and families on how to use it
• Assess and record clients’ activities and progress for client evaluations, billing, and other purposes

Occupational therapists work with people who have permanent disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, and may need help with daily tasks. They recommend options and show clients how to use appropriate adaptive equipment, such as leg braces, wheelchairs, and eating aids. These devices help clients live their lives more independently.

Some occupational therapists work with children in inpatient, outpatient, or educational settings. They may provide early intervention therapy to infants and toddlers or work with school-aged children to encourage engagement, such as participating in academic activities.

Therapists who work with older adults help clients live independently and improve their quality of life. They assess clients’ abilities and environment and make recommendations to improve the clients’ everyday lives. For example, therapists may identify potential fall hazards in a client’s home and recommend their removal or help clients attend social outings.

Occupational therapists help clients create functional work environments. They evaluate the workspace, recommend modifications, and meet with the client’s employer to collaborate on changes to the client’s work environment or schedule.

Occupational therapists also may work in mental health settings, where they help clients who have developmental disabilities or mental health conditions. Therapists assist and educate clients on improving skills such as managing time, using public transportation, and doing household chores. In addition, therapists may work with individuals who have problems related to drug or alcohol abuse, depression, or trauma.

Some occupational therapists, such as those employed in hospitals, work as part of a healthcare team along with doctors, registered nurses, and other types of therapists, including physical therapists. They may work with patients who have chronic conditions, such as diabetes or arthritis, or help rehabilitate a patient recovering from a stroke or spinal cord injury. Occupational therapists also oversee the work of occupational therapy assistants and aides.

Occupational therapy assistants and aides help patients develop, recover, improve, as well as maintain the skills needed for daily living and working. Occupational therapy assistants are directly involved in providing therapy to patients; occupational therapy aides typically perform support activities. Both assistants and aides work under the direction of occupational therapists.

Duties

Occupational therapy assistants typically do the following:

• Help patients do therapeutic activities, such as stretches and other exercises
• Lead children who have developmental disabilities in play activities that promote coordination and socialization
• Encourage patients to complete activities and tasks
• Teach patients how to use special equipment—for example, showing a patient with Parkinson’s disease how to use devices that make eating easier
• Record patients’ progress, report to occupational therapists, and do other administrative tasks

Occupational therapy aides typically do the following:

• Prepare treatment areas, such as setting up therapy equipment
• Transport patients
• Clean treatment areas and equipment
• Help patients with billing and insurance forms
• Perform clerical tasks, including scheduling appointments and answering telephones

Occupational therapy assistants collaborate with occupational therapists to develop and carry out a treatment plan for each patient. Plans include diverse activities such as teaching the proper way for patients to move from a bed into a wheelchair and advising patients on the best way to stretch their muscles. For example, an occupational therapy assistant might work with injured workers to help them get back into the workforce by teaching them how to work around lost motor skills. Occupational therapy assistants also may work with people who have learning disabilities, teaching them skills that allow them to be more independent.

Assistants monitor activities to make sure that patients are doing them correctly. They record the patient’s progress and provide feedback to the occupational therapist so that the therapist can change the treatment plan if the patient is not getting the desired results.

Occupational therapy aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment. They may assist patients with moving to and from treatment areas. After a therapy session, aides clean the treatment area, put away equipment, and gather laundry.

Occupational therapy aides fill out insurance forms and other paperwork and are responsible for a range of clerical tasks, such as scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, and monitoring inventory levels.

Opticians help fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following prescriptions from ophthalmologists and optometrists. They also help customers decide which eyeglass frames or contact lenses to buy.

Duties

Opticians typically do the following:

• Receive customers’ prescriptions for eyeglasses or contact lenses
• Measure customers’ eyes and faces, such as the distance between their pupils
• Help customers choose eyeglass frames and lens treatments, such as eyewear for occupational use or sports, tints, or antireflective coatings, based on their vision needs and style preferences
• Create work orders for ophthalmic laboratory technicians, providing information about the lenses needed
• Adjust eyewear to ensure a good fit
• Repair or replace broken eyeglass frames
• Educate customers about eyewear—for example, show them how to care for their contact lenses
• Perform business tasks, such as maintaining sales records, keeping track of customers’ prescriptions, and ordering and maintaining inventory

Opticians who work in small shops or prepare custom orders may cut lenses and insert them into frames—tasks usually performed by ophthalmic laboratory technicians.

Optometrists diagnose, manage, and treat conditions and diseases of the human eye and visual system, including examining eyes and prescribing corrective lenses.

Duties

Optometrists typically do the following:

• Perform vision tests and analyze results
• Diagnose vision problems, such as nearsightedness or farsightedness, and eye diseases, such as glaucoma
• Prescribe eyeglasses, contact lenses, and other visual aids
• As permitted by state law, perform minor surgical procedures and prescribe medications to correct or treat visual or eye issues
• Provide treatments such as vision therapy or low-vision rehabilitation
• Provide pre- and postoperative care to patients undergoing eye surgery
• Evaluate patients for the presence of other diseases and conditions, such as diabetes or high blood pressure, and refer patients to other healthcare providers as needed
• Promote eye and general health by counseling patients

Optometrists are doctors who focus on eyes and vision. Their tasks range from offering preventive care through routine checkups to providing referrals to other specialists for treatment of health conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, that may lead to serious eye problems.

Some optometrists provide specialized care in addition to general eye care. For example, some optometrists focus on treating patients who have partial sight, a condition known as low vision. Others may specialize in treating a certain population, such as infants and children.

Optometrists promote eye health by counseling patients on how general health can affect eyesight. For example, they may counsel patients on how quitting smoking lowers the risk of developing cataracts.

All states allow optometrists to prescribe medication, but states vary in the type of medication they allow optometrists to prescribe. States also vary in whether optometrists may perform surgery or other procedures, such as providing vaccinations.

Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who, like optometrists, treat eye diseases, perform eye exams, and prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. However, ophthalmologists perform a wider range of surgeries than optometrists do. Opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and, in some states, fill contact lens prescriptions that an optometrist or ophthalmologist has written.

Orthotists and prosthetists design and fabricate medical supportive devices and measure and fit patients for them. These devices include artificial limbs (arms, hands, legs, and feet), braces, and other medical or surgical devices.

Duties

Orthotists and prosthetists typically do the following:

• Evaluate and interview patients to determine their needs
• Take measurements or impressions of the part of a patient’s body that will be fitted with a brace or artificial limb
• Design and fabricate orthopedic and prosthetic devices based on physicians’ prescriptions
• Select materials to be used for the orthotic or prosthetic device
• Instruct patients in how to use and care for their devices
• Adjust, repair, or replace prosthetic and orthotic devices
• Document care in patients’ records

Orthotists and prosthetists may work in both orthotics and prosthetics, or they may choose to specialize in one area. Orthotists are specifically trained to work with medical supportive devices, such as spinal or knee braces. Prosthetists are specifically trained to work with prostheses, such as artificial limbs and other body parts.

Some orthotists and prosthetists construct devices for their patients. Others supervise the construction of the orthotic or prosthetic devices by medical appliance technicians.

Pharmacists dispense prescription medications and provide information to patients about the drugs and their use. They also advise physicians and other healthcare workers on the selection, dosage, interactions, and side effects of medications to treat health problems. They may help patients with their overall health through activities such as providing immunizations.

Duties

Pharmacists typically do the following:

• Fill prescriptions to the proper amount based on physicians’ instructions
• Check patients’ allergies, medical conditions, and other drugs they are taking to ensure that the newly prescribed medication does not cause adverse reaction
• Instruct patients on proper use, side effects, and storage of prescribed medicine
• Administer vaccinations, such as flu shots
• Advise patients about general health topics, such as exercise and managing stress, and on other issues, such as what equipment or supplies would be best to treat a health problem
• Work with insurance companies to resolve billing issues
• Supervise the work of pharmacy technicians and pharmacists in training (interns)
• Maintain patient and pharmacy records
• Educate other healthcare workers about proper medication therapies for patients

Pharmacists verify instructions from physicians to fill and dispense prescription medications. For many drugs, pharmacists use standard dosages from pharmaceutical companies. However, pharmacists also may create customized medications by mixing ingredients themselves, a process known as compounding.

Pharmacists usually have a variety of other duties. In addition to answering patients’ questions about their prescriptions, for example, pharmacists may advise about or assist with topics of general health or the use of over-the-counter medications. Pharmacists also may have administrative responsibilities, including keeping records and managing inventory.

The following are examples of types of pharmacists:

Community pharmacists work in retail settings such as chain drug stores or independently owned pharmacies. They dispense medications to patients and answer any questions that patients may have about prescriptions, over-the-counter medications, or health concerns. They also may provide some primary care services such as giving flu shots and performing health screenings.

Clinical pharmacists work in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare settings where they provide direct patient care. They may go on rounds in a hospital with a physician or healthcare team. Additionally, they recommend medications to patients and oversee the dosage and timing of the delivery of those medications. They also evaluate the effectiveness of drugs and a patient’s progress. Clinical pharmacists may conduct certain medical tests and offer advice to patients. For example, pharmacists may earn credentials to work in a diabetes clinic, where they counsel patients on how and when to take medications, suggest healthy food choices, and monitor patients’ blood sugar.

Consultant pharmacists advise healthcare facilities or insurance providers on patient medication use. They may give advice directly to patients, such as helping seniors manage their prescriptions. Consultant pharmacists also advise facilities on improving services to ensure compliance with state and federal regulations.

Pharmaceutical industry pharmacists work in areas such as marketing, sales, or research and development. Their work includes designing or conducting clinical trials of new drugs. They may also help to establish safety regulations and ensure quality control for drugs.

Pharmacy technicians help pharmacists dispense prescription medication to customers or health professionals. They mainly work in retail pharmacies and hospitals.

Duties

Pharmacy technicians typically do the following:

• Collect information needed to fill a prescription from customers or health professionals
• Measure amounts of medication for prescriptions
• Package and label prescriptions
• Organize inventory and alert pharmacists to any shortages of medications or supplies
• Accept payment for prescriptions and process insurance claims
• Enter customer or patient information, including any prescriptions taken, into a computer system
• Answer phone calls from customers
• Arrange for customers to speak with pharmacists if customers have questions about medications or health matters

Pharmacy technicians work under the supervision of pharmacists, who must review prescriptions before they are given to patients. In most states, technicians can compound or mix some medications and call physicians for prescription refill authorizations. Technicians also may need to operate automated dispensing equipment when filling prescription orders.

Pharmacy technicians working in hospitals and other medical facilities prepare a greater variety of medications, such as intravenous medications. They may make rounds in the hospital, giving medications to patients.

Phlebotomists draw blood for purposes such as tests, research, or donations. They help patients or donors who are anxious before or have an adverse reaction after the blood draw.

Duties

Phlebotomists typically do the following:

• Draw blood from patients or blood donors
• Explain their work to help relax patients or donors who feel nervous about having blood drawn
• Verify a patient’s or donor’s identity
• Label the collected blood for testing or processing
• Label sterile containers for other samples, such as urine, and instruct patients on proper collection procedures.
• Enter sample information into a database
• Assemble, maintain, and dispose of medical instruments such as needles, test tubes, and blood vials
• Keep work areas and equipment clean and sanitary

Phlebotomists primarily draw blood, which is then used for different kinds of medical laboratory testing or for procedures, such as transfusions. In medical and diagnostic laboratories, patients sometimes interact only with the phlebotomist. In donation centers or locations that have blood drives, phlebotomists draw blood from donors. Because all blood looks the same, phlebotomists must carefully identify and label the blood they have collected and enter the information into a database.

In addition to drawing blood, phlebotomists also may collect urine or other samples. They instruct patients on procedures for proper collection and ensure that the sample is acceptable and clearly labeled in its container.

Phlebotomists must keep their work area and instruments clean and sanitary to avoid causing infections or other complications. Some phlebotomists also ship or transport blood or other samples to different locations.

Physical therapist assistants, sometimes called PTAs, and physical therapist aides work under the direction and supervision of physical therapists. They help patients who are recovering from injuries and illnesses to regain movement and manage pain.

Physical therapist assistants are involved in the direct care of patients.

Physical therapist aides often have tasks that are indirectly related to patient care, such as cleaning and setting up the treatment area, moving patients, and doing clerical duties.

Duties

Physical therapist assistants typically do the following:

• Observe patients before, during, and after therapy, noting the patient’s status and reporting it to a physical therapist
• Help patients do specific exercises as part of the plan of care
• Treat patients using a variety of techniques, such as massage and stretching
• Use devices and equipment, such as walkers, to help patients
• Educate patients and family members about what to do after treatment

Under the direction and supervision of physical therapists, physical therapist assistants treat patients through exercise, massage, gait and balance training, and other therapeutic interventions. They record patients’ progress and report the results of each treatment to the physical therapist.

Physical therapist aides typically do the following:

• Clean treatment areas and set up therapy equipment
• Wash linens
• Help patients move to or from a therapy area
• Do clerical tasks, such as answering phones and scheduling patients

Physical therapist aides are supervised by physical therapists or physical therapist assistants. The tasks that physical therapist aides are allowed to do vary by state. They usually are responsible for keeping the treatment area clean and organized, preparing for each patient’s therapy, and helping patients as needed in moving to or from a treatment area. In addition, aides do a variety of clerical tasks, such as ordering supplies, scheduling treatment sessions, and completing insurance forms.

Physical therapists help injured or ill people improve movement and manage pain. They are often an important part of preventive care, rehabilitation, and treatment for patients with chronic conditions, illnesses, or injuries.

Duties

Physical therapists typically do the following:

• Review patients’ medical history and referrals or notes from doctors, surgeons, or other healthcare workers
• Diagnose patients’ functions and movements by observing them stand or walk and by listening to their concerns
• Develop individualized plans of care for patients, outlining the patients’ goals and the expected outcomes of the plans
• Use exercises, stretching maneuvers, hands-on therapy, and equipment to ease patients’ pain, help them increase their mobility, prevent further pain or injury, and facilitate health and wellness
• Evaluate and record a patients’ progress, modifying the plan of care and trying new treatments as needed
• Educate patients and their families about what to expect from the recovery process and how to cope with challenges throughout the process

Physical therapists, sometimes called PTs, care for people of all ages who have functional problems resulting from back and neck injuries; sprains, strains, and fractures; arthritis; amputations; neurological disorders, such as stroke or cerebral palsy; injuries related to work and sports; and other conditions.

Physical therapists use a variety of techniques to care for their patients. These techniques include exercises; training in functional movement, which may include the use of equipment such as canes, crutches, wheelchairs, and walkers; and special movements of joints, muscles, and other soft tissue to improve mobility and decrease pain.

The work of physical therapists varies by type of patient. For example, a patient working to recover mobility lost after a stroke needs care different from that of a patient recovering from a sports injury. Some physical therapists specialize in one type of care, such as orthopedics or geriatrics. Many physical therapists also help patients maintain or improve mobility by developing fitness and wellness programs that encourage healthy, active lifestyles.

Physical therapists work as part of a healthcare team, overseeing the work of physical therapist assistants and aides and consulting with physicians and surgeons and other specialists.

Physician assistants, also known as PAs, examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the supervision of a physician.

Duties

Physician assistants typically do the following:

• Obtain and review patients’ medical histories
• Examine patients
• Order and interpret diagnostic tests, such as x rays or blood tests
• Diagnose a patient’s injury or illness
• Provide treatment, such as setting broken bones, stitching wounds, and immunizing patients
• Educate and counsel patients and their families on a variety of issues, such as treatment and self-care for asthma
• Prescribe medication
• Assess and record a patient’s progress
• Research the latest treatments to ensure quality of patient care

Physician assistants are on teams with physicians or surgeons and other healthcare workers. The amount of collaboration and the extent to which they must be supervised by physicians or surgeons differ by state.

Physician assistants work in a variety of healthcare specialties, including primary care and family medicine, emergency medicine, and psychiatry. The work of physician assistants depends, in large part, on their specialty or the type of medical practice in which they work. For example, a physician assistant working in surgery may close incisions and provide care before, during, and after an operation. A physician assistant working in pediatrics may examine a child and give routine vaccinations.

In some areas, especially rural and medically underserved communities, physician assistants may be the primary care providers at clinics where a physician is present only 1 or 2 days per week. In these locations, physician assistants collaborate with the physician as needed and as required by law.

Some physician assistants make house calls or visit nursing homes to treat patients.

Physician assistants differ from nurse practitioners in their training and the level of care they provide; for example, nurse practitioners cannot provide surgical care, whereas physician assistants can. They also differ from medical assistants, who do routine clinical and clerical tasks but do not practice medicine.

Physicians and surgeons diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses and address health maintenance. Physicians examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They often counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. Surgeons operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and deformities, such as cleft palates.

There are two types of physicians, with similar degrees: M.D. (Medical Doctor) and D.O. (Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine). Both use the same methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, but D.O.s place additional emphasis on the body's musculoskeletal system, preventive medicine, and holistic (whole-person) patient care. D.O.s are most likely to be primary care physicians, although they work in all specialties.

Physicians often work closely with other healthcare staff including physician assistants, registered nurses, and medical records and health information technicians.

Duties

Physicians and surgeons typically do the following:

• Take a patient’s medical history and perform a physical exam
• Document and update charts and patient information to show findings and treatments
• Order tests and consultations for other physicians or healthcare staff to perform
• Review test results to identify abnormal findings
• Recommend, design, and implement a treatment plan
• Address concerns or answer questions that patients have about their health and well-being
• Help patients take care of their health by discussing topics such as proper nutrition and hygiene

Physicians and surgeons focus on a particular type of practice. Within their area of focus, they also may specialize or subspecialize. The following are examples of types of physicians and surgeons:

Anesthesiologists focus on the care of surgical patients and on pain relief. They administer drugs (anesthetics) that reduce or eliminate the sensation of pain during an operation or another medical procedure. During surgery, they adjust the amount of anesthetic as needed and monitor the patient's heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, and breathing. They also provide pain relief for patients in intensive care, for women in labor, and for patients suffering from chronic pain.

Cardiologists diagnose and treat diseases or conditions of the heart and blood vessels, such as valve problems, high blood pressure, and heart attacks. Cardiologists may work with adults or specialize in pediatrics (typically newborns through age 21). Although they treat many of the same disorders in either population, cardiologists in pediatric care focus on conditions that patients are born with rather than on those that develop later in life.

Dermatologists provide care for diseases relating to the skin, hair, and nails. They treat patients who may have melanoma or other skin cancers. They may offer both medical and surgical dermatology services.

Emergency medicine physicians treat patients in urgent medical situations. These physicians evaluate, care for, and stabilize patients whose illness or injury requires immediate attention. Unlike many other physicians, who often choose to specialize, most emergency medical physicians are generalists.

Family medicine physicians are generalists who address health maintenance and assess and treat conditions that occur in everyday life. These conditions include sinus and respiratory infections, intestinal ailments, and broken bones. Family medicine physicians typically have regular, long-term patients, who may include all members of the same household.

General internal medicine physicians diagnose and provide nonsurgical treatment for a range of problems that affect internal organs and systems such as the stomach, kidneys, liver, and digestive tract. Internists use a variety of diagnostic techniques to treat patients through medication or hospitalization. Their patients are mostly adults. They may specialize, such as in gastroenterology or endocrinology.

Neurologists diagnose and treat those with disorders of the brain and nervous system, such as Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and epilepsy. These physicians may specialize in one or more conditions, or they may work as pediatric neurologists to diagnose and manage the care of children with autism, behavioral disorders, or other neurological conditions.  

Obstetricians and gynecologists (OB/GYNs) provide care and counsel to women regarding pregnancy, childbirth, and the female reproductive system. They also diagnose and treat health issues specific to women, such as cervical cancer, ovarian cysts, and symptoms related to menopause.

Ophthalmologists diagnose and treat conditions of the eye. Treatment may include surgery to correct vision problems or to prevent vision loss from glaucoma and other diseases. Ophthalmologists also may fit eyeglasses, prescribe contact lenses, and provide other vision services.

Orthopedic surgeons diagnose and treat conditions of or injuries to the musculoskeletal system, which includes bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. They may specialize in certain areas of the body, such as the foot and ankle, or in a particular type of practice, such as sports medicine.

Pathologists test body tissue, fluids, and organs and review test results to diagnose diseases. These physicians may choose specializations that include clinical pathology, which focuses on laboratory analysis of bodily fluids, and anatomical pathology, which focuses on examinations of tissue and other samples acquired through autopsy or surgery.

Pediatricians provide care for infants, children, teenagers, and young adults. They specialize in diagnosing and treating problems specific to younger people. Most pediatricians administer vaccinations and treat common illnesses, minor injuries, and infectious diseases. Some pediatricians specialize in serious medical conditions that commonly affect younger patients, such as autoimmune disorders.

Pediatric surgeons diagnose, treat, and manage a variety of disorders and diseases in fetuses, infants, children, and adolescents. These surgeons collaborate with physicians involved in a child’s medical care—including neonatologists, pediatricians, and family medicine physicians—to determine the best treatment options for the child.

Psychiatrists are primary mental health physicians. They diagnose and treat mental illnesses through a combination of personal counseling (psychotherapy), psychoanalysis, hospitalization, and medication. Psychotherapy involves psychiatrists helping their clients change behavioral patterns and explore past experiences. Psychoanalysis involves long-term psychotherapy and counseling. Psychiatrists may prescribe medications to correct chemical imbalances that cause some mental illnesses.

Radiologists review and interpret x rays and other medical images, such as ultrasounds, to diagnose injuries or diseases. They may specialize, such as in diagnostic radiology, which involves reviewing images and recommending treatment or additional testing, or in interventional radiology, which includes diagnosing patients and treating them with minimally invasive techniques.

Physicians in healthcare establishments work daily with other healthcare staff, such as registered nurses, other physicians, medical assistants, and medical records and health information technicians.

Some physicians choose to work in fields that do not involve patient care, such as medical research or public policy.

Podiatrists diagnose illnesses, treat injuries, and perform surgery for people with foot, ankle, and lower leg problems.

Duties

Podiatrists typically do the following:

• Diagnose and assess patients’ conditions by reviewing medical histories, performing physical exams, and reviewing x rays and medical laboratory tests.
• Provide nonsurgical treatment for foot, ankle, and lower leg ailments, such as prescribing special shoe inserts (orthotics) to improve a patient’s mobility
• Perform foot and ankle surgeries, such as removing bone spurs, repairing fractures, and correcting other foot and ankle problems
• Advise and instruct patients about foot and ankle care and wellness
• Prescribe medications
• Refer patients to other physicians or specialists if they detect other health problems, such as diabetes or vascular disease
• Conduct research, read journals, and attend conferences to keep up with advances in podiatric medicine and surgery

Podiatrists treat a variety of foot and ankle ailments, including calluses, ingrown toenails, heel spurs, arthritis, and arch problems. They also treat foot and leg problems associated with diabetes, obesity, and other health conditions. Some podiatrists spend most of their time performing surgery, such as foot and ankle reconstruction. Others may choose a specialty such as sports medicine, pediatrics, or diabetic foot care.

Podiatrists who own their practice may spend time on business-related activities, such as hiring employees and managing inventory.

Psychiatric technicians and aides care for people who have mental or emotional conditions or developmental disabilities. Technicians typically monitor patients’ conditions and provide therapeutic care, such as overseeing their medications. Aides help patients in their daily activities and ensure a safe and clean environment.

Duties

Psychiatric technicians, sometimes called mental health technicians, typically do the following:

• Listen to patients' concerns, observe their behavior, and record their condition
• Report changes in patient health or behavior to medical staff
• Lead patients in therapeutic and recreational activities
• Provide medications and other treatments to patients, following instructions from doctors and other medical professionals
• Help with patient intake and discharge
• Monitor patients’ vital signs, such as their blood pressure and body temperature
• Help patients with daily living activities, including eating and bathing
• Restrain patients who are or may become physically violent

Psychiatric aides typically do the following:

• Monitor patients’ behavior and location in a mental healthcare facility
• Escort patients within a facility
• Help patients with daily living activities, such as bathing and dressing
• Serve meals and help patients eat
• Keep facilities clean by doing tasks such as changing bed linens
• Participate in or accompany patients to group activities, such as recreational sports or field trips
• Restrain patients who are or may become physically violent

Some psychiatric technicians and aides provide care to patients who have severe developmental disabilities or mental health issues. Others work with patients undergoing rehabilitation for drug and alcohol addiction. Their work varies based on the types of patients they work with.

Psychiatric technicians and aides work as part of a medical team under the direction of physicians or registered nurses. Other team members may include psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, counselors, and therapists. For more information about the counselors and therapists they may work with, see the profiles on substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors, rehabilitation counselors, and marriage and family therapists.

Psychologists study cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior by observing, interpreting, and recording how people relate to one another and to their environments. They use their findings to help improve processes and behaviors.

Duties

Psychologists typically do the following:

• Conduct scientific studies of behavior and brain function
• Observe, interview, and survey individuals
• Identify psychological, emotional, behavioral, or organizational issues and diagnose disorders
• Research and identify behavioral or emotional patterns
• Test for patterns that will help them better understand and predict behavior
• Discuss the treatment of problems with clients
• Write articles, research papers, and reports to share findings and educate others
• Supervise interns, clinicians, and counseling professionals

Psychologists seek to understand and explain thoughts, emotions, feelings, and behavior. They use techniques such as observation, assessment, and experimentation to develop theories about the beliefs and feelings that influence individuals.

Psychologists often gather information and evaluate behavior through controlled laboratory experiments, psychoanalysis, or psychotherapy. They also may administer personality, performance, aptitude, or intelligence tests. They look for patterns of behavior or relationships between events, and they use this information when testing theories in their research or when treating patients.

The following are examples of types of psychologists:

Clinical psychologists assess, diagnose, and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Clinical psychologists help people deal with problems ranging from short-term personal issues to severe, chronic conditions.

Clinical psychologists are trained to use a variety of approaches to help individuals. Although strategies generally differ by specialty, clinical psychologists often interview patients, give diagnostic tests, and provide individual, family, or group psychotherapy. They also design behavior modification programs and help patients implement their particular program. Some clinical psychologists focus on specific populations, such as children or the elderly, or on certain specialties, such as neuropsychology.

Clinical psychologists often consult with other health professionals regarding the best treatment for patients, especially treatment that includes medication. Currently, only Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, and New Mexico allow clinical psychologists to prescribe medication to patients.

Counseling psychologists help patients deal with and understand problems, including issues at home, at the workplace, or in their community. Through counseling, these psychologists work with patients to identify their strengths or resources they can use to manage problems. For information on other counseling occupations, see the profiles on marriage and family therapists, substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors, and social workers.

Developmental psychologists study the psychological progress and development that take place throughout life. Many developmental psychologists focus on children and adolescents, but they also may study aging and problems facing older adults.

Forensic psychologists use psychological principles in the legal and criminal justice system to help judges, attorneys, and other legal specialists understand the psychological aspects of a particular case. They often testify in court as expert witnesses. They typically specialize in family, civil, or criminal casework.

Industrial–organizational psychologists apply psychology to the workplace by using psychological principles and research methods to solve problems and improve the quality of worklife. They study issues such as workplace productivity, management or employee working styles, and employee morale. They also help top executives, training and development managers, and training and development specialists with policy planning, employee screening or training, and organizational development.

Rehabilitation psychologists work with physically or developmentally disabled individuals. They help improve quality of life or help individuals adjust after a major illness or accident. They may work with physical therapists and teachers to improve health and learning outcomes.

School psychologists apply psychological principles and techniques to education disorders and developmental disorders. They may address student learning and behavioral problems; design and implement performance plans, and evaluate performances; and counsel students and families. They also may consult with other school-based professionals to suggest improvements to teaching, learning, and administrative strategies.

Some psychologists become postsecondary teachers or high school teachers.

Radiation therapists administer doses of radiation to patients who have cancer or other serious diseases.

Duties

Radiation therapists typically do the following:

• Explain treatment plans to the patient and answer questions about treatment
• Protect the patients and themselves from improper exposure to radiation
• Determine the location of tumors to ensure correct positioning of patients for administering each treatment
• Calibrate and operate the machine to treat the patient with radiation
• Monitor the patient to check for unusual reactions to the treatment
• Keep detailed records of treatment

Radiation therapists operate machines, such as linear accelerators, to deliver concentrated radiation therapy to the region of a patient’s tumor. Radiation treatment may shrink or eliminate cancers and tumors.

Radiation therapists are part of the oncology teams that treat patients with cancer. They often work with the following specialists:

• Medical dosimetrists calculate the correct dose of radiation for cancer treatment
• Medical physicists help in planning radiation treatments, develop better and safer radiation therapies, and check that radiation output is accurate
• Oncology nurses specialize in caring for patients with cancer
• Radiation oncologists are physicians who specialize in radiation therapy

Radiologic technologists, also known as radiographers, perform x rays and other diagnostic imaging examinations on patients. MRI technologists operate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners to create diagnostic images.

Duties

Radiologic and MRI technologists typically do the following:

• Adjust and maintain imaging equipment
• Follow precise orders from physicians on what areas of the body to image
• Prepare patients for procedures, including taking a medical history and shielding exposed areas that do not need to be imaged
• Position the patient and the equipment in order to get the correct image
• Operate the computerized equipment to take the images
• Work with physicians to evaluate the images and to determine whether additional images need to be taken
• Keep detailed patient records

Radiologic technologists are trained in the use of different types of medical diagnostic equipment. They may choose to specialize, such as in x-ray, mammography, or computed tomography (CT) imaging. Some radiologic technologists provide a mixture for the patient to drink that allows soft tissue to be viewed on the images that the radiologist reviews.

MRI technologists specialize in magnetic resonance imaging scanners. They inject patients with contrast media, such as a dye, so that the images will show up on the scanner. The scanners use magnetic fields in combination with the contrast agent to produce images that a physician can use to diagnose medical problems.

For information about healthcare workers who specialize in other diagnostic equipment, see the profiles for nuclear medicine technologists and diagnostic medical sonographers, and cardiovascular technologists and technicians, including vascular technologists.

Recreational therapists plan, direct, and coordinate recreation-based medical treatment programs to help maintain or improve patients’ physical, social, and emotional well-being. These therapists use a variety of techniques, including art expression; drama, music, and dance; sports and games; aquatics; and community outings.

Duties

Recreational therapists typically do the following:

• Assess patients’ needs through observation, medical records, tests, and discussions with other healthcare workers and patients and their families
• Develop and implement treatment plans that meet patients’ goals and interests
• Engage patients in therapeutic activities, such as exercise, games, and community outings
• Help patients learn social skills needed to become or remain independent
• Help patients to reduce and cope with stress, anxiety, or depression
• Document and analyze a patient’s progress to ensure that their goals are met and to modify treatment as needed

Recreational therapists use recreation-based medical treatment to help people reduce depression, stress, and anxiety; recover basic physical and mental abilities; build confidence; and socialize effectively.

Recreational therapists are trained to use interventions to help patients of all ages. For example, they may help people with physical disabilities by teaching them adaptive sports. Therapists also may inform people about how to use community resources and participate in recreational activities.

These therapists also help people improve their mental health. They may provide interventions to help patients develop social and coping skills for managing their depression or anxiety.

Therapists may work with physicians or surgeons, registered nurses, psychologists, social workers, physical therapists, teachers, or occupational therapists. Recreational therapists are different from recreation workers, who organize recreational activities primarily for enjoyment.

Registered nurses (RNs) provide and coordinate patient care, educate patients and the public about various health conditions, and provide advice and emotional support to patients and their families.

Duties

Registered nurses typically do the following:

• Assess patients’ conditions
• Record patients’ medical histories and symptoms
• Observe patients and record the observations
• Administer patients’ medicines and treatments
• Set up plans for patients’ care or contribute information to existing plans
• Consult and collaborate with doctors and other healthcare professionals
• Operate and monitor medical equipment
• Help perform diagnostic tests and analyze the results
• Teach patients and their families how to manage illnesses or injuries
• Explain what to do at home after treatment

Most registered nurses work as part of a team with physicians and other healthcare specialists. Some registered nurses oversee licensed practical nurses, nursing assistants, and home health aides.

Registered nurses’ duties and titles often depend on where they work and the patients they work with. For example, an oncology nurse works with cancer patients and a geriatric nurse works with elderly patients. Some registered nurses combine one or more areas of practice. For example, a pediatric oncology nurse works with children and teens who have cancer.

Many possibilities exist for working with specific patient groups. The following list includes some examples:

Addiction nurses care for patients who need help to overcome addictions to alcohol, drugs, and other substances.

Cardiovascular nurses care for patients who have heart disease or heart conditions and people who have had heart surgery.

Critical care nurses work in intensive-care units in hospitals, providing care to patients with serious, complex, and acute illnesses and injuries that need close monitoring and treatment.

Genetics nurses provide screening, counseling, and treatment for patients with genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis.

Neonatal nurses take care of newborn babies who have health issues.

Nephrology nurses care for patients who have kidney-related health issues stemming from diabetes, high blood pressure, substance abuse, or other causes.

Public health nurses promote public health by educating people on warning signs and symptoms of disease or managing chronic health conditions. They may also run health screenings, immunization clinics, blood drives, or other community outreach programs.

Rehabilitation nurses care for patients who have temporary or permanent disabilities or have chronic illnesses.

Some nurses do not work directly with patients, but they must still have an active registered nurse license. For example, they may work as nurse educators, healthcare consultants, or hospital administrators.

Clinical nurse specialists (CNSs) are a type of advanced practice registered nurse (APRN). They provide direct patient care in one of many nursing specialties, such as psychiatric-mental health or pediatrics. CNSs also provide indirect care by working with other nurses and medical staff to improve the quality of care that patients receive. They often serve in leadership roles and may educate and advise other nursing staff. CNSs also may conduct research and may advocate for certain policies.

Rehabilitation counselors help people with physical, mental, developmental, or emotional disabilities live independently. They work with clients to overcome or manage the personal, social, or psychological effects of disabilities on employment or independent living.

Duties

Rehabilitation counselors typically do the following:

• Provide individual and group counseling to help clients adjust to their disability
• Evaluate clients’ abilities, interests, experiences, skills, health, and education
• Develop a treatment plan for clients, in consultation with other professionals, such as doctors, therapists, and psychologists
• Arrange for clients to obtain services, such as medical care or career training
• Help employers understand the needs and abilities of people with disabilities, as well as laws and resources that affect people with disabilities
• Help clients develop their strengths and adjust to their limitations
• Locate resources, such as wheelchairs or computer programs, that help clients live and work more independently
• Maintain client records and monitor clients’ progress, adjusting the rehabilitation or treatment plan as necessary
• Advocate for the rights of people with disabilities to live in a community and work in the job of their choice

Rehabilitation counselors help people with disabilities at various stages in their lives. Some work with students, to develop strategies to live with their disability and transition from school to work. Others help veterans cope with the mental or physical effects of their military service. Still others help elderly people adapt to disabilities developed later in life from illness or injury. Some may provide expert testimony or assessments during personal-injury or workers’ compensation cases.

Some rehabilitation counselors deal specifically with employment issues. These counselors, sometimes called vocational rehabilitation counselors, typically work with older students and adults.

Respiratory therapists care for patients who have trouble breathing—for example, because of conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Their patients range from premature infants with undeveloped lungs to older adults whose lungs are diseased.

Duties

Respiratory therapists typically do the following:

• Interview and examine patients with breathing or cardiopulmonary disorders
• Consult with physicians about patients’ conditions and developing treatment plans
• Perform diagnostic tests
• Treat patients using a variety of methods
• Monitor and record patients’ progress
• Teach patients how to take medications and use equipment

Respiratory therapists work closely with registered nurses, physicians and surgeons, and medical assistants. They use various tests to evaluate patients. For example, respiratory therapists administer pulmonary function tests to assess lung capacity by having patients breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of oxygen when they inhale and exhale. Therapists also may take blood samples and use a blood gas analyzer to test oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.

Respiratory therapists also perform treatment to clear airways for improved breathing. For example, therapists may do chest physiotherapy to remove mucus from the lungs by tapping the patient’s chest and encouraging him or her to cough.

Respiratory therapists in emergency settings may connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators that deliver oxygen to the lungs. They set up and monitor the equipment to ensure that the patient is receiving the correct amount of oxygen at the correct rate.

Respiratory therapists who work in home care teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life-support systems. During these visits, they may inspect and clean equipment, check the home for environmental hazards, and ensure that patients know how to use their medications. Therapists also make emergency home visits when necessary.

In some medical facilities, respiratory therapists are involved in related areas, such as diagnosing breathing problems for people with sleep apnea and counseling people on how to stop smoking.

Social workers help individuals, groups, and families prevent and cope with problems in their everyday lives. Clinical social workers diagnose and treat mental, behavioral, and emotional problems.

Duties

Social workers typically do the following:

• Identify people and communities in need of help
• Assess clients’ needs, situations, strengths, and support networks to determine their goals
• Help clients adjust to changes and challenges in their lives, such as illness, divorce, or unemployment
• Research, refer, and advocate for community resources, such as food stamps, childcare, and healthcare, to assist and improve a client’s well-being
• Respond to crisis situations such as child abuse and mental health emergencies
• Monitor clients' situations, and follow up to ensure that they have improved
• Maintain case files and records
• Provide psychotherapy services

Social workers help people cope with challenges in their lives. They help with a wide range of situations, such as adopting a child, being diagnosed with a terminal illness, or preventing and treating substance abuse.

Some social workers get involved at a broad level to help community organizations and policymakers develop or improve social programs, services, and conditions. This is sometimes referred to as macro social work.

Advocacy is an important aspect of social work. Social workers advocate or raise awareness with and on behalf of their clients and constituents. Additionally, they may advocate for the social work occupation on local, state, and national levels.

Social workers who are licensed to diagnose and treat mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders are called clinical social workers (CSW), licensed clinical social workers (LCSW), or have a similar title; specific titles vary by state. They provide individual, group, family, and couples therapy; work with clients to develop strategies to change behavior or cope with difficult situations; and refer clients to other resources or services, such as support groups or other mental health workers. Clinical social workers may develop treatment plans with the client, doctors, and other healthcare workers and may adjust the treatment plan if necessary based on their client’s progress. They may work in a variety of specialties.

The following are examples of types of social workers:

Child and family social workers protect vulnerable children and help families in need of assistance. They help families find housing or services, such as childcare, or apply for benefits, such as food stamps. They intervene when children are in danger of neglect or abuse. Some help arrange adoptions, locate foster families, or work to reunite families.

School social workers work with teachers, parents, and school administrators to develop plans and strategies to improve students’ academic performance and social development. They help students with problems such as aggressive behavior or bullying. Additionally, school social workers meet with families to discuss issues such as access to special education resources or frequent student absences.

Healthcare social workers help clients understand their diagnosis and adjust their lifestyle, housing, or healthcare. For example, they may help people transition from the hospital to their homes and communities. In addition, they may provide information about services, such as home healthcare or support groups, to help clients manage their illness or disease. Social workers help doctors and other healthcare workers understand the effects that diseases and illnesses have on clients’ mental and emotional health. Some healthcare social workers specialize in geriatric social work, hospice and palliative care, or medical social work.

Mental health and substance abuse social workers help clients with mental illnesses or addictions. They provide information on services, such as support groups and 12-step programs, to help clients cope with their illness. These workers often are licensed clinical social workers.

Speech-language pathologists (sometimes called speech therapists) assess and treat people who have speech, language, voice, and fluency disorders. They also treat clients who have problems swallowing.

Duties

Speech-language pathologists typically do the following:

• Evaluate levels of speech, language, or swallowing difficulty
• Identify clients' goals for treatment
• Create and carry out an individualized treatment plan that addresses specific functional needs
• Teach clients how to make sounds, improve their voices, and maintain fluency
• Help clients improve vocabulary and sentence structure
• Work with clients to develop and strengthen the muscles used to swallow
• Counsel clients and their families on how to cope with communication and swallowing disorders

Speech-language pathologists work with clients who have speech and language problems, including related cognitive or social communication problems. Clients may have difficulty speaking, such as being unable to speak or speaking too loudly or softly. They also may have problems with rhythm and fluency, such as stuttering. Speech-language pathologists also work with clients who have problems understanding language.

Speech-language pathologists may select alternative communication systems and instruct clients in their use. They also must record their evaluations and assessments, track treatment progress, and note any changes in a client's condition or treatment plan.

Some speech-language pathologists specialize in working with specific age groups, such as children or older adults. Others focus on treatment programs for specific communication or swallowing problems that result from developmental delays or from medical causes, such as a stroke or a cleft palate. Still others research topics related to speech and language issues.

Speech-language pathologists work with physicians and surgeons, social workers, psychologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, respiratory therapists, audiologists, and other healthcare workers. In schools, they evaluate students for speech and language disorders and work with teachers, other school personnel, and parents to develop and carry out individual or group programs, provide counseling, and support classroom activities. For more information on teachers, see the profiles on preschool teachers, kindergarten and elementary school teachers, middle school teachers, high school teachers, and special education teachers.

Surgical assistants and technologists help with surgical operations. Surgical assistants, also called surgical first assistants, help surgeons with tasks such as making incisions, placing clamps, and closing surgical sites. Surgical technologists, also called operating room technicians, prepare operating rooms, arrange equipment, and help doctors and first assistants during surgeries.

Duties

Surgical technologists typically do the following:

• Prepare operating rooms for surgery
• Sterilize equipment and make sure that there are adequate supplies for surgery
• Ready patients for surgery, such as by washing and disinfecting incision sites
• Help surgeons during surgery by passing them instruments and other sterile supplies
• Count supplies, such as surgical instruments, to ensure that no foreign objects are retained in patients
• Maintain a sterile environment to prevent patient infection

Before an operation, surgical technologists prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equipment. They prepare sterile solutions and medications used in surgery and check that all surgical equipment is working properly. Surgical technologists also bring patients to the operating room and get them ready for surgery by positioning them on the table, covering them with sterile drapes, and washing and disinfecting incision sites. And they help the surgical team put on sterile gowns.

During an operation, surgical technologists pass the sterile instruments and supplies to surgeons and first assistants. They might hold retractors, hold internal organs in place during the procedure, or set up robotic surgical equipment. Technologists also may handle specimens taken for laboratory analysis.

After the operation is complete, surgical technologists may apply bandages and other dressings to the incision site. They may also transfer patients to recovery rooms and restock operating rooms after a procedure.

Surgical assistants have a hands-on role, directly assisting surgeons during a procedure. For example, they may help to suction the incision site or suture a wound.

Surgical assistants and technologists work as members of a healthcare team alongside physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, and other healthcare workers.

Veterinarians care for the health of animals and work to protect public health. They diagnose, treat, and research medical conditions and diseases of pets, livestock, and other animals.

Duties

Veterinarians typically do the following:

• Examine animals to assess their health and diagnose problems
• Treat and dress wounds
• Perform surgery on animals
• Test for and vaccinate against diseases
• Operate medical equipment, such as x-ray machines
• Advise animal owners about general care, medical conditions, and treatments
• Prescribe medication
• Euthanize animals

Veterinarians treat the injuries and illnesses of pets and other animals with a variety of medical equipment, including surgical tools and x-ray and ultrasound machines. They provide treatment for animals that is similar to the services a physician provides to humans.

The following are examples of types of veterinarians:

Companion animal veterinarians treat pets and generally work in private clinics and hospitals. They most often care for cats and dogs, but they also treat other pets, such as birds, ferrets, and rabbits. These veterinarians diagnose and provide treatment for animal health problems; consult with animal owners about preventive healthcare; and carry out medical and surgical procedures, such as vaccinations, dental work, and setting fractures.

Food animal veterinarians work with farm animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep, which are raised to be food sources. They spend their time visiting farms and ranches to treat ill and injured animals and to test for and vaccinate against disease. They may advise farm owners or managers about feeding, housing, and general health practices.

Food safety and inspection veterinarians inspect and test livestock and animal products for major animal diseases. They also provide vaccines to treat animals, enhance animal welfare, conduct research to improve animal health, and enforce government food safety regulations. They design and administer animal and public health programs to prevent and control diseases transmissible among animals and between animals and people.

Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers handle routine animal care and help scientists, veterinarians, and veterinary technologists and technicians with their daily tasks.

Duties

Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers typically do the following:

• Feed, bathe, and exercise animals
• Clean and disinfect cages, kennels, and examination and operating rooms
• Restrain animals during examination and laboratory procedures
• Maintain and sterilize surgical instruments and equipment
• Monitor and care for animals after surgery
• Help provide emergency first aid to sick and injured animals
• Give medication or immunizations that veterinarians prescribe
• Assist in collecting blood, urine, and tissue samples

Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers also provide nursing care before surgery and other medical procedures.

They may prepare equipment and pass surgical instruments and materials to veterinarians during surgery. They also move animals during testing and other procedures.

Veterinary assistants typically help veterinarians and veterinary technologists and technicians treat injuries and illnesses of animals.

Laboratory animal caretakers’ daily tasks include feeding animals, cleaning kennels, and monitoring animals.

Veterinary technologists and technicians, supervised by licensed veterinarians, do medical tests that help diagnose animals’ injuries and illnesses.

Duties

Veterinary technologists and technicians typically do the following:

• Observe the behavior and condition of animals
• Provide nursing care or emergency first aid to recovering or injured animals
• Bathe animals, clip nails or claws, and brush or cut animals’ hair
• Restrain animals during exams or procedures
• Administer anesthesia to animals and monitor their responses
• Take x rays and collect and perform laboratory tests, such as urinalyses and blood counts
• Prepare animals and instruments for surgery
• Administer medications, vaccines, and treatments prescribed by a veterinarian
• Collect and record animals’ case histories

In addition to helping veterinarians during animal exams, veterinary technologists and technicians do a variety of clinical, care, and laboratory tasks.

Veterinary technologists and technicians who work in research-related jobs ensure that animals are handled carefully and are treated humanely. They may help veterinarians or scientists on research projects in areas such as biomedical research, disaster preparedness, and food safety.

Typically working with small-animal practitioners who care for cats and dogs, veterinary technologists and technicians also may have tasks that involve mice, cattle, or other animals.

Veterinary technologists and technicians may specialize in a particular discipline, such as dentistry, anesthesia, emergency and critical care, and zoological medicine.

Veterinary technologists typically work in more advanced research-related jobs, usually under the guidance of a scientist or veterinarian. Some technologists work in private clinical practices. Working primarily in a laboratory setting, they may administer medications; prepare tissue samples for examination; or record an animal’s genealogy, weight, diet, and signs of pain.

Veterinary technicians generally work in private clinical practices under the guidance of a licensed veterinarian. Technicians may do laboratory tests, such as a urinalysis, and help veterinarians conduct a variety of other diagnostic tests. Although they do some of their work in a laboratory, technicians also talk with animal owners. For example, they explain a pet’s condition or how to administer medication prescribed by a veterinarian.