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X-Linked Thrombocytopenia

Table of Contents

X-Linked Thrombocytopenia

XLT; Sex-Linked Thrombocytopenia; Thrombocytopenia 1

X-linked thrombocytopenia is a bleeding disorder that primarily affects males. This condition is characterized by a blood cell abnormality called thrombocytopenia, which is a shortage in the number of blood cell fragments involved in clotting (platelets). Explore symptoms, inheritance, and genetics of this condition.

Platelets

Image by Database Center for Life Science (DBCLS)

About

Thrombocytopenia is a condition where the blood does not contain enough platelets to help it clot efficiently.

Image by Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

Thrombocytopenia is a condition where the blood does not contain enough platelets to help it clot efficiently.

Thrombocytopenia is a condition where the blood does not contain enough platelets to help it clot efficiently. This can result in a wound that does not heal properly. Thrombocytopenia may be caused by the bone marrow not making enough platelets. Treatment options may include platelet transfusions.

Image by Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center

What Is X-Linked Thrombocytopenia?

X-linked thrombocytopenia is a bleeding disorder that primarily affects males. This condition is characterized by a blood cell abnormality called thrombocytopenia, which is a shortage in the number of blood cells involved in clotting (platelets). Affected individuals often have abnormally small platelets as well, a condition called microthrombocytopenia. X-linked thrombocytopenia can cause individuals to bruise easily or have episodes of prolonged bleeding following minor trauma or even in the absence of injury (spontaneous bleeding). Some people with this condition experience spontaneous bleeding in the brain (cerebral hemorrhage), which can cause brain damage that can be life-threatening.

Some people with X-linked thrombocytopenia also have patches of red, irritated skin (eczema) or an increased susceptibility to infections. In severe cases, additional features can develop, such as cancer or autoimmune disorders, which occur when the immune system malfunctions and attacks the body's own tissues and organs. It is unclear, however, if people with these features have X-linked thrombocytopenia or a more severe disorder with similar signs and symptoms called Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome.

Some people have a mild form of the disorder called intermittent thrombocytopenia. These individuals have normal platelet production at times with episodes of thrombocytopenia.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Additional Materials (3)

Thrombocytopenia

A film from a thrombocytopenic patients. Almost devoid of platelets.

Image by Prof. Erhabor Osaro

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. A petechia is a small (1 - 2 mm) red or purple spot on the body, caused by a minor hemorrhage (broken capillary blood vessels).

Image by Mdscottis

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

Fisiopatologia da Púrpura Trombocitopênica Trombótica (PPT)

Image by Sérgio L. França/Wikimedia

Thrombocytopenia

Prof. Erhabor Osaro

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.

Mdscottis

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

Sérgio L. França/Wikimedia

Causes

Effect of a mutation

Image by genomics.education

Effect of a mutation

Image by genomics.education

What Causes X-Linked Thrombocytopenia?

Mutations in the WAS gene cause X-linked thrombocytopenia. The WAS gene provides instructions for making a protein called WASP. This protein is found in all blood cells. WASP is involved in relaying signals from the surface of blood cells to the actin cytoskeleton, which is a network of fibers that make up the cell's structural framework. WASP signaling activates the cell when it is needed and triggers its movement and attachment to other cells and tissues (adhesion). In white blood cells, which protect the body from infection, this signaling allows the actin cytoskeleton to establish the interaction between cells and the foreign invaders that they target (immune synapse).

WAS gene mutations that cause X-linked thrombocytopenia typically lead to the production of an altered protein. The altered WASP has reduced function and cannot efficiently relay signals from the cell membrane to the actin cytoskeleton. In people with X-linked thrombocytopenia, these signaling problems primarily affect platelets, impairing their development. In some cases, white blood cells are affected. When WASP function is impaired in white blood cells, they are less able to respond to foreign invaders and immune problems such as infections, eczema, and autoimmune disorders can occur.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Inheritance

X-linked recessive

Image by Domaina, Kashmiri and SUM1

X-linked recessive

X-linked recessive inheritance scenarios for either the mother being a carrier or the father being affected

Image by Domaina, Kashmiri and SUM1

How Is X-Linked Thrombocytopenia Inherited?

This condition is inherited in an X-linked pattern. The gene associated with this condition is located on the X chromosome, which is one of the two sex chromosomes. In females (who have two X chromosomes), a mutation in one of the two copies of the gene in each cell may or may not cause the disorder. In males (who have only one X chromosome), a mutation in the only copy of the gene in each cell causes the disorder. In most cases of X-linked inheritance, males experience more severe symptoms of the disorder than females. A characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

Diagnosis

Essential Thrombocythemia

Image by Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA

Essential Thrombocythemia

This represents a platelet count between 1.5 and 2 million per microliter (normal range is between 0.150 and 0.450 million). The patient had had an elevated count for at least 15 years but is asymptomatic.

Image by Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA

How Is Thrombocytopenia Diagnosed?

Your doctor will diagnose thrombocytopenia based on your medical history, a physical exam, and test results. A hematologist also may be involved in your care. This is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating blood diseases and conditions.

Once thrombocytopenia is diagnosed, your doctor will begin looking for its cause.

Medical History

Your doctor may ask about factors that can affect your platelets, such as:

The medicines you take, including over-the-counter medicines and herbal remedies, and whether you drink beverages that contain quinine. Quinine is a substance often found in tonic water and nutritional health products.
Your general eating habits, including the amount of alcohol you normally drink.
Your risk for AIDS, including questions about blood transfusions, sexual partners, intravenous (IV) drugs, and exposure to infectious blood or bodily fluids at work.
Any family history of low platelet counts.

Physical Exam

Your doctor will do a physical exam to look for signs and symptoms of bleeding, such as bruises or spots on the skin. He or she will check your abdomen for signs of an enlarged spleen or liver. You also will be checked for signs of infection, such as a fever.

Diagnostic Tests

Your doctor may recommend one or more of the following tests to help diagnose a low platelet count.

Complete Blood Count

A complete blood count (CBC) measures the levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in your blood. For this test, a small amount of blood is drawn from a blood vessel, usually in your arm.

If you have thrombocytopenia, the results of this test will show that your platelet count is low.

Blood Smear

A blood smear is used to check the appearance of your platelets under a microscope. For this test, a small amount of blood is drawn from a blood vessel, usually in your arm.

Bone Marrow Tests

Bone marrow tests check whether your bone marrow is healthy. Blood cells, including platelets, are made in your bone marrow. The two bone marrow tests are aspiration (as-pih-RA-shun) and biopsy.

Bone marrow aspiration might be done to find out why your bone marrow isn't making enough blood cells. For this test, your doctor removes a sample of fluid bone marrow through a needle. He or she examines the sample under a microscope to check for faulty cells.

A bone marrow biopsy often is done right after an aspiration. For this test, your doctor removes a sample of bone marrow tissue through a needle. He or she examines the tissue to check the number and types of cells in the bone marrow.

Other Tests

If a bleeding problem is suspected, you may need other blood tests as well. For example, your doctor may recommend PT and PTT tests to see whether your blood is clotting properly.

Your doctor also may suggest an ultrasound to check your spleen. An ultrasound uses sound waves to create pictures of your spleen. This will allow your doctor to see whether your spleen is enlarged.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Additional Materials (3)

Thrombocytopenia NCLEX® Review | NRSNGacademy.com

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Thrombocytopenia Evaluation Algorithm

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Blood Tests

Blood tests show whether the levels of different substances in your blood fall within a normal range. Some common blood tests are the complete blood count, which includes red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet counts; the blood glucose test; and the lipoprotein panel, which measures cholesterol levels. Certain types of blood tests can help detect cancer, but additional tests are necessary to confirm diagnosis.

Image by TheVisualMD

4:09

Thrombocytopenia NCLEX® Review | NRSNGacademy.com

NURSINGcom/YouTube

4:56

Thrombocytopenia Evaluation Algorithm

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Blood Tests

TheVisualMD

Complete Blood Count

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

Complete Blood Count

Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel

A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.

A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
- Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
- Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
- Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
- Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
- Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
- Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
- Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
- Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
- Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
- High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (25)

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood sample

During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.

Image by United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.

Image by MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.

Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation

Image by Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Image by TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best. Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Video by Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Complete Blood Count

Video by Tom Wade MD/YouTube

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt1

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

Complete Blood Count pt2

Video by Med Immersion/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Blood Flow

Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.

Video by TheVisualMD

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Video by Seeker+/YouTube

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Video by Norton Healthcare/YouTube

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

Video by OncLiveTV/YouTube

Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss

TheVisualMD

Blood sample

United States Marine Corps

Phlebotomy

MatthewLammers

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood fractionation

Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA

Whole Blood

Whoisjohngalt

White Blood Cells Rotation

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

Medical Checkups

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

4:18

Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health

Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube

7:04

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

4:11

Complete Blood Count

Tom Wade MD/YouTube

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

16:12

Complete Blood Count pt1

Med Immersion/YouTube

22:14

Complete Blood Count pt2

Med Immersion/YouTube

0:06

Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:07

Anemic Blood Flow

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

0:14

Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

TheVisualMD

8:29

Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life

Seeker+/YouTube

10:42

Introduction to lab values and normal ranges | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

1:32

Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute

Norton Healthcare/YouTube

2:39

Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML

OncLiveTV/YouTube

Red Blood Cells

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count

Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count

A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10<sup>6</sup>)/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
- Weakness
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Vision problems
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Anemia
- Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
- Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
- Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
- Dehydration
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
- Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
- Lung disease
- Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
- Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
- Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
- Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
1. Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (19)

Red blood cells

Red blood cells

Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm

Image by TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.

Video by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cell Development

This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.

Video by TheVisualMD

Red blood cells

John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

7:45

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Nursing School Explained/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

3:01

Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

0:12

Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

0:31

Red Blood Cell Development

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

White Blood Count (WBC)

Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test

A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
4500
11000
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day. The total white blood cell count normally ranges between 4,500 and 11,000 WBCs per microliter.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. They help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV/AIDS, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
- Neutrophils
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
- Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
- Bacterial or viral infections
- Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
- Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
- Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV/AIDS
- Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
- Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests, such as a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. Symptoms of infection include:
- Fever
- Chills
- Body aches
- Headache
Symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on the area of inflammation and type of disease.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may be able to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening, or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A high white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
- A bacterial or viral infection
- An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
- An allergy
- Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
- Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
A low white blood count may mean you have one of the following conditions:
- Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
- Cancers that affect the bone marrow
- An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus (or SLE)
- HIV/AIDS
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
- A higher than normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
- A lower than normal amount is known as neutropenia.
- A higher than normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
- A lower normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
1. White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (37)

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

Immune Response to Bacteria

Video by NIAID/YouTube

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Formed Elements of Blood

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells

Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

Image by NIAID

Neutrophil

Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

Innate immune system

Image by US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens

Image by TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.

Image by TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

Image by OpenStax College

Innate immune system

Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.

Image by OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.

Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.

Image by TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell

Image by BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.

Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.

Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

Image by BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

Video by CLL Society/YouTube

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

White Blood Count

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

6:49

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

1:47

Immune Response to Bacteria

NIAID/YouTube

14:59

Immunology - Adaptive Immune System

Armando Hasudungan/YouTube

3:02

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

15:02

Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32

CrashCourse/YouTube

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"

Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.

TheVisualMD

White blood cells

NIAID

Neutrophil

NIAID

Innate immune system

US Gov

Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen

TheVisualMD

Mast Cell

TheVisualMD

Leukocytes

OpenStax College

Innate immune system

OpenStax College

Eosinophilia

Iceclanl

Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.

Uploaded by Mgiganteus

Eosinophils

NIAID

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases

TheVisualMD

Eosinophils

BruceBlaus

Eosinophils

Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Neutrophil action - Inflammation

Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia

Neutrophil

BruceBlaus

White Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

3:12

What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool

FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube

1:17:17

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

CLL Society/YouTube

16:52

WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

White Blood Count

TheVisualMD

Platelets

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

Platelet Count

Also called: Platelets, PLT Count, Platelet Adequacy, Thrombocyte Count, Thrombocytopenia Test, Thrombocytosis Test, Platelet count

A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
50
150
450
Your result is Normal.
A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having too few or too many platelets.
Symptoms of too few platelets include:
- Prolonged bleeding after a minor cut or injury
- Nosebleeds
- Unexplained bruising
- Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae
- Purplish spots on the skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
- Heavy and/or prolonged menstrual periods
Symptoms of too many platelets include:
- Numbness of hands and feet
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Weakness
If your results show a lower than normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may indicate:
- A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma
- A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles
- An autoimmune disease. This is a disorder that causes the body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
- Infection or damage to the bone marrow
- Cirrhosis
- Vitamin B12 deficiency
- Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant women. It is not known to cause any harm to a mother or her unborn baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher than normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may indicate:
- Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
- Anemia
- Inflammatory bowel disease
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- A viral or bacterial infection
1. Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (8)

Platelet Development

Illustration of Platelet Development

Image by OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

Video by American Red Cross/YouTube

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Platelet Development

OpenStax College

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Platelet Disorders

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation

KnuteKnudsen (talk)

0:48

Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version

Merck Manuals/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

3:54

Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

1:47

Platelets Explained in Two Minutes

American Red Cross/YouTube

10:35

The life and times of RBCs and platelets

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

Hemoglobin Blood Test

Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb

A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
g/dL
13.8
17.2
Your result is Normal.
Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
- Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
- A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
- A diet low in iron and other minerals
- A long-term infection
- Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Different types of anemia
- Thalassemia
- Iron deficiency
- Liver disease
- Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
- Lung disease
- Heart disease
- Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
1. Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (16)

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by Khan Academy/YouTube

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

Video by CrashCourse/YouTube

Haemoglobin

Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

Video by DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

Molecule of hemoglobin.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Video by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.

Image by TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.

Image by TheVisualMD

14:34

Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Khan Academy/YouTube

10:01

Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30

CrashCourse/YouTube

5:31

Haemoglobin

Wellcome Trust/YouTube

1:43

Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes

DiabeTV/YouTube

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide

TheVisualMD

0:27

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin A1c

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin

TheVisualMD

HemoglobinA1C

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

Hematocrit Blood Test

Also called: Hematrocit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV

Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
- Headache
- Feeling light-headed or dizzy
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
- Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
- Blurred or double vision and blind spots
- Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
- Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Bone marrow disease
  Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
- Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
  Lung disease
  Congenital heart disease
  Heart failure
  Polycythemia
- Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
  Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
  Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
1. Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
3. Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (30)

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.

Image by TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood

Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Video by TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.

Image by TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.

Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.

Image by Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)

Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.

Image by Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

Composition of Blood

Image by OpenStax College

Hematology | Hematocrit

Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube

Haematocrit or PCV

Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Video by Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

Vial of Centrifuged Blood

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

4:40

Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing

NURSINGcom/YouTube

Hematocrit, Dehydration

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit, Anemia

TheVisualMD

Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit: Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Blood

TheVisualMD

Hematocrit

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

0:53

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Components of Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood and Related Conditions

TheVisualMD

Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge

NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer

Red Blood Cells

Egelberg (talk)

Test Tube

U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.

Phlebotomy

Sean Michael Ragan

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Composition of Blood

OpenStax College

10:46

Hematology | Hematocrit

Ninja Nerd/YouTube

8:32

Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

7:06

How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)

Strong Medicine/YouTube

6:14

Haematocrit or PCV

LabsforLifeProject/YouTube

9:16

Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

14:32

Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

6:19

Smoking, Hematocrit, & Fasting Erythropoietin Concentrations

Mayo Proceedings/YouTube

MCV

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test

Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume

A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
- Shortness of breath
- Weakness or fatigue
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
- Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
- Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
  A lack of vitamin B12
  A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
- Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
- Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
- A sudden loss of blood
- Kidney failure
- Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
1. MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (22)

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Video by NHLBI/YouTube

Hemolytic Anemia

Video by DrER.tv/YouTube

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube

RBC Indices

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.

Image by TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1

Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Blood Components

This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.

Image by TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel

Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

1

2

3

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic. 2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal. 3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function

Interactive by TheVisualMD

5:57

Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

4:39

Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

9:42

Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

3:56

Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia

NHLBI/YouTube

3:24

Hemolytic Anemia

DrER.tv/YouTube

3:16

Medical School - Anemia Made Easy

iMedicalSchool/YouTube

9:54

Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

khanacademymedicine/YouTube

9:02

RBC Indices

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

33:35

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium

TheVisualMD

Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels

TheVisualMD

Blood Vessels in the Brain

Ben Brahim Mohammed

Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels

Blood Components

TheVisualMD

Test Tube Containing Blood

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

TheVisualMD

Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear

Blood Smear

Also called: Peripheral Blood Smear, PBS, Blood Film, Manual Differential, Differential Slide, Blood Cell Morphology, Blood Smear Analysis

A blood smear examines the size, shape, and number of blood cells in a sample of your blood. A blood smear can also detect parasites in your blood. A blood smear may be used to help diagnose and monitor many conditions.

Blood Smear

Also called: Peripheral Blood Smear, PBS, Blood Film, Manual Differential, Differential Slide, Blood Cell Morphology, Blood Smear Analysis

A blood smear examines the size, shape, and number of blood cells in a sample of your blood. A blood smear can also detect parasites in your blood. A blood smear may be used to help diagnose and monitor many conditions.

A blood smear is a sample of blood that's spread on a glass slide which is treated with a special stain. In the past, all blood smears were examined under a microscope by laboratory professionals. Now automated digital systems may be used to help examine blood smears.
The purpose of examining a blood smear is to check the size, shape, and number of three types of blood cells:
- Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body
- White blood cells, which fight infection
- Platelets, which help your blood to clot
Other names: peripheral smear, peripheral blood film, smear, blood film, manual differential, differential slide, blood cell morphology, blood smear analysis
You may need a blood smear if you have abnormal results on a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a routine test that measures many different parts of your blood.
Your health care provider may order a blood smear if you have symptoms of a blood disorder, such as:
- Fatigue
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Unusual bleeding, including nosebleeds
- Fever that lasts, or comes and goes
- Bone pain
- Anemia
- Easy bruising
- A spleen that's larger than normal
The results of a blood smear alone usually can't diagnose a medical condition. Your provider will use your results combined with your medical history, symptoms, and other test results to make a diagnosis.
Your blood smear results usually describe the appearance and number of your red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Your results will describe anything unusual about your blood.
Red blood cell results that aren't normal, it may be a sign of:
- Anemia
- Sickle cell anemia
- Hemolytic anemia, a type of anemia in which the body destroys red blood cells faster than they are replaced
- Thalassemia
- Bone marrow disorders
- Liver disease
- Cancer that has spread to the bone
White blood cell results that aren't normal may be a sign of:
- Infection or inflammation
- Allergies
- Leukemia
- Bone marrow disorders
Platelet results that aren't normal may be a sign of:
- Thrombocytopenia, a condition in which your blood doesn't have enough platelets, which increases the risk of bleeding
- Inherited platelet disorders (uncommon), such as Bernard-Soulier syndrome
If you have been very ill or stressed, or you have had a blood transfusion, the shape and number of your blood cells may be different than usual. So, a blood smear may not provide enough information for your provider to make a diagnosis. If any of your blood smear results are not normal, your provider will likely order more tests. Talk with your provider to learn more about your results.
A blood smear may be used to help find certain types of parasites in your blood which cause diseases, such as:
- Malaria, spread by bites from infected mosquitos
- Babesiosis, spread mainly by bites from infected ticks
- Chagas disease, spread mainly by bites from "kissing bugs" (triatomine)
Your provider may order the test if you live in or travel to areas where you might have been infected, and you have symptoms. Symptoms depend on the type of parasite. Common symptoms may include fever, fatigue, body aches, rash, and problems with digestion.
1. Blood Smear: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Blood smear: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. Blood Smear - Understand the Test. Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. Blood Smear - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. Edward C. Lynch. Peripheral Blood Smear. Butterworths. Jan 22, 1990 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
6. B. T. Constantino. Reporting and grading of abnormal red blood cell morphology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12215 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Additional Materials (9)

Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood smear (stained and unstained)

Two peripheral blood smears suitable for characterization of cellular elements. Left smear is unstained, right smear is stained with Wright-Giemsa stain.

Image by Coinmac/Wikimedia

Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

How Blood Clots Form

Video by Vascular Cures/YouTube

Platelet Activation and Factors for Clot Formation

Video by Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube

How dangerous are blood clots?

Video by CNN/YouTube

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge

Video by TED-Ed/YouTube

Sickle cell anaemia | NHS

Video by NHS/YouTube

Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear

TheVisualMD

Blood smear (stained and unstained)

Coinmac/Wikimedia

Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

3:56

How Blood Clots Form

Vascular Cures/YouTube

2:08

Platelet Activation and Factors for Clot Formation

Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube

1:27

How dangerous are blood clots?

CNN/YouTube

3:02

Immune System - Natural Killer Cell

Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube

4:42

Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge

TED-Ed/YouTube

4:40

Sickle cell anaemia | NHS

NHS/YouTube

Blood Differential Test

Blood Differential Test

Also called: White Blood Cell Differential, WBC Differential, Leukocyte Differential Count, Differential Blood Count

A blood differential test measures the different types of white blood cells in a sample of your blood: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. The test helps diagnose infections, inflammation, immune diseases, cancer and other disorders.

Blood Differential Test

Also called: White Blood Cell Differential, WBC Differential, Leukocyte Differential Count, Differential Blood Count

A blood differential test measures the different types of white blood cells in a sample of your blood: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. The test helps diagnose infections, inflammation, immune diseases, cancer and other disorders.

A blood differential test measures the amount of each type of white blood cell (WBC) that you have in your body. White blood cells (leukocytes) are part of your immune system, a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect you from infection. There are five different types of white blood cells:
- Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body.
- Lymphocytes include two main types of white blood cells: B cells and T cells. B cells fight off invading viruses, bacteria, or toxins. Certain T cells can target and destroy your body's own cells, such as cancer cells and cells that have been infected by viruses.
- Monocytes kill bacteria, viruses, and other germs that may make you sick. They also boost your body's immune response and clear away dead cells.
- Eosinophils defend against parasites and infections. They are also involved in allergies and help control inflammation (swelling and redness).
- Basophils release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks.
However, your test results may have more than five numbers. For example, the lab may list the results as counts as well as percentages.
Other names for a blood differential test: Complete blood count (CBC) with differential, Differential, White blood cell differential count, Leukocyte differential count
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the five types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
A blood differential test is used for many reasons. Your provider may have ordered the test to:
- Monitor your overall health or as part of a routine checkup.
- Diagnose a medical condition when you have symptoms. For example, if you are feeling unusually tired or weak, or have unexplained bruising or other symptoms, this test may help uncover the cause.
- Keep track of an existing blood disorder or related condition.
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
2. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]

Additional Materials (1)

White blood cells

White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The white blood cell (WBC) count measures the total number of white blood cells per microliter (about a drop); a WBC count also indicates the relative numbers of each type of white blood cell present. There are many specific types of WBCs, grouped into five main categories: neutrophils (normally the most abundant), eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes (which give rise to macrophages, which can ingest foreign particles, including pathogens, in a process called phagocytosis).

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells

TheVisualMD

Neutrophils

Neutrophil Count

Also called: Neutrophils (Complete Blood Count), Neutrophils, Neutropenia Test, Neutrophilia Test

This test measures the amount of neutrophils in a sample of your blood. Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body. An abnormal level of neutrophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

Neutrophil Count

Also called: Neutrophils (Complete Blood Count), Neutrophils, Neutropenia Test, Neutrophilia Test

This test measures the amount of neutrophils in a sample of your blood. Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body. An abnormal level of neutrophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
40
60
Your result is Normal.
About 40 to 60 percent of all white blood cells are neutrophils.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
1.8
7.8
Your result is Normal.
About 40 to 60 percent of all white blood cells are neutrophils. A normal neutrophil count for adults usually is between 1,800 and 7,800 neutrophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
The number of neutrophils in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased neutrophil number in your blood, a condition called neutrophilia or neutrophilic leukocytosis, is usually the result of:
- Acute infections, primarily by bacteria, less frequently by viruses or fungi.
- Tissue inflammation, such as in inflammatory bowel disease or rheumatoid arthritis.
- Tissue death (necrosis), caused either by trauma, heart attack, burns, or major surgery.
- Blood cancer (leukemia).
- Pregnancy, temporary during the last trimester or labor.
- Severe stress.
- Strenuous physical exercise.
A low neutrophil count in your blood, a condition called neutropenia, may be a consequence of:
- Chemotherapy during cancer treatment.
- Overwhelming infection (sepsis).
- Negative reaction to some drugs.
- Aplastic anemia (a condition where the body stops producing enough new blood cells).
- Myelodysplastic syndrome (the bone marrow produce poorly formed blood cells or cells that don't work properly).
A small percentage of band-form neutrophils is normal in the blood. However, an increased count of these cells (bandemia) is referred to as “left shift” and can be caused by acute infection (sepsis) or inflammation (acute appendicitis or cholecystitis).
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. DALE.DAVID. Neutropenia - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. DALE.DAVID. Neutrophilic Leukocytosis - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
6. Patrick M. Zito. Neutropenia. StatPearls Publishing. Aug 25, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
7. Farah Zahra. Neutrophilia. StatPearls Publishing. Apr 27, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
8. Complete Blood count with Differential [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (20)

Neutrophil granulocyte

Neutrophil granulocytes (also known as neutrophils) : Neutrophils with a segmented nuclei surrounded byerythrocytes, the intra-cellular granules are visible in the cytoplasm

Neutrophil

Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria

Produced by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), this digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image, depicts a blue-colored, human white blood cell, (WBC) known specifically as a neutrophil, interacting with two pink-colored, rod shaped, multidrug-resistant (MDR), Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria, which are known to cause severe hospital acquired, nosocomial infections.

Image by David Dorward; Ph.D.; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hematopoeisis Diagram

Many cells can result from one stem cell. Because division can occur at different stages of the cell's development, a single cell has the potential to become eight to 32 RBCs.

Image by TheVisualMD

Neutrophil

The most abundant type of white blood cells. They are normally found in the blood stream however during the acute phase of inflammation, neutraphils leave the vasculature and migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis.

Image by TheVisualMD

Anthrax - How People Are Infected?

Neutrophil engulfing anthrax bacteria : Neutrophil (yellow) engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange), taken with a Leo 1550 scanning electron microscope. Scale bar is 5 micrometers.

Image by Volker Brinkmann

Splenic infarction

Blood smear from an adult female with a myelodysplastic syndrome related to radiotherapy and chemotherapy for Hodgkin disease. A hypogranular neutrophil with a pseudo-Pelger-Huet nucleus is shown. The red blood cells show marked poikilocytosis, in part related to post-splenectomy status. (Wright-Giemsa stain).

Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)

Inflammation

Illustration of the Inflammatory Process

Image by OpenStax College

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Neutrophil

Image by BruceBlaus

Cell line plasma cells

Diagram showing the cell line plasma cells

Image by Cancer Research UK uploader

Neutrophils and How White Blood Cells Work

Video by TheCancer Immunity/YouTube

Extravasation of Neutrophils

Video by Katie Bergdale/YouTube

high white blood cell count Video

Video by itbestshop/YouTube

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

Video by CLL Society/YouTube

Immune- Documentary - Part 4 - Neutrophils

Video by Rajesh kumar/YouTube

Neutrophils and Platelets: Why Are They Monitored So Closely?

Video by Patient Power - a Cancer Community/YouTube

Neutropenia - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Neutropenia

Blood film with a striking absence of neutrophils, leaving only red blood cells and platelets

Image by Roberto J. Galindo

Neutrophil granulocyte

Neutrophil

NIAID

Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria

David Dorward; Ph.D.; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Hematopoeisis Diagram

TheVisualMD

Neutrophil

TheVisualMD

Anthrax - How People Are Infected?

Volker Brinkmann

Splenic infarction

The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)

Inflammation

OpenStax College

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Neutrophil

BruceBlaus

Cell line plasma cells

Cancer Research UK uploader

2:15

Neutrophils and How White Blood Cells Work

TheCancer Immunity/YouTube

2:27

Extravasation of Neutrophils

Katie Bergdale/YouTube

8:22

high white blood cell count Video

itbestshop/YouTube

1:17:17

Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

CLL Society/YouTube

1:58

Immune- Documentary - Part 4 - Neutrophils

Rajesh kumar/YouTube

3:37

Neutrophils and Platelets: Why Are They Monitored So Closely?

Patient Power - a Cancer Community/YouTube

6:37

Neutropenia - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Neutropenia

Roberto J. Galindo

Lymphocytes

Lymphocyte Count

Also called: Lymphocytes (Complete Blood Count), Lymphocytes, Lymphs, Lymphocytosis Test, Lymphocytopenia Test

This test measures the amount of lymphocytes in a sample of your blood. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. It defends the body against infection, disease, and altered (mutated) cells. An abnormal level of lymphocytes circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

Lymphocyte Count

Also called: Lymphocytes (Complete Blood Count), Lymphocytes, Lymphs, Lymphocytosis Test, Lymphocytopenia Test

This test measures the amount of lymphocytes in a sample of your blood. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. It defends the body against infection, disease, and altered (mutated) cells. An abnormal level of lymphocytes circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{WBCs}
20
40
Your result is Normal.
About 20 to 40 percent of all white blood cells are lymphocytes.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
1
4.8
Your result is Normal.
About 20 to 40 percent of all white blood cells are lymphocytes. A normal lymphocyte count for adults usually is between 1,000 and 4,800 lymphocytes per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. There are three types of lymphocytes. All lymphocytes help protect you from infection, but they have different functions.
- B lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow. These cells make antibodies to help you get better when you are sick (humoral immunity). They also may protect you from future illness.
- T lymphocytes develop in the thymus gland, an organ in the chest that is part of the lymphatic system. T cells can kill virus-infected cells or cancer cells and signal other cells to help destroy viruses (cellular immunity). T cells also help B cells form antibodies.
- Natural killer cells, which develop in the bone marrow, thymus, and liver, are immune cells that contain enzymes to kill cancer cells or cells infected with a virus.
Lymphocytes account for about 20% to 40% of all white blood cells in the blood. Lymphocytes are responsible for the astonishing specificity of adaptive immune responses — they usually respond to foreign antigens only if the innate immune system is first activated. The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against germs entering the body.
The number of lymphocytes in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of lymphocytes in your blood, a condition called lymphocytosis or lymphocytic leukocytosis, can be the result of:
- Chemotherapy
- Infections, such as mononucleosis
- Cancers, such as lymphoma or leukemia
- Autoimmune disorders, such as Graves disease or Crohn disease
- Radiation therapy or exposure
- Severe sepsis
- Steroid use
A decreased number of lymphocytes in your blood, a condition called lymphocytopenia, can be the result of:
- Infections,such as HIV, viral hepatitis, influenza, COVID-19, tuberculosis, pneumonia, sepsis, or malaria
- Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
- Blood cancer and other blood diseases, such as Hodgkin's disease and aplastic anemia
- Some medical treatments like blood and bone marrow transplant, cancer treatment, steroid therapy, or major surgery
- Drinking too much alcohol or poor nutrition (having a diet without enough protein or other nutrients)
- Certain inherited conditions, such as ataxia telangiectasia or SCID
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Lymphopenia - What Is Lymphopenia? | NHLBI, NIH. May 31, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. Peter Walter. Lymphocytes and the Cellular Basis of Adaptive Immunity. Garland Science. Jan 22, 2024 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
6. DALE.DAVID. Lymphocytic Leukocytosis - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
7. DALE.DAVID. Lymphocytopenia - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
8. The innate and adaptive immune systems. Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). Jul 30, 2020 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

Lymphocyte migration.

Video by Immunology Toronto/YouTube

Lymphopaenia – What is a safe lymphocyte count? | Prof Gavin Giovannoni, MS Academy #MSCovid19

Video by Neurology Academy/YouTube

Pathway of stem cell differentiation

Pathway of stem cell differentiationFunding from the NIH Office of Research and Structured Programs (ORIP) to the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center to explore stem cell related solutions for Parkinson's disease."

Image by US Gov

Hematopoiesis

Diagram showing the development of different blood cells from haematopoietic stem cell to mature cells

Image by A. Rad

Human B Lymphocyte

B cell function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID

Human B Lymphocyte

Transmission electron micrograph of a B cell from a human donor.

Image by NIAID

Healthy Human T Cell

Scanning electron micrograph of a human T lymphocyte (also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor.

Image by NIAID

Human B Lymphocyte

Colorized scanning electron micrograph of a B cell from a human donor.

Image by NIAID

T cell

T cell function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID

Image by NIAID

3D illustration of a lymphocyte B cell

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.

Lymphocyte

Electron microscopic image of a single human lymphocyte.

Image by Dr. Triche National Cancer Institute

Lymphatic System

Illustration of the Lymphatic System

Image by OpenStax College

2:32

Lymphocyte migration.

Immunology Toronto/YouTube

1:01:39

Lymphopaenia – What is a safe lymphocyte count? | Prof Gavin Giovannoni, MS Academy #MSCovid19

Neurology Academy/YouTube

Pathway of stem cell differentiation

US Gov

Hematopoiesis

A. Rad

Human B Lymphocyte

NIAID

Human B Lymphocyte

NIAID

Healthy Human T Cell

NIAID

Human B Lymphocyte

NIAID

T cell

NIAID

3D illustration of a lymphocyte B cell

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.

Lymphocyte

Dr. Triche National Cancer Institute

Lymphatic System

OpenStax College

Monocytes

Monocyte Count

Also called: Monocytes (Complete Blood Count), Monocytes, Monocytosis Test, Monocytopenia Test

This test measures the amount of monocytes in a sample of your blood. Monocytes are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of monocytes in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, autoimmune disorder, or certain type of cancer.

Monocyte Count

Also called: Monocytes (Complete Blood Count), Monocytes, Monocytosis Test, Monocytopenia Test

This test measures the amount of monocytes in a sample of your blood. Monocytes are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of monocytes in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, autoimmune disorder, or certain type of cancer.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{WBCs}
2
8
Your result is Normal.
About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes.
Related conditions
{"label":"Monocyte count reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.1},"text":"A decreased number of monocytes in your blood (monocytopenia) can occur due to several disorders or diseases. Talk to your doctor to know what your results mean in your specific case.","conditions":["Sepsis","Infections","Bone marrow disorders","Chemotherapy drugs"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.1,"max":0.9},"text":"About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes. A normal monocyte count for adults usually is between 100 and 900 monocytes per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.9,"max":2},"text":"An increased number of monocytes in your blood (monocytosis) can be caused by parasitic infections or other chronic conditions.","conditions":["Chronic inflammatory disease","Leukemia","Parasitic infection","Tuberculosis","Viral infection (for example, infectious mononucleosis, mumps, measles)"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(10³)\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"value":0.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
0.1
0.9
Your result is Normal.
About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes. A normal monocyte count for adults usually is between 100 and 900 monocytes per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
The number of monocytes in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of monocytes in your blood, a condition called monocytosis, may be due to:
- Chronic inflammatory disease
- Leukemia
- Parasitic infection
- Tuberculosis
- Viral infection (for example, infectious mononucleosis, mumps, or measles)
A decreased number of monocytes in your blood, a condition called monocytopenia, can occur due to severe blood infections (sepsis), bone marrow disorders, or chemotherapy treatment. In some cases, people with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection of the genitals, and people with certain skin infections can also have a low number of monocytes.
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. DALE.DAVID. Monocyte Disorders - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. Prabhu D. Emmady. Histology, Monocytes. StatPearls Publishing. Apr 24, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (17)

White Blood Cells Rotation

This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

White Blood Cells

A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.

Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

Macrophage

Macrophages are mature forms of monocytes. Similar to the monocyte, it protects the body against blood-borne pathogens. They continue to destroy pathogens and cellular debris by ingesting them.

Image by TheVisualMD

Innate immune system

Image by US Gov

Skin After Injury

Basophils, mast cells, and red blood cells are joined within one hour of the injuring by bacteria-eating cells called phagocytes, which include neutrophils and monocytes.

Image by TheVisualMD

Subsiding Inflammation in blood vessels

Monocytes, having matured into macrophages continue to destroy pathogens and cellular debris by ingesting them, while the inflammation process begins to subside.

Image by TheVisualMD

White blood cells

Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

Image by NIAID

White Blood Cells

Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.

Image by NIAID

Innate immune system

Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.

Image by OpenStax College

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

White Blood Cells

Title Normal Plasma Blood Cells. Description A normal plasma cell, a type of white blood cell, that helps to protect the body from germs and other harmful substances.

Image by Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute

Monocytes

A monocyte is a leukocyte. It protects the body against blood-borne pathogens and moves quickly to sites of infection in the tissues. They are responsible for phagocytosis (ingestion) of foreign substances in the body.

Image by BruceBlaus

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.

Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

White Blood Cells Rotation

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

5:01

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

6:49

The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection

Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube

White Blood Cells

Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"

Macrophage

TheVisualMD

Innate immune system

US Gov

Skin After Injury

TheVisualMD

Subsiding Inflammation in blood vessels

TheVisualMD

White blood cells

NIAID

White Blood Cells

NIAID

Innate immune system

OpenStax College

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

White Blood Cells

Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute

Monocytes

BruceBlaus

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)

Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)

Eosinophils

Eosinophil Count

Also called: Eosinophils (Complete Blood Count), Eosinophils, Eosins, Eos, Eosinopenia Test, Eosinophilia Test

This test measures the amount of eosinophils in a sample of your blood. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of eosinophils in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, allergic reaction, and asthma.

Eosinophil Count

Also called: Eosinophils (Complete Blood Count), Eosinophils, Eosins, Eos, Eosinopenia Test, Eosinophilia Test

This test measures the amount of eosinophils in a sample of your blood. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of eosinophils in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, allergic reaction, and asthma.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{WBCs}
1
4
Your result is Normal.
Normally your blood doesn't have a large number of eosinophils, accounting for 1% to 4% of the total circulating white blood cells.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
0.45
1.5
Your result is Normal.
About 1 to 4 percent of all white blood cells are eosinophils. A normal eosinophil count for adults usually is less than 450 eosinophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
The number of eosinophil in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
A higher than normal eosinophil count, known as eosinophilia, is usually due to:
- Addison disease
- Allergies (such as allergic rhinitis, eczema, or atopic dermatitis)
- Asthma
- Parasitic infestation
- Fungus infection
- Leukemia or other blood disorders
- Hypereosinophilic syndrome
A lower than normal eosinophil count, known as eosinopenia, is less frequent and may be the consequence of:
- Alcohol intoxication
- Severe infections (e.g., sepsis)
- Hormone-secreting tumors
- Treatment with drugs known as corticosteroids
Your symptoms may vary depending on the affected organs:
- Skin: you may have a rash.
- Throat: pain or itchiness.
- Eyes: redness, itchiness.
- Lungs: shortness of breath, cough, and wheezing.
- Stomach: pain.
- Intestines: diarrhea.
Nevertheless, a slightly elevated or low eosinophils count does not usually cause any symptoms, and this is an accidental finding when a complete blood count test is done for any other reason.
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Eosinophilic Disorders | Eosinophilia | MedlinePlus. National Library of Medicine. Mar 29, 2017 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. Differential Blood Count: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels. Oct 24, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
6. DALE.DAVID. Eosinophilic Disorders - Blood Disorders - Merck Manuals Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
7. Eosinophil count - absolute: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (9)

Eosinophilic Disorders... Made simple

Video by MadBlasta/YouTube

Blood Cell Bakery--Eosinophils

Video by sciencegoddess1/YouTube

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

Granulocytes

Diagram showing the cell line plasma cells come from

Image by Cancer Research UK uploader

Granulocytes

Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)

Image by CNX/OpenStax

Eosinophils

Histological blood smear of an Eosinophil surrounded by Red Blood Cells and Platelets

Image by Iceclanl

Eosinophils

On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.

Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Eosinophils

Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID

Eosinophil

Visualization of a eosinophil. A type of white blood cell responsible for combating infection. They make up 2% of all white blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

2:14

Eosinophilic Disorders... Made simple

MadBlasta/YouTube

1:08

Blood Cell Bakery--Eosinophils

sciencegoddess1/YouTube

5:01

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

Granulocytes

Cancer Research UK uploader

Granulocytes

CNX/OpenStax

Eosinophils

Iceclanl

Eosinophils

Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.

Eosinophils

NIAID

Eosinophil

TheVisualMD

Basophils

Basophil Count

Also called: Basophils (Complete Blood Count), Basophils, Basos, Basopenia Test, Basoophilia Test

This test measures the amount of basophils in a sample of your blood. Basophils, a type of white blood cell, release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks. An abnormal level of basophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

Basophil Count

Also called: Basophils (Complete Blood Count), Basophils, Basos, Basopenia Test, Basoophilia Test

This test measures the amount of basophils in a sample of your blood. Basophils, a type of white blood cell, release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks. An abnormal level of basophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%{WBCs}
0.1
1
Your result is Normal.
Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils.
Related conditions
{"label":"Basophil count reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.2},"text":"Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils. A normal basophil count for adults usually is less than 200 basophils per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.2,"max":0.5},"text":"A higher-than-normal basophil count is known as basophilia. Basophilia can be caused by a wide variety of conditions, such as allergic reactions, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis, among others.","conditions":["After splenectomy","Allergic reaction","Chronic myelogenous leukemia (a type of bone marrow cancer)","Collagen vascular disease","Myeloproliferative diseases (group of bone marrow diseases)","Chickenpox"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"(10³)\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"value":0.1,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
(10³)/μL
0.2
Your result is Normal.
Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils. A normal basophil count for adults usually is less than 200 basophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
The number of basophils in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
- Infections
- Autoimmune diseases
- Inflammatory diseases
- Leukemia and other types of cancer
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of basophils in your blood, known as basophilia, may be due to:
- After splenectomy
- Allergic reaction
- Chronic myelogenous leukemia
- Collagen vascular disease
- Myeloproliferative diseases (such as polycythemia vera and myelofibrosis)
- Chickenpox
A decreased number of basophils in your blood, known as basopenia, may be due to:
- Acute infection
- Cancer
- Severe injury
1. Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
3. Basophil (close-up): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Image [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
4. DALE.DAVID. Basophilic Disorders - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
5. Graham LeGros. Understanding the roles of basophils: breaking dawn. Immunology. Mar 1, 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03530.x [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (12)

White Blood Cells Rotation

This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

This browser does not support the video element.

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.

Video by TheVisualMD

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

Basophil

Visualization of a basophil. A type of leukocyte (white blood cell) responsible for combating infection.

Image by TheVisualMD

Basophil

Visualization of a basophil. A type of leukocyte (white blood cell) responsible for combating infection. Basophils are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating leukocytes (white blood cells). They contain large cytoplasmic granules which obscure the cell nucleus under the microscope.

Image by BruceBlaus

Basophil

Basophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.

Image by NIAID/NIH

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Granulocytes

Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)

Image by CNX/OpenStax

MastBasophilCells

Mast cells function similarly to basophils by inducing and promoting inflammatory responses. (a) This figure shows mast cells in blood. In a blood smear, they are difficult to differentiate from basophils (b). Unlike basophils, mast cells migrate from the blood into various tissues.

Image by modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)

hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)

All the formed elements of the blood arise by differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.

Image by CNX/OpenStax

Blood Cells

Formed elements of blood include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

Image by OpenStax

White Blood Cells Rotation

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

2:12

Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health

TheVisualMD

5:01

What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?

Diverse Health Hub/YouTube

Basophil

TheVisualMD

Basophil

BruceBlaus

Basophil

NIAID/NIH

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Granulocytes

CNX/OpenStax

MastBasophilCells

modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)

hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)

CNX/OpenStax

Blood Cells

OpenStax

RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test

RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test

Also called: Red Cell Distribution Width, RDW, RDW Blood Test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width, RBC Distribution Width

A red cell distribution width (RDW) test measures the size and volume of your red blood cells. RDW is usually part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. Measuring RDW can help diagnose anemia and other blood disorders.

RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test

Also called: Red Cell Distribution Width, RDW, RDW Blood Test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width, RBC Distribution Width

A red cell distribution width (RDW) test measures the size and volume of your red blood cells. RDW is usually part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. Measuring RDW can help diagnose anemia and other blood disorders.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
%
11.5
14.5
Your result is Normal.
A normal RDW means that your red blood cells are similar in size. A normal result doesn’t mean that you don’t have a condition requiring treatment. Some types of anemia involve a normal RDW result but a high or low score on one of the other RBC indices.
Related conditions
{"label":"RDW-SD reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"hideunits":false,"items":[{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":39},"text":"A low RDW means that your red blood cells vary very little in size. A low RDW isn\u2019t usually a cause for concern and isn\u2019t associated with any particular types of anemia.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":39,"max":46},"text":"A normal RDW means that your red blood cells are similar in size. A normal result doesn\u2019t mean that you don\u2019t have a condition requiring treatment. Some types of anemia involve a normal RDW result but a high or low score on one of the other RBC indices.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":46,"max":100},"text":"A high RDW means that your red blood cells vary a lot in size. There are many possible reasons why the RDW level can be too high. To determine what the possible cause of a high RDW level is, a comparison is made to the mean corpuscular volume (MCV).","conditions":["Autoimmune condition","Hemolytic anemia","Iron deficiency anemia","Iron, B12, or folate deficiency","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Macrocytic anemia","Microcytic anemia","Thalassemia intermedia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"fL","code":"fL","name":"femtoliter"}],"value":42.5,"disclaimer":"Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are \"within normal limits.\""}[{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
fL
39
46
Your result is Normal.
A normal RDW means that your red blood cells are similar in size. A normal result doesn’t mean that you don’t have a condition requiring treatment. Some types of anemia involve a normal RDW result but a high or low score on one of the other RBC indices.
Related conditions
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count, which includes an RDW test, as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
- Symptoms of anemia, including weakness, dizziness, pale skin, and cold hands and feet
- A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
- A chronic illness such as Crohn's disease, diabetes, or HIV/AIDS
- A diet low in iron and other minerals
- A long-term infection
- Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
RDW results help your provider understand how much your red blood cells vary in size and volume. Even if your RDW results are normal, you may still have a medical condition that needs treatment. That's why your provider will usually look at your RDW results along with the results of other blood tests. The combined test results can show a more complete picture of your red blood cells to help diagnose a variety of conditions, including:
- Iron deficiency
- Different types of anemia
- Thalassemia
- Sickle cell anemia
A high RDW result can also be a sign of other conditions, such as:
- Chronic liver disease
- Heart disease
- Diabetes
- Kidney disease
- Cancer, especially colorectal cancer
Your provider will most likely need more tests to confirm a diagnosis.
1. RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
2. Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW): Definition and Calculation - LabCE.com, Laboratory Continuing Education [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Additional Materials (39)

Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW); What Does This Lab Test REALLY Mean?

Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

Red Blood Cell Morphological Abnormalities

Video by MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube

RBC Indices

Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

Video by retic20/YouTube

Understanding the mean cell volume (MCV) - Full Blood Count Masterclass series

Video by Vernon Louw MedEd/YouTube

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

Video by WellnessFX/YouTube

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Development

This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Production

Red blood cell production or erythropoiesis is the process by which red blood cells are formed.

Image by TheVisualMD

What To Expect Before a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant

Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. (Dec. 4, 2002) - Surgical technician Amina Sherali places recently transfused bone marrow from Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen into a sterile bag in preparation for transplant. To determine the amount of marrow needed from each donor, a sample is taken during the operation and T-cells are counted. The level of T-cells and the body size of the recipient determine the amount of bone marrow to be harvested. Griffioen is assigned to Precommissioning Unit Ronald Reagan and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program. Griffioen chose to donate his bone marrow after participating in a donor drive nine years ago while stationed aboard USS George Washington.

Image by U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley.

Bone structure

Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.

Image by Smart Servier website

Hematopoiesis

The Hematopoietic System of the Bone Marrow

Image by OpenStax College

Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells

Hemoglobin is a complex, iron-containing protein molecule found in red blood cells; it is the iron in this molecule that makes red blood cells red. Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to carry oxygen from the lungs to all cells of the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood and Blood Components

Like bone and cartilage, blood can be seen as a connective tissue, a mass of cells embedded in a framework. However, because its job is mobile, not fixed, its matrix is a liquid - plasma. Suspended in plasma are trillions of blood cells. Dimpled, disk-shaped red blood cells, built to provide a large surface in relation to volume, transport oxygen to tissues. Granular, many-lobed white blood cells, outnumbered by about 700 to 1, comprise a mobile defense force. Platelets, designed to aid in tissue repair, are tiny round or oval cell fragments that congregate around damaged sites in the bloodstream, swelling and sticking to each other to from temporary pugs that can stop leaks.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells Delivering Oxygen

Red blood cells deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carry carbon dioxide from these cells back to the lungs. This continuous exchange is accomplished through a vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end, enough to circle the globe 3-4 times. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from the Latin for \"hairlike\") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Revealing Cell Membrane

The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. The cell membrane of this RBC comes into view on the right side. The membrane is made up of protein meshes that gives the RBC flexibility, allowing it to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network.

Image by TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.

Image by TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: Red Blood Cells

There are 20 to 30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult. Individual red blood cells live about 100 days, which means that about 2 million die (and an equal number replaced) every second.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Indices: Blood Component

Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells

There are 20 to 30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult. Individual red blood cells live about 100 days, which means that about 2 million die (and an equal number replaced) every second. Bilirubin is left behind after these older blood cells are removed.

Image by TheVisualMD

red blood cells

Illustration of red blood cells

Image by Jessica Polka

Thalassemic Red Blood Cell

This image shows red blood cells that are consistent with the anemia disorder thalassemia. They are less red and smaller than normal red blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells

Anemia occurs when there are too few red blood cells in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, but iron deficiency is the most common. Different tests can determine the amount of iron in the blood, the capacity of the blood to transport iron, and the amount of iron in storage. Iron is transported throughout the body with the help of proteins. The total iron binding capacity test (TIBC) measures the blood's ability to bind and transport iron

Image by TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.

Image by TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Arteries and Veins

The body's blood vessels, consisting of arteries, veins, and capillaries, range in size from arteries as wide as a garden hose to capillaries so thin that it would take 10 of them, lined up side by side, to form the thickness of a human hair. But they all have one thing in common: they are designed to move blood as quickly and efficiently as possible. That means they need to be strong, flexible, and smooth. Even the components of your blood, like red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells, are designed for movement. Red blood cells can actually flex so that they are able to flow through the finest of capillaries. The high levels of glucose characteristic of diabetes damage both large and small blood vessels. Too much glucose acts as a toxin to the lining of the blood vessels and injures both large vessels (arteries) and small vessels (capillaries). Damage to blood vessels is something that all the main complications of diabetes have in common. Many cells in the body, such as those of the skeletal muscles and liver, require insulin to admit glucose. This isn't true of the cells that line blood vessels, called endothelial cells. They can't restrict their glucose intake. When levels of blood glucose are very high, these cells develop high glucose levels as well. The high glucose levels start a whole chain of events inside the cells that damages them in numerous ways. About three quarters of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease-diseases of the heart and blood vessels.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.

Image by Egelberg (talk)

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

Red blood cells in capillaries carry oxygen to muscle and other tissues.

Image by TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Traveling Through Capillary

Red blood cells travel through a capillary, the smallest blood vessel in the body.

Image by TheVisualMD

Oxygenated vs deoxygenated Red Blood Cells (RBC)

A comparison between human red blood cells differing in oxygenation state. The cell on the left presents an oxygenated appearance as it would while in arterial circulation (after loading oxygen and unloading carbon dioxide in the lungs). The cell on the right appears as it would when deoxygenated, or in venous circulation (after unloading oxygen and loading carbon dioxide in the oxygen requiring-tissue capillaries).

Image by Rogeriopfm

Life Cycle of Red Blood Cell

We have a total of 20 to 30 trillion RBCs in the body and to maintain the body's healthy equilibrium, about 2.5 million RBCs are destroyed and replaced every second. In early development, RBC production begins in the yolk sac, shifts to the liver and spleen during the 3rd month of gestation, and finally to the bone marrow in the 5th month. Once adulthood is reached, the creation of RBCs is mostly restricted to the marrow from the ends of the \"long\" bones-the vertebrae, ribs, and pelvis-with a little produced in the skull. The life cycle of a normal RBC is about 120 days, just four months. But in that short lifetime the RBC makes an astonishing 75,000 round trips between the lungs, heart and cells of the body. Since RBCs do not possess a nucleus, they are unable to repair or synthesize new cellular components and eventually they wear out. When that happens, most aging RBCs are pulled out of circulation by specialized white blood cells called macrophages within the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. The macrophages engulf RBCs, \"digest\" them and release some of their components to be recycled within the body. As old RBCs are broken down and their components re-utilized, the bone marrow is constantly at work producing new RBCs. In a healthy human being, this is a dynamic and continuous process.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Red Blood Cells

Diagram of a red blood cell

Image by Cancer Research UK uploader

Red Blood Cells

Figure shows normal red blood cells flowing freely in a blood vessel. The inset image shows a cross-section of a normal red blood cell with normal hemoglobin.

Image by NHLBI

5:54

Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW); What Does This Lab Test REALLY Mean?

Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube

15:24

Red Blood Cell Morphological Abnormalities

MedLecturesMadeEasy/YouTube

7:45

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)

Nursing School Explained/YouTube

9:02

RBC Indices

Pathology Simplified/YouTube

4:32

Anemia: Basic lab tests - hematocrit, hemoglobin, reticulocyte, MCV, morphology

retic20/YouTube

8:22

Understanding the mean cell volume (MCV) - Full Blood Count Masterclass series

Vernon Louw MedEd/YouTube

28:05

WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh

WellnessFX/YouTube

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Development

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Production

TheVisualMD

What To Expect Before a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant

U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley.

Bone structure

Smart Servier website

Hematopoiesis

OpenStax College

Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear

TheVisualMD

Blood and Blood Components

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells Delivering Oxygen

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Revealing Cell Membrane

TheVisualMD

Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Hemoglobin: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Indices: Blood Component

TheVisualMD

Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

red blood cells

Jessica Polka

Thalassemic Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells

TheVisualMD

White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.

TheVisualMD

Arteries and Veins

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cells

Egelberg (talk)

Red Blood Cell in Capillary

TheVisualMD

Red Blood Cell Traveling Through Capillary

TheVisualMD

Oxygenated vs deoxygenated Red Blood Cells (RBC)

Rogeriopfm

Life Cycle of Red Blood Cell

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Red Blood Cells

Cancer Research UK uploader

Red Blood Cells

NHLBI

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test

Also called: RBC-M, Red Cell Morphology, Red Blood Cell Morphology, RBC Morphology, Erythrocyte Morphology

A red blood cell (RBC) morphology is a test done to evaluate the size, shape, structure, and color of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). This test is useful to help detect and help diagnose a wide variety of blood disorders.

Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test

Also called: RBC-M, Red Cell Morphology, Red Blood Cell Morphology, RBC Morphology, Erythrocyte Morphology

A red blood cell (RBC) morphology is a test done to evaluate the size, shape, structure, and color of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). This test is useful to help detect and help diagnose a wide variety of blood disorders.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
1
2
3
4
Your result is Normal (nonspecific).
Red blood cells (RBCs) normally are the same size and color and are a lighter color in the center.
Related conditions
Abnormalities of RBC shape and other RBC features can provide key information in establishing a differential diagnosis. A differential diagnosis process is used to help make a final diagnosis when you have symptoms that don't have one clear cause.
RBC morphology can help to differentiate between different types of blood disorders, and, specifically, to:
- increase or decrease the diagnostic likelihood of thalassemia
- differentiate between blood loss, marrow failure, and hemolysis
- guide the diagnostic considerations for the different types of anemia
An RBC morphology evaluation is typically done on a blood smear. You may need a blood smear if you have abnormal results on a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a routine test that measures many different parts of your blood.
Your health care provider may order a blood smear if you have symptoms of a blood disorder, such as:
- Fatigue
- Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
- Unusual bleeding, including nosebleeds
- Fever that lasts, or comes and goes
- Bone pain
- Anemia
- Easy bruising
- A spleen that's larger than normal
Normal
A normal result shows that your RBCs are of average shape, size, and color. This is usually reported as “normocytic” (normal size) and “normochromic” (normal color).
RBCs are donut-shaped with a light-colored depression in the middle instead of a hole (are biconcave) and have a pink to red color.
Abnormal
If a significant number of RBCs are abnormal in either shape, size, structure, and/or color; this means that a disease or condition that affects the RBCs is present.
A red blood cell abnormality can be indicative of a wide variety of conditions, such as:
- Iron deficiency anemia
- Megaloblastic anemia (due to folate or vitamin B12 deficiency)
- Hemolytic anemia (RBC destruction)
- Thalassemia
- Hemoglobinopathies
- Liver diseases
- Alcoholism
- Hypersplenism (overactive spleen).
- Kidney failure
- Leukemia (a type of cancer)
- Bone marrow disorders
1. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003665.htm [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
2. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=blood_smear [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
3. http://www.labpedia.net/test/127 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
4. https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/9184 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
5. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/blood-smear [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23480230 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
7. https://laboratoryinfo.com/variations-in-red-blood-cell-morphology/ [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
8. Interpretation of Red Blood Cell Morphology (Advanced Level) - WSAVA2004 - VIN [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
9. Author. Blood Morphology - Ask Hematologist | Understand Hematology. Apr 30, 2018 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
10. Ann Abiola Ogbenna. Erythrocyte Morphology and Its Disorders. IntechOpen. Jun 14, 2019. doi:10.5772/intechopen.86112 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]

Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."

Bone Marrow Tests

Bone Marrow Tests

Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy

Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.

Bone Marrow Tests

Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy

Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.

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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative bone marrow biopsy results indicates that the bone marrow didn’t have any significant findings with all of the testing that was done. This may mean that certain diseases were not found. It may also mean that the bone marrow is functioning normally.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells, including:
- Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
- White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
- Platelets, which help with blood clotting
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer.
There are two types of procedures used to collect bone marrow samples for testing:
- Bone marrow aspiration removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid and cells
- Bone marrow biopsy removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy are usually done at the same time.
Other names: bone marrow examination
Bone marrow tests are used to:
- Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets
- Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as:
  Anemia (when the cause is unknown)
  Polycythemia vera
  Thrombocytopenia
- Diagnose bone marrow disorders
- Diagnose and monitor treatment for certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
- Diagnose the cause of an unexplained fever, which could be from an infection in the bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy procedures are usually done at the same time. A health care provider will collect the marrow samples for testing. Usually, the samples can be collected in about ten minutes.
Before the procedure, you may be asked to put on a hospital gown. Your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature will be checked.
You may choose to have a mild sedative, which is medicine to help you relax. You may also have the choice to use stronger medicine that will make you sleep. Your provider can help you decide which option is best for you.
During the procedure:
- You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used to get the samples. Most bone marrow samples are taken from the back of the hip bone, called the iliac crest. But other bones may be used.
- An area of skin over the bone will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
- You will get an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the skin and the bone underneath. It may sting.
- When the area is numb, the provider will make a very small incision (cut) in your skin and insert a hollow needle. You will need to lie very still during the procedure:
  The bone marrow aspiration is usually done first. The provider will push the needle into the bone and use a syringe attached to the needle to pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a brief, sharp pain. The aspiration takes only a few minutes.
  The bone marrow biopsy uses a special hollow biopsy needle inserted through the same skin opening. The provider will twist the needle into the bone to take out a small piece, or core, of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
- After the test, the health care provider will cover your skin with a bandage.
- If you didn't use medicine to relax or sleep, you'll usually need to stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure that the bleeding has stopped. Afterwards, you can do your usual activities as soon as you are able. If you used medicine to relax or sleep, you'll need to stay longer before you can go home. You may also need to rest the next day.
After a bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days.
Your provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Don't take any pain medicine your provider hasn't approved. Certain pain relievers, such as aspirin, could increase your risk of bleeding.
Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
- Increased pain or discomfort where the sample was taken
- Redness, swelling, bleeding, or other fluids leaking from at the site
- Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your provider.
It may take several days or even weeks to get your bone marrow test results. Your provider may have ordered many different types of tests on your marrow sample, so the results often include a lot of complex information. Your provider can explain what your results mean.
In certain cases, if your test results are not normal, you may need to have more tests to confirm a diagnosis or to decide which treatment would be best.
If you have cancer that affects your bones and marrow, your test results may provide information about your cancer stage, which is how much cancer you have in your body and how fast it may be growing.
If you are already being treated for cancer, your test results may show:
- How well your treatment is working
- Whether your treatment is affecting your bone marrow
1. Bone Marrow Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 16, 2024]

Additional Materials (22)

Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub

Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube

What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK

Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube

Having a bone marrow test

Video by Design Science/YouTube

Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic

Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube

Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know

Video by Rehealthify/YouTube

What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?

Video by Seeker/YouTube

Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow

Image by doctorssupport.org

Bone Marrow Procedure Site

A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.

Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.

Image of a bone marrow harvest

Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.

Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley

Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing

Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.

Image by NIDDK Image Library

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow

Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bone Marrow

Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.

Image by CNX Openstax

This browser does not support the video element.

Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae

Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue

Video by TheVisualMD

Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow

Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.

Image by CNX Openstax

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.

White Blood Cell Count: Bone

White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama

Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.

Image by Gabriel Caponetti

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Image by John Doe

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.

Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.

Image by TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.

Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

3:24

Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub

Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube

2:12

What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK

Cancer Research UK/YouTube

5:56

Having a bone marrow test

Design Science/YouTube

2:20

Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic/YouTube

1:38

Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know

Rehealthify/YouTube

4:03

What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?

Seeker/YouTube

Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow

doctorssupport.org

Bone Marrow Procedure Site

Scientific Animations, Inc.

Image of a bone marrow harvest

Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley

Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing

NIDDK Image Library

Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Bone Marrow

CNX Openstax

0:06

Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae

TheVisualMD

Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow

CNX Openstax

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.

White Blood Cell Count: Bone

TheVisualMD

Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama

Gabriel Caponetti

Bone Marrow Biopsy

John Doe

Bone Marrow Biopsy

Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons

White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow

TheVisualMD

Sensitive content

This media may include sensitive content

Blood Cells

Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute

Treatment

Prednisone: The Double-Edged Sword

Image by jsrcyclist

Prednisone: The Double-Edged Sword

It really is a wonder drug for my Crohn's Disease, however the side effects are truly horrific: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prednisone#Side-effects

Image by jsrcyclist

How Is Thrombocytopenia Treated?

Treatment for thrombocytopenia depends on its cause and severity. The main goal of treatment is to prevent death and disability caused by bleeding.

If your condition is mild, you may not need treatment. A fully normal platelet count isn't necessary to prevent bleeding, even with severe cuts or accidents.

Thrombocytopenia often improves when its underlying cause is treated. People who inherit the condition usually don't need treatment.

If a reaction to a medicine is causing a low platelet count, your doctor may prescribe another medicine. Most people recover after the initial medicine has been stopped. For heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), stopping the heparin isn't enough. Often, you'll need another medicine to prevent blood clotting.

If your immune system is causing a low platelet count, your doctor may prescribe medicines to suppress the immune system.

Severe Thrombocytopenia

If your thrombocytopenia is severe, your doctor may prescribe treatments such as medicines, blood or platelet transfusions, or splenectomy.

Medicines

Your doctor may prescribe corticosteroids, also called steroids for short. Steroids may slow platelet destruction. These medicines can be given through a vein or by mouth. One example of this type of medicine is prednisone.

The steroids used to treat thrombocytopenia are different from illegal steroids taken by some athletes to enhance performance.

Your doctor may prescribe immunoglobulins or medicines like rituximab to block your immune system. These medicines are given through a vein. He or she also may prescribe other medicines, such as eltrombopag or romiplostim, to help your body make more platelets. The former comes as a tablet to take by mouth and the latter is given as an injection under the skin.

Blood or Platelet Transfusions

Blood or platelet transfusions are used to treat people who have active bleeding or are at a high risk of bleeding. During this procedure, a needle is used to insert an intravenous (IV) line into one of your blood vessels. Through this line, you receive healthy blood or platelets.

For more information about this procedure, go to the Health Topics Blood Transfusion article.

Splenectomy

A splenectomy is surgery to remove the spleen. This surgery may be used if treatment with medicines doesn't work. This surgery mostly is used for adults who have immune thrombocytopenia (ITP). However, medicines often are the first course of treatment.

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

Additional Materials (4)

Prednisone 20 MG Oral Tablet

Prednisone 20 MG Oral Tablet

Image by NLM

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. A petechia is a small (1 - 2 mm) red or purple spot on the body, caused by a minor hemorrhage (broken capillary blood vessels).

Image by Mdscottis

Thrombocytopenia - How is it treated?

Video by FetalTreatment/YouTube

Splenectomy-scar

Splenectomy-scar

Image by Sergej Ioffe

Prednisone 20 MG Oral Tablet

NLM

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura _ Oral petechiae/purpura, seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.

Mdscottis

1:46

Thrombocytopenia - How is it treated?

FetalTreatment/YouTube

Splenectomy-scar

Sergej Ioffe

Statistics

Statistically how often is a newborn affected

Image by OpenClipart-Vectors

Statistically how often is a newborn affected

How common

Image by OpenClipart-Vectors

How Common Is X-Linked Thrombocytopenia?

The estimated incidence of X-linked thrombocytopenia is between 1 and 10 per million males worldwide; this condition is rarer among females.

Source: MedlinePlus Genetics

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Thrombocytopenia

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Platelet disorders cause your platelet count to be too high or too low or your platelets not to work properly. When you are injured, platelets form a plug, called a blood clot, to seal your wound. Blood clots help stop or slow down bleeding. Learn about problems from having too few, too many, or abnormal platelets.

Genetic Testing

Genetic testing is a type of medical test that identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Over 2000 tests are available. Genetic testing may be done for many reasons, from newborn baby screening to diagnosing certain diseases. Read about why you might consider testing.

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X-Linked Thrombocytopenia

X-linked thrombocytopenia is a bleeding disorder that primarily affects males. This condition is characterized by a blood cell abnormality called thrombocytopenia, which is a shortage in the number of blood cell fragments involved in clotting (platelets). Explore symptoms, inheritance, and genetics of this condition.

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