ALL, Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) or Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cells. These cells normally help your body fight infection. But in ALL, they are abnormal and cannot fight infection very well. Learn more about symptoms and treatment.
BONE MARROW: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP).
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Diagram showing the cell that ALL starts in
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Diagram showing the cell that ALL starts in
Diagram showing the cell that ALL starts in
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
What is leukemia?
Leukemia is a term for cancers of the blood cells. Leukemia starts in blood-forming tissues such as the bone marrow. Your bone marrow makes the cells which will develop into white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Each type of cell has a different job:
White blood cells help your body fight infection
Red blood cells deliver oxygen from your lungs to your tissues and organs
Platelets help form clots to stop bleeding
When you have leukemia, your bone marrow makes large numbers of abnormal cells. This problem most often happens with white blood cells. These abnormal cells build up in your bone marrow and blood. They crowd out the healthy blood cells and make it hard for your cells and blood to do their work.
What is acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?
Acute lymphocytic leukemia is a type of acute leukemia. It's also called ALL and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. "Acute" means that it usually gets worse quickly if it's not treated. ALL is the most common type of cancer in children. It can also affect adults.
In ALL, the bone marrow makes too many lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. These cells normally help your body fight infection. But in ALL, they are abnormal and cannot fight infection very well. They also crowd out the healthy cells, which can lead to infection, anemia, and easy bleeding. These abnormal cells can also spread to other parts of the body, including the brain and spinal cord.
What causes acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?
ALL happens when there are changes in the genetic material (DNA) in bone marrow cells. The cause of these genetic changes is unknown. However, there are certain factors that raise your risk of ALL.
Who is at risk for acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?
The factors that raise your risk of ALL include:
Being male
Being white
Being over age 70
Having had chemotherapy or radiation therapy
Having been exposed to high levels of radiation
Having certain genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome
What are the symptoms of acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?
The signs and symptoms of ALL include:
Weakness or feeling tired
Fever or night sweats
Easy bruising or bleeding
Petechiae, which are tiny red dots under the skin. They are caused by bleeding.
Shortness of breath
Weight loss or loss of appetite
Pain in the bones or stomach
Pain or feeling of fullness below the ribs
Swollen lymph nodes - you may notice them as painless lumps in the neck, underarm, stomach, or groin
Having had many infections
How is acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) diagnosed?
Your health care provider may use many tools to diagnose ALL and figure out which subtype you have:
A physical exam
A medical history
Blood tests, such as
Complete blood count (CBC) with differential
Blood chemistry tests such as a basic metabolic panel (BMP), comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), kidney function tests, liver function tests, and electrolyte panel
Blood smear
Bone marrow tests. There are two main types - bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy. Both tests involve removing a sample of bone marrow and bone. The samples are sent to a lab for testing.
Genetic tests to look for gene and chromosome changes
If you are diagnosed with ALL, you may have additional tests to see whether the cancer has spread. These include imaging tests and a lumbar puncture, which is a procedure to collect and test cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
What are the treatments for acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?
Treatments for ALL include:
Chemotherapy
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
Targeted therapy, which uses drugs or other substances that attack specific cancer cells with less harm to normal cells
Treatment is usually done in two phases:
The goal of the first phase is to kill the leukemia cells in the blood and bone marrow. This treatment puts the leukemia into remission. Remission means that the signs and symptoms of cancer are reduced or have disappeared.
The second phase is known as post-remission therapy. Its goal is to prevent a relapse (return) of the cancer. It involves killing any remaining leukemia cells that may not be active but could begin to regrow.
Treatment during both phases also usually includes central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis therapy. This therapy helps prevent the spread of leukemia cells to the brain and spinal cord. It may be high dose chemotherapy or chemotherapy injected into the spinal cord. It also sometimes includes radiation therapy.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (9)
What is Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia? (Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention)
T Cell Therapy for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Results as of November 2013
The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
23:14
All about ALL (Acute lymphoblastic leukemia) - AboutKidsHealth.ca video
AboutKidsHealth/YouTube
3:54
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
6:45
Emily Whitehead First Child Treated in Trial of T Cell Therapy for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia/YouTube
5:57
Leukaemia: When blood goes bad
nature video/YouTube
1:41
Gene Therapy - Cortical Studios
CorticalStudios/YouTube
2:45
Gene Therapy
Fighting Blindness Canada/YouTube
Overview
Morphological types of acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Image by Animalculist/Wikimedia
Morphological types of acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Left to right: L1 type, L2 type, L3 type
Image by Animalculist/Wikimedia
Overview of Adult Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
General Information About Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
KEY POINTS
Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
Leukemia may affect red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Previous chemotherapy and exposure to radiation may increase the risk of developing ALL.
Signs and symptoms of adult ALL include fever, feeling tired, and easy bruising or bleeding.
Tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to diagnose adult ALL.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL; also called acute lymphocytic leukemia) is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow. This type of cancer usually gets worse quickly if it is not treated.
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Leukemia may affect red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Normally, the bone marrow makes blood stem cells (immature cells) that become mature blood cells over time. A blood stem cell may become a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell.
A myeloid stem cell becomes one of three types of mature blood cells:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other substances to all tissues of the body.
Platelets that form blood clots to stop bleeding.
Granulocytes (white blood cells) that fight infection and disease.
A lymphoid stem cell becomes a lymphoblast cell and then one of three types of lymphocytes (white blood cells):
B lymphocytes that make antibodies to help fight infection.
T lymphocytes that help B lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection.
Natural killer cells that attack cancer cells and viruses.
Blood cell development. A blood stem cell goes through several steps to become a red blood cell, platelet, or white blood cell.
In ALL, too many stem cells become lymphoblasts, B lymphocytes, or T lymphocytes. These cells are also called leukemia cells. These leukemia cells are not able to fight infection very well. Also, as the number of leukemia cells increases in the blood and bone marrow, there is less room for healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This may cause infection, anemia, and easy bleeding. The cancer can also spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), lymph nodes, spleen, liver, testicles, and other organs.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (9)
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia showing smear cells (Giemsa stain)
Image by Dr Graham Beards
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Peripheral blood smear showing chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The lymphocytes with the darkly staining nuclei and scant cytoplasm are the CLL cells.
Image by Mary Ann Thompson
ALL-L1
BONE MARROW: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA, L1 (ALL-L1)
The lymphoblasts in this bone marrow smear from a 3-year-old male with ALL-L1 show moderate variation in size and density of nuclear chromatin. There is minimal cytoplasm. The nuclear contour is irregular. Some of the blasts have small nucleoli. (Wright-Giemsa stain)
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)/Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (2 typical lymphoblast) ALL (2)
Peripheral blood film in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL)
Image by Dr Erhabor Osaro/Wikimedia
ALL-KM-3
Bone marrow smear from a patient with acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Image by Furfur/Wikimedia
ALL-KM-2
bone marrow smear (large magnification) from a patient with acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Image by Furfur/Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia or acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL), is an acute form of leukemia, or hematologic cancer of the white blood cells, characterized by the overproduction and accumulation of cancerous, immature white blood cells, known as lymphoblasts
Image by Osaretin/Wikimedia
Lungs of Child with Leukemia and Chickenpox Pneumonia
This anteroposterior (AP) radiograph revealed bilateral pulmonary infiltrates throughout the entirety of each lung field in the case of a child with leukemia, as well as chickenpox pneumonia.
The fact that this child had leukemia made him that much more susceptible to contracting a pneumonic infection as evidenced here.
The most common complications from varicella are:- bacterial infections of the skin and soft tissues in children- pneumonia in adults
Severe complications include septicemia, toxic shock syndrome, necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, bacterial pneumonia, and septic arthritis. Other complications caused by varicella include cerebellar ataxia, encephalitis, viral pneumonia, and hemorrhagic conditions.
Image by CDC Joel D. Meyers ID 15140
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) in Adults - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia
Dr Graham Beards
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Mary Ann Thompson
ALL-L1
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)/Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (2 typical lymphoblast) ALL (2)
Dr Erhabor Osaro/Wikimedia
ALL-KM-3
Furfur/Wikimedia
ALL-KM-2
Furfur/Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Osaretin/Wikimedia
Lungs of Child with Leukemia and Chickenpox Pneumonia
CDC Joel D. Meyers ID 15140
6:33
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) in Adults - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Signs and Symptoms
Fatigue
Image by TheVisualMD
Fatigue
The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli. (NCBI/NLM/NIH)
Image by TheVisualMD
Signs and Symptoms of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
The early signs and symptoms of ALL may be like the flu or other common diseases. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:
Weakness or feeling tired.
Fever or drenching night sweats.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin, caused by bleeding).
Shortness of breath.
Weight loss or loss of appetite.
Pain in the bones or stomach.
Pain or feeling of fullness below the ribs.
Painless lumps in the neck, underarm, stomach, or groin.
Having many infections.
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia or by other conditions.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (4)
Fatigue
Fatigue
Image by TheVisualMD
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Symptoms | Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Video by Seattle Cancer Care Alliance/YouTube
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Video by Medscape/YouTube
Risk Factors for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Fatigue
TheVisualMD
1:09
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Symptoms | Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Seattle Cancer Care Alliance/YouTube
10:15
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Medscape/YouTube
1:05
Risk Factors for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Risk Factors
Radiation Sickness
Image by BruceBlaus
Radiation Sickness
Radiation Sickness
Image by BruceBlaus
Risk Factors of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Previous chemotherapy and exposure to radiation may increase the risk of developing ALL.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk. Possible risk factors for ALL include the following:
Being male.
Being White.
Being older than 70.
Past treatment with chemotherapy or radiation therapy.
Being exposed to high levels of radiation in the environment (such as nuclear radiation).
Having certain genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (6)
External Beam Radiation Therapy for Cancer
Illustration of patient in external beam radiation therapy machine.
Image by National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Radiation therapy
Irradiation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma by photon (X-ray) therapy (left) and proton therapy (right)
Image by Taheri-Kadkhoda et al. Radiation Oncology
Radiotherapy
Radiation therapist Rudie Collins demonstrates the position of a patient before beginning a treatment session, Jan. 31, at David Grant USAF Medical Center radiation therapy clinic.
Image by U.S. Air Force photo/ Staff Sgt. Liliana Moreno
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Radiation therapy
Woman Prepared for Radation Therapy Description A female patient is lying on a bed with a technician positioning the patient's head in preparation for radiotherapy. This photograph was used in the NCI publication "When Someone in Your Family Has Cancer".
Image by Michael Anderson (Photographer) / National Cancer Institute
Risk Factors for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Image by TheVisualMD
Diagnosis of Adult Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to diagnose adult ALL.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as infection or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Complete blood count (CBC) with differential: A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
The number of red blood cells and platelets.
The number and type of white blood cells.
The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
Complete blood count (CBC). Blood is collected by inserting a needle into a vein and allowing the blood to flow into a tube. The blood sample is sent to the laboratory and the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are counted. The CBC is used to test for, diagnose, and monitor many different conditions.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
Peripheral blood smear: A procedure in which a sample of blood is checked for blast cells, the number and kinds of white blood cells, the number of platelets, and changes in the shape of blood cells.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. After a small area of skin is numbed, a bone marrow needle is inserted into the patient’s hip bone. Samples of blood, bone, and bone marrow are removed for examination under a microscope.
The following tests may be done on the samples of blood or bone marrow tissue that are removed:
Cytogenetic analysis: A laboratory test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. Changes in certain chromosomes may be a sign of cancer. For example, in Philadelphia chromosome–positive ALL, part of one chromosome switches places with part of another chromosome. This is called the “Philadelphia chromosome.” Cytogenetic analysis is used to help diagnose cancer, plan treatment, or find out how well treatment is working.Philadelphia chromosome. A piece of chromosome 9 and a piece of chromosome 22 break off and trade places. The BCR-ABL gene is formed on chromosome 22 where the piece of chromosome 9 attaches. The changed chromosome 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome.
Immunophenotyping: A laboratory test that uses antibodies to identify cancer cells based on the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cells. This test is used to help diagnose specific types of leukemia. For example, a cytochemistry study may test the cells in a sample of tissue using chemicals (dyes) to look for certain changes in the sample. A chemical may cause a color change in one type of leukemia cell but not in another type of leukemia cell.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (6)
Blood in Vial
Blood tests show whether the levels of different substances in your blood fall within a normal range. Some common blood tests are the complete blood count, which includes red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet counts; the blood glucose test; and the lipoprotein panel, which measures cholesterol levels. Certain types of blood tests can help detect cancer, but additional tests are necessary to confirm diagnosis.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Draw
Drawing of female health professional standing and drawing blood from seated female patient's arm.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Blood draw
Drawing of health professional's gloved hands inserting hypodermic needle into patient's vein to draw blood.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Complete blood count and differential
Illustration of complete blood count and differential (hemogram, full blood exam, leukogram etc.) test results with blood specimen in EDTA tube. N.B. these are my own CBC and diff results so no patient confidentiality issues. Symbol key: CBC, complete blood cell count; WBC, white blood cell count (leukocyte count); RBC, red blood cell count (erythrocyte count); HGB, hemoglobin level; HCT, hematocrit; MCV, mean corpuscular volume; MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (per erythrocyte); MCHC, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; RDW-CV, red blood cell distribution width–coefficient of variation; PLT, platelet count (thrombocyte count); MPV, mean platelet volume; NEUT, neutrophil count; LYMPH, lymphocyte count; MONO, monocyte count; EO, eosinophil count; BASO, basophil count; IG, immature granulocyte count; NRBC, nucleated red blood cell count; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, a preservative that makes the blood sample last long enough to be processed (it inhibits coagulation by chelating calcium ions).
Image by SpicyMilkBoy/Wikimedia
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Video by Medscape/YouTube
All about ALL (Acute lymphoblastic leukemia) - AboutKidsHealth.ca video
Video by AboutKidsHealth/YouTube
Blood in Vial
TheVisualMD
Blood Draw
NIDDK Image Library
Blood draw
NIDDK Image Library
Complete blood count and differential
SpicyMilkBoy/Wikimedia
10:15
Acute Myeloid Leukemia | Clinical Presentation
Medscape/YouTube
23:14
All about ALL (Acute lymphoblastic leukemia) - AboutKidsHealth.ca video
AboutKidsHealth/YouTube
Cytogenetic Analysis
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
Cytogenetic Analysis
Also called: Cytogenetic Testing, Cytogenetics, Cytometric Flow Analysis
Cytogenetic analysis is a test in which the chromosomes of cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are counted and checked for any changes, such as broken, missing, rearranged, or extra chromosomes. The test is used to help diagnose a genetic disorder or certain types of cancer, plan and monitor treatment.
PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
510999: Chromosome Analysis, Leukemia/Lymphoma | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Ozkan E, Lacerda MP. Genetics, Cytogenetic Testing And Conventional Karyotype. [Updated 2021 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Cytogenetic Analysis | NewsMedical [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Additional Materials (1)
Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
Video by UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
3:43
Genomic Education Module (GEM): Cytogenetic Tests
UC Davis MIND Institute/YouTube
Immunophenotyping
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
Immunophenotyping Test
Also called: Lymphocyte Subtyping, Lymphocyte Immunophenotyping, Immunophenotype Profile
Immunophenotyping is a test that detects the presence or absence of white blood cell (WBC) antigens in a sample of blood, bone marrow or lymph node cells. The test is used in basic research and to help diagnose and classify diseases, such as specific types of leukemia and lymphoma.
{"label":"Immunophenotype Profile Reference Range","scale":"lin","step":0.25,"hideunits":true,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"No significant immunophenotypic abnormality detected.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Abnormal","long":"Abnormal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":2},"text":"The markers that are present on the cells as detected by immunophenotyping will help characterize the abnormal cells present.","conditions":["Acute myeloid leukemia","Acute lymphoblastic leukemia","Chronic lymphocytic or myelocytic leukemias","B-cell and T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas","Erythroleukemia (RBC leukemia)","Megaloblastic leukemia","Multiple myeloma"]}],"value":0.5}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
No significant immunophenotypic abnormality detected.
Related conditions
Immunophenotyping | NCI's Dictionary of Cancer Terms [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Blood Work | How This Provides Clues On Your Health | Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) [accessed on Feb 18, 2022]
Immunophenotyping | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
480260: Leukemia/Lymphoma Immunophenotyping Profile | Labcorp [accessed on Feb 19, 2022]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (3)
Burkitts lymphoma
Burkitt's lymphoma histology image
Image by Ed Uthman, MD.
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
Video by BMH learning/YouTube
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Video by Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
Burkitts lymphoma
Ed Uthman, MD.
2:21
Immunophenotyping | Flow Cytometry & Immunophenotyping Test |
BMH learning/YouTube
1:51
Immunophenotyping made easy: streamline your bench
Miltenyi Biotec/YouTube
Complete Blood Count
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Complete Blood Count
Also called: CBC, Full Blood Count, Blood Cell Count, Hemotology Panel
A complete blood count (CBC) is often part of a routine exam. It is used to measure different parts and features of your blood. A CBC can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
A complete blood count, or CBC, is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
White blood cells, which fight infections and other diseases. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A different test called a CBC with differential measures the number of each type of these white blood cells.
Platelets, which stop bleeding by helping your blood to clot.
Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body.
Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells.
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of your red blood cells.
Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count
A complete blood count is a common blood test that is often part of a routine checkup. Complete blood counts can help detect a variety of disorders including infections, anemia, diseases of the immune system, and blood cancers.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count as part of your checkup or to monitor your overall health. The test may also be used to:
Help diagnose blood diseases, infection, immune system disorders, or other medical conditions
Check for changes in an existing blood disorder
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
Usually there is no special preparation necessary for a complete blood count. But if your provider ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle went in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
A CBC counts the cells in your blood. There are many reasons your levels may not be in the normal range. For example:
Abnormal levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, or hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, heart disease, or too little iron in your body.
Low white cell count may be a sign of an autoimmune disorder, bone marrow disorder, or cancer.
High white cell count may be a sign of an infection or a reaction to medicine.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, not drinking enough water, and other factors can affect the results. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
A complete blood count is only one tool your health care provider uses to learn about your health. Your provider will consider your medical history, symptoms, and other factors to make a diagnosis. You may also need additional tests.
Complete Blood Count (CBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood Tests - Blood Tests | NHLBI, NIH. Mar 24, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (25)
Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells (RBCs) released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow in which they developed. Normally, only a tiny percentage red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream are reticulocytes. The reticulocyte count rises, however, when bone marrow is called upon to produce more RBCs, in conditions such as heavy bleeding or certain types of anemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood sample
During the blood collection process, medical personnel gather additional blood samples to test for an array of blood disorders and communicable diseases. Every unit of blood is rigorously tested before approved for transfusion into a patient.
Image by United States Marine Corps
Phlebotomy
Venipuncture (blood draw / collection) in the left arm of a male.
Image by MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Vial of separated blood. The middle layer is a type of sterile goo which separates the blood from the rest of what's drawn.
Image by Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
A Red Cross whole blood donation before any separation
Image by Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Image by TheVisualMD
Medical Checkups
Most doctors believe that people should have regular checkups as a part of preventive treatment. Regular health exams can help find problems before they begin, or in their early stages, when the chances of successful treatment are best.
Blood Pressure Reading: Photo Copyright 2005, James Gathany
Image by TheVisualMD
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Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of a healthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM) and fill up the given space on the screen.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Anemic Blood Flow
Camera is stationary as it focuses on a capillary in a cell bed demonstrating anemic blood flow and it's lower red blood cell count.
Video by TheVisualMD
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Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a view of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). There are only a few red blood cells in this slide indicative of the low amount typical of some one who is anemic.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
An animation simulating a close-up of an unhealthy count of red blood cells as viewed in a slide projector or under a microscope. Initially, the screen in white with a circular black vignette along its borders. Then a still showing red blood cells on a light red background slides up from the bottom left filling the screen and then comes into focus. Throughout the animation, the slide jitters a little. The red blood cells resemble those taken from an scanning electron micrograph (SEM). In this close up there are a few red blood cells along with a few white blood cells.
Video by TheVisualMD
Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
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Reticulocyte Count, Hemorrhage/Chronic Blood Loss
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Blood sample
United States Marine Corps
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MatthewLammers
Blood and Related Conditions
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Components of Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood fractionation
Wheeler Cowperthwaite from Reno, USA
Whole Blood
Whoisjohngalt
White Blood Cells Rotation
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Medical Checkups
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Medical Checkups
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Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
4:18
Full Blood Count – what it tells your doctor about your health
Pathology Tests Explained/YouTube
7:04
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
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Complete Blood Count
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high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
16:12
Complete Blood Count pt1
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Complete Blood Count pt2
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Normal Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
TheVisualMD
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Anemic Blood Flow
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Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
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Anemic Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
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Why Blood Tests Can Save Your Life
Seeker+/YouTube
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khanacademymedicine/YouTube
1:32
Low blood counts and the risk of infection in cancer patients | Norton Cancer Institute
Norton Healthcare/YouTube
2:39
Dr. Erba Describes Proper Diagnostic Testing of CML
OncLiveTV/YouTube
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count
Also called: Erythrocyte Count, RBC Count, Red Blood Count, Red Blood Cell Count, Red Count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is a blood test that measures the number of red blood cells in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. An abnormal RBC count can be a sign of a serious health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
million/μL
3.9
5.5
Your result is Normal.
Red blood cells (RBC) are made in the bone marrow and contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues in the body. RBCs make up approximately 44% of the total blood volume.
Related conditions
A red blood cell (RBC) count measures the number of red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, in your blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. An RBC count that is higher or lower than normal is often the first sign of an illness. So the test may allow you to get treatment even before you have symptoms.
Other names: erythrocyte count, red count
A red blood cell (RBC) count is almost always part of a complete blood count, a group of tests that measure many different parts and features of your blood. The RBC measurement is used to help diagnose red blood cell disorders, such as anemia, a condition in which your body does not make enough healthy red blood cells.
You may get this test as part of a complete blood count, which is often included in a routine checkup. You may also need this test if you have symptoms of a low or high red blood cell count.
Symptoms of a low red blood cell count include:
Weakness
Fatigue
Pale skin
Rapid heartbeat
Symptoms of a high red blood cell count include:
Headache
Dizziness
Vision problems
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a red blood cell (RBC) count.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. There may be slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your results will show whether you have a normal red blood cell count or a count that is too low or too high.
A low red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Anemia
Leukemia, a type of blood cancer
Malnutrition, a condition in which your body does not get the calories, vitamins, and/or minerals needed for good health
Multiple myeloma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Kidney failure
It may also be a sign of pregnancy.
A high red blood cell count can be a sign of:
Dehydration
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a bone marrow disease that causes too many red blood cells to be made
Scarring of the lungs, often due to cigarette smoking
Lung disease
Kidney cancer
If you have questions about your results, talk to your health care provider.
If results showed you had a low or a high red blood cell count, you may need more tests to help make a diagnosis. These include:
Reticulocyte count, a test that counts the number of reticulocytes in the blood. Reticulocytes are red blood cells that are still developing. These are also known as immature red blood cells.
Iron tests, which measure iron levels in the blood. Iron is essential for making red blood cells.
Vitamin B test, which measures the amount of one or more B vitamins in the blood. B vitamins are important for making red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Count: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
RBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Count (RBC) Test - Testing.com. Sep 27, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (19)
Red blood cells
Red blood cells
Image by John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second. In their short lifetimes, however, red blood cells can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
A portion of a capillary wall has been cut away to reveal the red blood cells flowing within.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Medical visualization of red blood cells and leukocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
This image shows the cut distal convoluted tubule of nephron with surrounding capillaries cut to reveal many red blood cells and healthy amounts of Erythopoeitin, EPO, (yellow particles). Erythropoeitin, EPO, is produced by the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the fibroblasts in the interstitial tissue surrounding the distal tubules. Normally, the kidneys produce EPO in response to low oxygen levels in order to stimulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow. A normal amount of red blood cells allows for the delivery of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
This image shows red blood cells traveling through capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Video by Nursing School Explained/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
Animation of red blood cells flowoing quicly through a blood vessel. The camera is positioned in the lumen of the vessel and the rbc's are flowing towards the viewer. The rbc and and lumen are rendered with muted colors to give it a softer look.
Video by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Video by TheVisualMD
Red blood cells
John Kalekos of Massachusetts image distribution for Science and Learning
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Capillary Revealing Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Many Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
7:45
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Indices (Anemia Labs)
Nursing School Explained/YouTube
33:35
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
3:01
Red Blood Cells Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
0:12
Flowing Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
0:31
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
White Blood Count (WBC)
Also called: WBC, WBC Blood Test, White Blood Count, White Blood Cell Count, Leukocyte Count, Leukopenia Test, Leukocytosis Test
A white blood count measures the number of white cells in your blood. White blood cells are part of the immune system. A count that is too high or too low can indicate an infection, immune system disorder, or another health problem.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
3.4
10.8
Your result is Normal.
Normally, people produce about 100 billion white blood cells (WBCs) a day.
Related conditions
A white blood count measures the number of white blood cells (WBCs) in your blood. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are part of your immune system. They are a type of blood cell made in your bone marrow and found in your blood and lymph tissue (part of your immune system). If you are injured or get sick, the white blood cells will travel through your bloodstream and tissues to where they are needed. There, they will help your body fight off infections and other diseases.
When you get sick, your body makes more white blood cells to fight the bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances causing your illness. This increases your white blood count.
Other diseases can cause your body to make fewer white blood cells than you need. This lowers your white blood count. Diseases that can lower your white blood count include some types of cancer and HIV, a viral disease that attacks white blood cells. Certain medicines, including chemotherapy, may also lower the number of your white blood cells.
There are five major types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
A white blood count measures the total number of these cells in your blood. Another test, called a blood differential, measures the amount of each type of white blood cell.
Other names: WBC count, white cell count, white blood cell count, Leukocyte Count, WBC
A white blood count is most often used to help diagnose or monitor disorders related to having a high white blood cell count or low white blood cell count.
Disorders related to having a high white blood count include:
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, conditions that cause the immune system to attack healthy tissues
Bacterial or viral infections
Cancers such as leukemia and Hodgkin disease
Allergic reactions
Disorders related to having a low white blood count include:
Diseases of the immune system, such as HIV
Lymphoma, a cancer of the bone marrow
Diseases of the liver or spleen
A white blood count can show if the number of your white blood cells is too high or too low, but it can't confirm a diagnosis. So it is usually done along with other tests to help confirm your diagnosis. These other tests could include a complete blood count, blood differential, blood smear, and/or bone marrow test.
You may need this test if you have signs of an infection, inflammation, or autoimmune disease. The symptoms of an infection may include:
Fever
Chills
Body aches
Headache
Wound that is red, has pus, or won't heal
Ongoing cough
The symptoms of inflammation and autoimmune diseases will be different, depending on where in the body the inflammation is and the type of disease you have.
You may also need this test if you have a disease that weakens your immune system or are taking medicine that lowers your immune response. If the test shows your white blood count is getting too low, your provider may want to adjust your treatment.
Your newborn or older child may also be tested as part of a routine screening or if they have symptoms of a white blood cell disorder.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out.
To test children, a health care provider will take a sample from the heel (newborns and young babies) or the fingertip or arm (older babies and children). The provider will clean the heel, fingertip or arm with alcohol and poke the site with a small needle. The provider will collect a blood sample and put a bandage on the site.
You don't need any special preparations for a white blood count. You may need to stop taking certain medicines before this test, so tell your provider about everything you take. But don't stop taking any medicines unless your provider tells you to.
After a blood test, you may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
There is very little risk to your baby or child with a needle stick test. Your child may feel a little pinch when the site is poked, and a small bruise may form at the site. This should go away quickly.
Conditions that may cause a high white blood count, also called leukocytosis, include:
An infection
An inflammatory disease such as rheumatoid arthritis
An allergy
Leukemia or Hodgkin disease
Tissue damage from a burn injury or surgery
Smoking, stress, a reaction to a medicine, or pregnancy may also cause your body to make more white blood cells, which leads to a high white blood count.
Conditions that may cause a low white blood count, also called leukopenia, include:
Bone marrow damage. This may be caused by infection, disease, or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Cancers that affect the bone marrow.
An autoimmune disorder, such as lupus.
HIV.
If you are already being treated for a white blood cell disorder, your results may show if your treatment is working or whether your condition has improved.
If you have questions about your results, talk to your provider. Your provider will consider your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other blood tests to understand your white blood count results.
White blood count results are often compared with results of other blood tests, including a blood differential. A blood differential test shows the amount of each type of white blood cell, such as neutrophils or lymphocytes. Neutrophils mostly target bacterial infections. Lymphocytes mostly target viral infections.
A higher-than-normal amount of neutrophils is known as neutrophilia.
A lower-than-normal amount is known as neutropenia.
A higher-than-normal amount of lymphocytes is known as lymphocytosis.
A lower-than-normal amount is known as lymphopenia.
White Blood Count (WBC): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 08, 2024]
WBC count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
White Blood Cell Count (WBC Blood Test) - Testing.com. Sep 28, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (37)
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
Immune Response to Bacteria
Video by NIAID/YouTube
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Video by Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
Visualization of red blood cells and a white blood cell
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Formed Elements of Blood
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response. White blood cells are also mobilized by the immune system and CRP is believed to enhance the activity of the white blood cells called macrophages. Each type of white blood cell has its own specialized immune functions; macrophages, for example, basically engulf and \"eat\" foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Macrophages in the spleen and the liver weed out old and defective red blood cells and break them into recyclables (iron, heme, and some globin) and wastes (such as bilirubin). The bilirubin is then used by the liver to produce bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid digestion.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies or complement but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris and pathogens
Image by TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
Mast cells produce histamine. Histamine is known for its role in inflammation. It affects a variety of behavior patterns including the sleep-wake cycle and food intake. Antihistamines may work at odds with inflammation and depression.
Image by TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
Image by OpenStax College
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Image by Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
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Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
Normally, an individual's immune system learns to identify and ignore all of the distinctive little structures found on that individual's own cells. Sometimes, however, it will make a mistake and identify its own body as foreign. If that happens, the immune system produces antibodies that attempt to destroy the body's own cells in the same way it would try to destroy a foreign invader.
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Eosinophils
Drawing of an eosinophil white blood cell
Image by BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Neutrophil granulocyte migrates from the blood vessel to the matrix, secreting proteolytic enzymes, in order to dissolve intercellular connections (for improvement of its mobility) and envelop bacteria through Phagocytosis.
Image by Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Video by FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
White Blood Count
White Blood Count
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White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
1:47
Immune Response to Bacteria
NIAID/YouTube
14:59
Immunology - Adaptive Immune System
Armando Hasudungan/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
15:02
Your Immune System: Natural Born Killer - Crash Course Biology #32
CrashCourse/YouTube
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell and White Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
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Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). \"Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014\"
Phagocytosis - C-reactive protein (CRP) is a substance made by the liver that is released into the bloodstream by inflammation and infection as part of the body's immune response.
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
Neutrophil
NIAID
Innate immune system
US Gov
Macrophage Capturing Foreign Antigen
TheVisualMD
Mast Cell
TheVisualMD
Leukocytes
OpenStax College
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Eosinophilia
Iceclanl
Two neutrophils among many red blood cells. Neutrophils are one type of cell affected by chronic granulomatous disease.
Uploaded by Mgiganteus
Eosinophils
NIAID
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases
TheVisualMD
Eosinophils
BruceBlaus
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Neutrophil action - Inflammation
Uwe Thormann/Wikimedia
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
3:12
What Are White Blood Cells | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
16:52
WellnessFX: White Blood Cells And Differential with Bryan Walsh
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting. Platelets may be counted to monitor or diagnose diseases, or to look for the cause of too much bleeding or clotting.
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A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Platelets are tiny blood cells that are made in the bone marrow from larger cells. When you are injured, platelets stick together to form a plug to seal your wound. This plug is called a blood clot.
Related conditions
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small blood cells. They form in your bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue in your bones. Platelets are essential for blood clotting. A blood clot is a mass of blood that forms when platelets, proteins, and cells in the blood stick together. When you get hurt, your body forms a blood clot to stop the bleeding.
A platelet count test measures the number of platelets in your blood:
A lower-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia. This condition can cause you to bleed too much after a cut or other injury that causes bleeding.
A higher-than-normal platelet count is called thrombocytosis. This can make your blood clot more than you need it to. Blood clots can be dangerous because they can block blood flow.
Other names: platelet count, PLT, PLT count thrombocyte count
A platelet count is most often used to monitor or diagnose conditions that cause too much bleeding or clotting. A platelet count may be included in a complete blood count, a test that is often done as part of a regular checkup.
You may need platelet count testing if you have symptoms of having lower-than-normal or higher-than-normal platelets.
Symptoms of lower-than-normal platelets include:
Bleeding for a long time after a minor cut or injury.
Nosebleeds.
Unexplained bruising.
Pinpoint sized red spots on the skin, known as petechiae.
Purplish, red, or brown spots on your skin, known as purpura. These may be caused by bleeding under the skin.
Menstrual periods that have a heavy flow or last a long time.
Blood in your urine, stool (poop), or from your rectum (where stool passes out of your body).
Symptoms of higher-than-normal platelets include:
Numbness of hands and feet
Headache
Dizziness
Weakness
Pain, swelling, and warmth in your lower legs
Most platelet tests are done on a blood sample.
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a platelet count test.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
If your results show a lower-than-normal platelet count (thrombocytopenia), it may be a sign of:
A cancer that affects the blood, such as leukemia or lymphoma.
A viral infection, such as mononucleosis, hepatitis, or measles.
An autoimmune disease. This is a type of disease that causes your body to attack its own healthy tissues, which can include platelets.
Infection or damage to your bone marrow.
Cirrhosis.
Vitamin B12 deficiency (not enough).
Gestational thrombocytopenia, a common, but mild, low-platelet condition affecting pregnant people. It is not known to cause any harm to a pregnant person or their developing baby. It usually gets better on its own during pregnancy or after birth.
If your results show a higher-than-normal platelet count (thrombocytosis), it may be a sign of:
Certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer or breast cancer
Anemia
Inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis
Rheumatoid arthritis
A viral or bacterial infection
Severe blood loss
Your provider may consider your symptoms, medical history, and the results of other blood tests to understand the results of your platelet tests.
Platelet Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Aug 27, 2024]
Platelet Count (PLT) Blood Test - Testing.com. Dec 19, 2023 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Platelet count: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Platelet Development
Illustration of Platelet Development
Image by OpenStax College
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Platelet Disorders
From left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
Image by KnuteKnudsen (talk)
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Video by Merck Manuals/YouTube
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
Video by American Red Cross/YouTube
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Platelet Development
OpenStax College
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Platelet Disorders
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Scheme of a blood sample after centrifugation
KnuteKnudsen (talk)
0:48
Decode Your Blood Test: Platelets 💉 | Merck Manual Consumer Version
Merck Manuals/YouTube
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
3:54
Platelets Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
NURSINGcom/YouTube
1:47
Platelets Explained in Two Minutes
American Red Cross/YouTube
10:35
The life and times of RBCs and platelets
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
Hemoglobin Blood Test
Also called: Hemoglobin, Hgb
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal levels may mean you have anemia or another blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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Heme, an iron-containing molecule, combines with globin proteins to form hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Related conditions
A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.
Other names: Hb, Hgb
A hemoglobin test is often used to check for anemia, a condition in which your body has fewer red blood cells than normal. If you have anemia, the cells in your body don't get all the oxygen they need. Hemoglobin tests are measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC).
Your health care provider may order the test as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, which include weakness, dizziness, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a hemoglobin test. If your health care provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your health care provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your hemoglobin levels may not be in the normal range.
Low hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Liver disease
Cancer and other diseases
High hemoglobin levels may be a sign of:
Lung disease
Heart disease
Polycythemia vera, a disorder in which your body makes too many red blood cells. It can cause headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If any of your levels are abnormal, it doesn't always mean you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other factors can affect the results. You may also have higher than normal hemoglobin levels if you live in a high altitude area. Talk with your provider to learn what your results mean.
Some forms of anemia are mild, while other types of anemia can be serious and even life threatening if not treated. If you are diagnosed with anemia, be sure to talk to your health care provider to find out the best treatment plan for you.
Hemoglobin Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hemoglobin - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (16)
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Video by Khan Academy/YouTube
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
Video by CrashCourse/YouTube
Haemoglobin
Video by Wellcome Trust/YouTube
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
Video by DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
Molecule of hemoglobin.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
Hemoglobin is a protein found inside red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Hemoglobin also binds with glucose. Diabetics have too much glucose in the bloodstream and this extra glucose binds (or glycates) with hemoglobin. Glycated hemoglobin usually stays glycated for the life of the red blood cell (about 3 months). Therefore, the percentage of hemoglobin that is glycated (measured as A1C) reflects glucose levels that have affected red blood cells up to 3 months in the past. The hemoglobin A1C test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells use the iron-rich protein hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and return carbon dioxide to the lungs. The percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood glucose (hemoglobin A1C) is used to diagnose diabetes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport and delivery to different parts of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
Hemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that is packed inside RBCs. It is a structurally complex molecule that can change shape to either hold or release oxygen, depending on the body's need. There are close to 300 million hemoglobin molecules within each RBC.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
A heme group in a hemoglobin molecule consists of an iron atom bound equally to four nitrogen atoms, all lying in one plane. The iron atom is the site of oxygen binding.
Image by TheVisualMD
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Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
A red blood cell rushes toward the camera, the camera enters the cell to focus on all of the hemoglobin molecules within
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Video by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
The hemoglobin A1c test measures the percentage of hemoglobin bound to blood sugar (glucose); the test is used to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because the test results reflect average blood sugar levels over a period of 2-3 months (rather than daily fluctuations), the hemoglobin A1C test is also used to gauge how well patients are managing their diabetes over time.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin normally binds to life-sustaining oxygen. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas.
Image by TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
Hemoglobin Test for O2 Binding Hemoglobin : A hemoglobin test is a measurement of your blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. High levels of hemoglobin can be the result of dehydration, lung disease and other conditions. Low levels of hemoglobin indicate that there is a shortage of red blood cells; this can be the result of RBCs being lost or destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that enables red blood cells to deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body. But the same binding site on the hemoglobin molecule has an even stronger affinity for carbon monoxide, which is why we are so susceptible to poisoning by this deadly gas; carbon monoxide grabs all the binding sites and starves the body's tissues of oxygen.
Image by TheVisualMD
14:34
Hemoglobin | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Khan Academy/YouTube
10:01
Blood, Part 2 - There Will Be Blood: Crash Course A&P #30
CrashCourse/YouTube
5:31
Haemoglobin
Wellcome Trust/YouTube
1:43
Hemoglobin A1c & Diabetes
DiabeTV/YouTube
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1C: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin Molecule Heme Group
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cell (RBC)
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin, Carbon Monoxide
TheVisualMD
0:27
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin A1c
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: O2 Binding Hemoglobin
TheVisualMD
HemoglobinA1C
TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Hematocrit Blood Test
Also called: Hematocrit, HCT, Crit, Packed Cell Volume, PCV
Hematocrit is a blood test that measures how much of a person's blood is made up of red blood cells. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
{"label":"Hematocrit reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":40.7},"text":"A hematocrit level below the normal range, meaning the person has too few red blood cells, is called anemia.","conditions":["Anemia","Bleeding","Bone marrow cancers and disorders","Chronic illness","Chronic kidney disease","Destruction of red blood cells (hemolysis)","Leukemia","Malnutrition","Too little iron, folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 in the diet","Too much water in the body"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":40.7,"max":50.3},"text":"Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":50.3,"max":100},"text":"A hematocrit level above the normal range, meaning too many red blood cells, may indicate polycythemia or erythrocytosis. High hematocrits can be seen in people living at high altitudes and in chronic smokers.","conditions":["Polycythemia vera","Congenital heart disease","Exposure to high altitude","Failure of the right side of the heart","Low levels of oxygen in the blood","Scarring or thickening of the lungs","Too little water in the body (dehydration)"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":45.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
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%
40.7
50.3
Your result is Normal.
Normal hematocrit levels vary based on age and race. In adults, normal levels for men range from 41%-50%. For women, the normal range is slightly lower: 36%-44%.
Related conditions
A hematocrit test is a blood test that measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. The other parts of your blood include white blood cells (to help fight infection), platelets (to help make blood clots to stop bleeding), and a liquid called plasma.
Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can be a sign of a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions that affect your blood.
Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)
A hematocrit test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures the different parts of your blood. It is used to check your general health. It may also be used to help diagnose blood disorders, including anemia, a condition in which you don't have enough red blood cells, and polycythemia, an uncommon disorder in which you have too many red blood cells and your blood becomes too thick.
Your health care provider may order a hematocrit test as part of your regular checkup or to monitor your health if you are being treated for cancer or have an ongoing health condition. Your provider may also order this test if you have symptoms of a red blood cell disorder, such as anemia or polycythemia:
Symptoms of anemia (too few red blood cells) may include:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
Symptoms of polycythemia (too many red blood cells) may include:
Headache
Feeling light-headed or dizzy
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Skin symptoms such as itching after a shower or bath, burning, or a red face
Heavy sweating, especially during sleep
Blurred or double vision and blind spots
Bleeding gums and heavy bleeding from small cuts
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for a hematocrit test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a hematocrit test or other type of blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Your hematocrit test results are reported as a number. That number is the percentage of your blood that's made of red blood cells. For example, if your hematocrit test result is 42, it means that 42% of your blood is red blood cells and the rest is white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma.
A hematocrit level that's lower than normal may be a sign that:
Your body doesn't have enough red blood cells (anemia). There are many types of anemia that can be caused by different medical conditions.
Your body is making too many white blood cells, which may be caused by:
Bone marrow disease
Certain cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, or cancers that spread to the bone marrow from other parts of the body
A hematocrit level that's higher than normal may be a sign that:
Your body is making too many red blood cells, which may be caused by:
Lung disease
Congenital heart disease
Heart failure
Polycythemia
Your blood plasma level is too low, which may be caused by:
Dehydration, the most common cause of a high hematocrit
Shock
If your results are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical condition that needs treatment. Living at high altitudes where there's less oxygen in the air may cause a high hematocrit. That's because your body responds to low oxygen levels by making more red blood cells so that you get the oxygen you need.
Pregnancy can cause a low hematocrit. That's because the body has more fluid than normal during pregnancy, which decreases the percentage that's made of red blood cells.
To learn what your test results mean, talk with your provider.
Normal hematocrit levels will be different depending on your sex, age, and the altitude where you live. Ask your provider what hematocrit level is normal for you.
Hematocrit Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematocrit: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Hematrocit Blood Test - Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (30)
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
Vial of Centrifuged Blood
Blood is made up of red and white blood cell (as well as platelets), suspended in a liquid known as blood plasma. Plasma, which makes up 55% of our blood's volume, is a clear liquid (mainly water) that transports food molecules, hormones, waste as well as a wide range of dissolved chemicals. Red cells, which normally make up 40-50% of total blood volume, are produced continuously in our bone marrow at the rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. White cells make up a very small part of blood's volume-normally only about 1% in healthy people. This image shows two vials of centrifuged blood. The left vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in female (36-44%) ; The right vial shows healthy amount of red blood cells in male (41-50%). The hematocrit (along with the hemoglobin test) is the central test to diagnosing anemia in that it indicates the amount of RBCs in the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Hematocrit Nursing Considerations, Normal Range, Nursing Care, Lab Values Nursing
Video by NURSINGcom/YouTube
Hematocrit, Dehydration
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. The most common cause of a high hematocrit is dehydration, which is usually temporary and easily remedied by increasing fluid intake, thereby restores the balance between RBCs and blood plasma volume.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit, Anemia
Blood is composed of cells (primarily red blood cells, but also white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets) along with a liquid portion known as plasma. The ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the volume of plasma is an important health indicator and is known as the hematocrit. A low hematocrit usually indicates anemia, which occurs when red blood cells are being either destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly; with fewer red blood cells, less oxygen is delivered to body tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Vial of Blood for Hematocrit Test
This image is a vial of blood that has been centrifuged (and thus separated) to determine hematocrit. This vial shows, from top to bottom, 55% plasma, <1% white blood cells, <1% platelets , 45% red blood cells. Hematocrit measures how much of the blood, by volume, is taken up by RBCs. A normal range for hematocrit is 41 to 50 percent in men and 36 to 44 percent in women. In many cases, a reading below the normal range for hematocrit will lead to a diagnosis of CKD-related anemia.This other diagnostic test is the hemoglobin test, which measures the amount of hemoglobin molecules in the blood and is a good indicator of the body's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Bone Marrow
Bone marrow produces about 2 million red blood cells (RBCs) a second to maintain a healthy hematocrit. Many conditions, including kidney disease, chemotherapy, and dietary deficiencies, can reduce RBC production, while others can result in too many RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit: Blood Cells
The hematocrit is another way to look at the health of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood is composed of cells (primarily RBCs) and a liquid portion called plasma. The proportions of RBCs and plasma must be kept in balance and this is what the hematocrit measures.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood
Components of Blood : Blood is mostly made up of plasma and red and white blood cells. But it also contains many other substances as well, like platelets, hormones, nutrients such as glucose, and fats like cholesterol. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematocrit
Hematocrit Blood Vials : If you are at risk for cardiovascular disease, your doctor may order a cholesterol and triglyceride level test as well as a complete blood count (CBC). Abnormal results may be the first clue in determining risk of and in diagnosing cardiovascular disease.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Normal Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Video by TheVisualMD
Components of Blood
Components of Blood : Our blood is composed of many different components, the largest categories being red and white blood cells (blood-clotting platelets are another key component) and the liquid portion known as blood plasma. A Complete Blood Count (CBC) includes several of the most basic, yet important, measurements of these components.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Related Conditions
Blood and Related Conditions : Anemia results when there are too few red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, including malnutrition, chronic bleeding, and diseases that result in red blood cells either being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly.
Image by TheVisualMD
Pellet of Lymphocyte Cells Created in the Centrifuge
This photograph shows Wendy Watford, Ph.D. holding a test tube containing isolated lymphocyte cells. The cells were spun in a centrifuge to create a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. The cells will be labeled with CFSE dye, which will stain the membranes of the cells. After culturing the cells for three days she will determine the number of cell divisions that have taken place by measuring the dilution of the CFSE dye. The purpose of the work is to measure the proliferation of lymphocytes under various conditions. The principal investigator for this work is John J. O’Shea, M.D., NIAMS Scientific Director.
Image by NIAMS/Photographer: Rhoda Baer
Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Test Tube
Between 5,000 and 8,000 blood serum, fecal, urine, viral and respiratory samples arrive six days a week from U.S. Air Force hospitals and clinics worldwide, as well as some other Department of Defense facilities, for analysis at the Epidemiology Laboratory Service, also known as the "Epi Lab" at the 711th Human Performance Wing’s United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and Public Health at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio.The lab is a Department of Defense reference laboratory offering clinical diagnostic, public health, and force health screening and testing. (U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.)
Image by U.S. Air Force photo by J.M. Eddins Jr.
Phlebotomy
This image was uploaded as part of Wiki Loves e-textbooks contest in Poland.
Image by Sean Michael Ragan
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Composition of Blood
Composition of Blood
Image by OpenStax College
Hematology | Hematocrit
Video by Ninja Nerd/YouTube
Erythrocyte indices (Hemoglobin, Hematocrit, MCV, MCH & MCHC) What Do These Lab Tests Mean?
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
How to Interpret RBC Indices (e.g. hemoglobin vs. hematocrit, MCV, RDW)
Video by Strong Medicine/YouTube
Haematocrit or PCV
Video by LabsforLifeProject/YouTube
Packed cell volume/ Hematocrit
Video by Pathology Simplified/YouTube
Fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit | Human anatomy and physiology | Health & Medicine | Khan Academy
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Test
Also called: MCV, MCV Blood Test, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean RBC Volume
A mean corpuscular volume (MCV) blood test measures the size of your red blood cells. If blood cells are too small or too large, it may indicate a blood disorder.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
fL
76
96
Your result is Normal.
A normal MCV indicates that the red blood cells are normal average size, or normocytic. Normal results vary based on the laboratory and the method used.
Related conditions
MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells.
Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a lack of certain vitamins, or other medical conditions.
Other names: CBC with differential
An MCV blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a common blood test that measures many parts of your blood, including red blood cells. It is used to check your general health.
An MCV test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose or monitor certain blood disorders, including anemia. There are many types of anemia. An MCV test can help diagnose which type of anemia you have.
Your health care provider may order a complete blood count, which includes an MCV test, as part of your regular checkup. You may also have the test if you have a chronic (long-lasting) condition that could lead to anemia or if you have the symptoms of anemia:
Shortness of breath
Weakness or fatigue
Headache
Dizziness
Arrhythmia (a problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat)
During the test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparations for an MCV blood test. If your provider has ordered more tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
An MCV test alone cannot diagnose any disease. Your provider will use the results of your MCV, other test results, and your medical history to make a diagnosis.
If your results show that your red blood cells are smaller than normal, it may be a sign of:
Certain types of anemia, including iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type
Thalassemia, an uncommon genetic condition
If your results show that your red blood cells are larger than normal, it may be a sign of:
Pernicious anemia, which may be caused by:
A lack of vitamin B12
A disease that affects your body's ability to use vitamin B12, such as certain autoimmune diseases, celiac disease, or Crohn's disease.
Anemia caused by a lack of folic acid
Liver disease
It's also possible to have anemia with a normal MCV. This may happen if anemia is caused by conditions, such as:
A sudden loss of blood
Kidney failure
Aplastic anemia (uncommon)
If your MCV levels are not in the normal range, it doesn't always mean that you have a medical problem that needs treatment. Diet, activity level, medicines, a menstrual period, and other conditions can affect the test results. Talk with your health care provider to learn what your results mean.
If your provider thinks you may have anemia or another blood disorder, you may have other red blood cell tests with an MCV. These tests may include a red blood cell count and measurements of hemoglobin. All together, these tests are called red blood cell indices.
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (22)
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Video by khanacademymedicine/YouTube
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Video by NHLBI/YouTube
Hemolytic Anemia
Video by DrER.tv/YouTube
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
Video by iMedicalSchool/YouTube
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
The blood-brain barrier keeps potentially toxic substances from entering the brain. The semipermeable membrane formed by the tightly spaced cells of capillaries in this area selectively screens out large molecules, while permitting the transport of essential nutrients such as glucose. The endothelium is the cellular lining of the blood vessel and is made up of endothelial cells connected to one another by tight junctions. These are the strongest cell-to-cell adhesions in the body. Toxic materials being transported in the blood are too large to pass through these junctions and exit the blood. Therefore, the brain is protected from exposure to many harmful substances. The barrier is does not, however, prevent fat-soluble materials from entering the brain; this includes alcohol and nicotine.
Image by TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
This image depicts a healthy capillary with normal glucose (pink) and insulin (yellow) levels. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to blood. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels characterize hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body and are where the transfer of nutrients from blood to cells and wastes from cells to the blood takes place.The cells of the body depend on sugar in the blood, derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher than normal levels hyperglycemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
The Blood Brain Barrier and Astrocytes type 1
Image by Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your body, are where nutrients are transferred from blood to cells, and waste from cells to the blood The body's cells depend on sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Without insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood-sugar (glucose) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Higher than normal levels lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Blood Components
This image highlights the vital components of blood: 55% plasma Plasma is the liquid river that transports every blood cell to its destination. Oxygen-carrying RBCs couldn't move through arteries, veins and capillaries without it. Even though it is a watery, almost clear fluid, plasma contains many important substances, including blood-clotting agents called platelets and protective proteins called antibodies which help us fight infection. When the clotting agents are removed from blood plasma, it is called serum, which is essential in many life-saving medical situations such as transplant surgery and trauma. <1% white blood cells (wbcs or leukocytes) Some leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow, while others are generated in lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. They are far less numerous than their sister RBCs, but leukocytes are the bedrock of the immune system and are the body's front line of defense. Different types of leukocytes fight infections in different ways. Some target bacterial or fungal infections, while others respond to parasitic threats or allergic reactions. <1% platelets Platelets perform the vital function of clotting blood at wound sites. They are small, even in comparison to the other cells of your blood, but they pack a wallop when it comes to healing a scrape or staunching a more serious wound. When you cut yourself shaving, platelets arrive on the scene like your personal emergency medical team, creating a natural bandage of clotted blood, which eventually forms a scab. 45% red blood cells rbcs or erythrocytes) RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and perform the fundamental task of delivering oxygen to all of the body's cells. The vial is an example of the hematocrit, one of many tests that make up the complete blood count (CBC). Hematocrit measures the volume of RBCs in your blood. A normal hematocrit reading for women is between 36 to 44 percent; for men it's 41 to 50 percent.
Image by TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
Visualization of a test tube containing blood. Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel
Cross-section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
1
2
3
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
1) Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel - This image depicts a healthy capillary. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in your body. They can be so thin in diameter that blood cells have to bend in order to pass through. Capillaries are where the transfer of nutrients from the blood to cells, and the transfer of waste from cells to blood, takes place. In a healthy body, the blood vessels are smooth and elastic.
2) Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts a healthy capillary. The body's cells depend on sugar in the blood, which is derived from carbohydrates, for food and energy. Allowing for the innumerable differences among individuals, the threshold for a normal blood sugar (glucose, pink) level in healthy people is 100 mg/dL; that is, 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood. Lower-than-normal levels characterize hypoglycemia and higher-than-normal levels characterize hyperglycemia. Without insulin (yellow), glucose is not able to enter cells to be used as fuel. Because of this, healthy insulin levels are a key factor in keeping blood glucose levels normal.
3) Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels - This image depicts an unhealthy, damaged capillary with very high levels of insulin and glucose. Higher than normal levels of blood glucose lead to hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is the hallmark of prediabetes (between 100 and 125 mg/dL) and diabetes (126 mg/dL and higher). It is caused by either too little insulin being released by the pancreas or the body's inability to use insulin properly. Hyperglycemia leads to microangiopathy, marked by endothelial cell apoptosis (programmed cell death), accumulation of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), and thickening of the basement membrane, which can lead to the development of lesions, vasoconstriction, and altered vessel function
Interactive by TheVisualMD
5:57
Microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic anemias | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
4:39
Non-megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
9:42
Microcytic anemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
khanacademymedicine/YouTube
3:56
Living with and Managing Iron-Deficiency Anemia
NHLBI/YouTube
3:24
Hemolytic Anemia
DrER.tv/YouTube
3:16
Medical School - Anemia Made Easy
iMedicalSchool/YouTube
9:54
Iron deficency anemia diagnosis | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 1 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
Blood Brain Barrier Endothelium
TheVisualMD
Normal Blood Glucose Levels in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Cross-Section of Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel with Normal Glucose and Insulin Levels
TheVisualMD
Blood Vessels in the Brain
Ben Brahim Mohammed
Cross-Section of Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel with Very High Glucose and Insulin Levels
Blood Components
TheVisualMD
Test Tube Containing Blood
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
TheVisualMD
Healthy Capillary Blood Vessel and and Damaged Capillary Blood Vessel Caused by High Levels of Blood Glucose
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
Bone Marrow Tests
Also called: Bone Marrow Examination, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy
Bone marrow tests are used to diagnose and monitor bone marrow diseases, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer. There are two types of bone marrow tests: bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy, tests usually performed at the same time.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative bone marrow biopsy results indicates that the bone marrow didn’t have any significant findings with all of the testing that was done. This may mean that certain diseases were not found. It may also mean that the bone marrow is functioning normally.
Related conditions
Bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most bones. Bone marrow makes different types of blood cells, including:
Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes), which carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body
White blood cells (also called leukocytes), which help you fight infections
Platelets, which help with blood clotting
Bone marrow tests check to see if your bone marrow is working correctly and making normal amounts of blood cells. The tests can help diagnose and monitor bone marrow disorders, blood disorders, and certain types of cancer.
There are two types of procedures used to collect bone marrow samples for testing:
Bone marrow aspiration removes a small amount of bone marrow fluid and cells
Bone marrow biopsy removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy are usually done at the same time.
Other names: bone marrow examination
Bone marrow tests are used to:
Find out the cause of problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets
Diagnose and monitor blood disorders, such as:
Anemia (when the cause is unknown)
Polycythemia vera
Thrombocytopenia
Diagnose bone marrow disorders
Diagnose and monitor treatment for certain types of cancers, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma
Diagnose the cause of an unexplained fever, which could be from an infection in the bone marrow
Your health care provider may order a bone marrow aspiration and a bone marrow biopsy if other blood tests show your levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are not normal.
Too many or too few blood cells may mean you have a medical condition, such as cancer that starts in your blood or bone marrow. If you are being treated for another type of cancer, these tests can find out if the cancer has spread to your bone marrow.
Bone marrow tests may also be used to see how well cancer treatment is working.
Bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy procedures are usually done at the same time. A health care provider will collect the marrow samples for testing. Usually, the samples can be collected in about ten minutes.
Before the procedure, you may be asked to put on a hospital gown. Your blood pressure, heart rate, and temperature will be checked.
You may choose to have a mild sedative, which is medicine to help you relax. You may also have the choice to use stronger medicine that will make you sleep. Your provider can help you decide which option is best for you.
During the procedure:
You'll lie down on your side or your stomach, depending on which bone will be used to get the samples. Most bone marrow samples are taken from the back of the hip bone, called the iliac crest. But other bones may be used.
An area of skin over the bone will be cleaned with an antiseptic.
You will get an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the skin and the bone underneath. It may sting.
When the area is numb, the provider will make a very small incision (cut) in your skin and insert a hollow needle. You will need to lie very still during the procedure:
The bone marrow aspiration is usually done first. The provider will push the needle into the bone and use a syringe attached to the needle to pull out bone marrow fluid and cells. You may feel a brief, sharp pain. The aspiration takes only a few minutes.
The bone marrow biopsy uses a special hollow biopsy needle inserted through the same skin opening. The provider will twist the needle into the bone to take out a small piece, or core, of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
After the test, the health care provider will cover your skin with a bandage.
If you didn't use medicine to relax or sleep, you'll usually need to stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure that the bleeding has stopped. Afterwards, you can do your usual activities as soon as you are able. If you used medicine to relax or sleep, you'll need to stay longer before you can go home. You may also need to rest the next day.
Your provider will tell you whether you need to fast (not eat or drink) for a few hours before the procedure.
Plan to have someone take you home after the test, because you may be drowsy if you are given medicine to help you relax or sleep during the procedure.
You'll receive instructions for how to prepare, but be sure to ask your provider any questions you have about the procedure.
After a bone marrow aspiration and bone marrow biopsy you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days.
Your provider may recommend or prescribe a pain reliever to help. Don't take any pain medicine your provider hasn't approved. Certain pain relievers, such as aspirin, could increase your risk of bleeding.
Serious symptoms are very rare, but may include:
Increased pain or discomfort where the sample was taken
Redness, swelling, bleeding, or other fluids leaking from at the site
Fever
If you have any of these symptoms, call your provider.
It may take several days or even weeks to get your bone marrow test results. Your provider may have ordered many different types of tests on your marrow sample, so the results often include a lot of complex information. Your provider can explain what your results mean.
In certain cases, if your test results are not normal, you may need to have more tests to confirm a diagnosis or to decide which treatment would be best.
If you have cancer that affects your bones and marrow, your test results may provide information about your cancer stage, which is how much cancer you have in your body and how fast it may be growing.
If you are already being treated for cancer, your test results may show:
How well your treatment is working
Whether your treatment is affecting your bone marrow
Bone Marrow Tests: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Feb 16, 2024]
Additional Materials (22)
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Video by Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Video by Cancer Research UK/YouTube
Having a bone marrow test
Video by Design Science/YouTube
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Video by Rehealthify/YouTube
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Video by Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
Image by doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
A 3D medical animation still showing preferred Sites for Bone Marrow Aspiration. The preferred sites for the procedure.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. -- Surgeon Dr. Hans Janovich performs a bone marrow harvest operation on Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen. The procedure consists of inserting a large-gauge syringe into an area of the hip and extracting the bone marrow. It is transfused into the recipient, and helps to recreate and replenish T-cells and the white and red blood cells killed while undergoing chemotherapy. Griffioen is assigned to the Pre-commissioning Unit Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program.
Image by Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
Healthy kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells needed to carry oxygen throughout the body. Diseased kidneys don’t make enough EPO, and bone marrow then makes fewer red blood cells.
Image by NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
A skeleton may have a dry and lifeless Halloween image, but bone is actually dynamic, living tissue. Bone is not uniformly solid; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). As the source of blood cells, the bone marrow is critical to health. Disease or damage to bone marrow can result in either too many or too few blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
Bone is dynamic, living tissue; within its interior is a network of cavities that house blood vessels and marrow. Bone marrow, particularly in larger bones, is where stem cells give rise to red blood cells (erythrocytes) as well as white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood clotting agents (platelets). Specialized cells in the kidney, which are sensitive to low oxygen levels, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells. The boost in red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in turn increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow fills the head of the femur, and a spot of yellow bone marrow is visible in the center. The white reference bar is 1 cm.
Image by CNX Openstax
This browser does not support the video element.
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
Camera descending into bone marrow dataset. Within the bone matrix that is shown one can see the spaces in the matrix which are called lacunae and the trabeculae which is a the mesh work of bone tissue
Video by TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood.
Image by CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
White blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs), as well as the cell fragments called platelets, are constantly being produced by bone marrow. Disease, cancer and genetic disorders of bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Section of bone marrow core biopsy as seen under the microscope.
Image by Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Image by John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Diagram showing a bone marrow biopsy.
Image by Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
Disease or damage to the bone marrow, caused by infection, cancer, radiation treatment, or chemotherapy can lower white blood cell count by impairing the marrow's ability to produce new white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
This is a scanning electron microscope image from normal circulating human blood. One can see red blood cells, several white blood cells including lymphocytes, amonocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets. Red cells are nonnucleated and contain hemoglobin, an important protein that contains iron and allows the cell to carry oxygen to other parts of the body. They also carry carbon dioxide away from peripheral tissue to the lungs where it can be exhaled. The infection-fighting white blood cells are classified in two main groups: granular and agranular. All blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. There are two types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes, which fight disease by producing antibodies and thus destroying foreign material, and monocytes. Platelets are tiny cells formed in bone marrow and are necessary for blood clotting.
Image by Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
3:24
Bone marrow: location and labeled histology (preview) | Kenhub
Kenhub - Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube
2:12
What to expect when you have a Bone Marrow Test | Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK/YouTube
5:56
Having a bone marrow test
Design Science/YouTube
2:20
Bone Marrow Transplant - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
1:38
Bone Marrow Diseases - What You Need To Know
Rehealthify/YouTube
4:03
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Seeker/YouTube
Aplastic Anemia-Bone Marrow
doctorssupport.org
Bone Marrow Procedure Site
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Image of a bone marrow harvest
Photographers Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley
Diagram showing the process of red blood cell production in the body with healthy and diseased kidneys. On the top half of the diagram, on the left side, a kidney labeled “Healthy kidney” starts the process by producing EPO. Six drops represent “Normal EPO.” An arrow beneath the EPO drops points from the kidney to a cross-section of a bone. Several cells labeled “Normal red blood cells” emerge from the bone marrow. Above the red blood cells, the label “Normal oxygen,” with three arrows pointing
NIDDK Image Library
Red Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Erythropoiesis in Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
0:06
Femur Bone Marrow Revealing Lacunae and Trabeculae
TheVisualMD
Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow
CNX Openstax
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Blausen Medical Communications, Inc.
White Blood Cell Count: Bone
TheVisualMD
Bone marrow core biopsy microscopy panorama
Gabriel Caponetti
Bone Marrow Biopsy
John Doe
Bone Marrow Biopsy
Cancer Research UK / Wikimedia Commons
White Blood Cell Count: Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood Cells
Bruce Wetzel (photographer). Harry Schaefer (photographer), National Cancer Institute
A blood smear examines the size, shape, and number of blood cells in a sample of your blood. A blood smear can also detect parasites in your blood. A blood smear may be used to help diagnose and monitor many conditions.
A blood smear examines the size, shape, and number of blood cells in a sample of your blood. A blood smear can also detect parasites in your blood. A blood smear may be used to help diagnose and monitor many conditions.
A blood smear is a sample of blood that's spread on a glass slide which is treated with a special stain. In the past, all blood smears were examined under a microscope by laboratory professionals. Now automated digital systems may be used to help examine blood smears.
The purpose of examining a blood smear is to check the size, shape, and number of three types of blood cells:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body
A blood smear is used to help diagnose and monitor many conditions, such as blood disorders, sudden kidney failure, and treatment for certain cancers.
You may need a blood smear if you have abnormal results on a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a routine test that measures many different parts of your blood.
Your health care provider may order a blood smear if you have symptoms of a blood disorder, such as:
Fatigue
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Unusual bleeding, including nosebleeds
Fever that lasts, or comes and goes
Bone pain
Anemia
Easy bruising
A spleen that's larger than normal
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a blood smear. If your provider has ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
The results of a blood smear alone usually can't diagnose a medical condition. Your provider will use your results combined with your medical history, symptoms, and other test results to make a diagnosis.
Your blood smear results usually describe the appearance and number of your red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Your results will describe anything unusual about your blood.
Red blood cell results that aren't normal, it may be a sign of:
Anemia
Sickle cell anemia
Hemolytic anemia, a type of anemia in which the body destroys red blood cells faster than they are replaced
Thalassemia
Bone marrow disorders
Liver disease
Cancer that has spread to the bone
White blood cell results that aren't normal may be a sign of:
Infection or inflammation
Allergies
Leukemia
Bone marrow disorders
Platelet results that aren't normal may be a sign of:
Thrombocytopenia, a condition in which your blood doesn't have enough platelets, which increases the risk of bleeding
Inherited platelet disorders (uncommon), such as Bernard-Soulier syndrome
If you have been very ill or stressed, or you have had a blood transfusion, the shape and number of your blood cells may be different than usual. So, a blood smear may not provide enough information for your provider to make a diagnosis. If any of your blood smear results are not normal, your provider will likely order more tests. Talk with your provider to learn more about your results.
A blood smear may be used to help find certain types of parasites in your blood which cause diseases, such as:
Malaria, spread by bites from infected mosquitos
Babesiosis, spread mainly by bites from infected ticks
Chagas disease, spread mainly by bites from "kissing bugs" (triatomine)
Your provider may order the test if you live in or travel to areas where you might have been infected, and you have symptoms. Symptoms depend on the type of parasite. Common symptoms may include fever, fatigue, body aches, rash, and problems with digestion.
Blood Smear: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood smear: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood Smear - Understand the Test. Testing.com. Sep 13, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood Smear - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Edward C. Lynch. Peripheral Blood Smear. Butterworths. Jan 22, 1990 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
B. T. Constantino. Reporting and grading of abnormal red blood cell morphology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12215 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Additional Materials (9)
Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood smear (stained and unstained)
Two peripheral blood smears suitable for characterization of cellular elements. Left smear is unstained, right smear is stained with Wright-Giemsa stain.
Image by Coinmac/Wikimedia
Document by Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
How Blood Clots Form
Video by Vascular Cures/YouTube
Platelet Activation and Factors for Clot Formation
Video by Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube
How dangerous are blood clots?
Video by CNN/YouTube
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Video by Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge
Video by TED-Ed/YouTube
Sickle cell anaemia | NHS
Video by NHS/YouTube
Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear
TheVisualMD
Blood smear (stained and unstained)
Coinmac/Wikimedia
Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
3:56
How Blood Clots Form
Vascular Cures/YouTube
2:08
Platelet Activation and Factors for Clot Formation
Thrombosis Adviser/YouTube
1:27
How dangerous are blood clots?
CNN/YouTube
3:02
Immune System - Natural Killer Cell
Kyle Thornthwaite/YouTube
4:42
Why do blood types matter? - Natalie S. Hodge
TED-Ed/YouTube
4:40
Sickle cell anaemia | NHS
NHS/YouTube
Blood Differential Test
Blood Differential Test
Also called: White Blood Cell Differential, WBC Differential, Leukocyte Differential Count, Differential Blood Count
A blood differential test measures the different types of white blood cells in a sample of your blood: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. The test helps diagnose infections, inflammation, immune diseases, cancer and other disorders.
Blood Differential Test
Also called: White Blood Cell Differential, WBC Differential, Leukocyte Differential Count, Differential Blood Count
A blood differential test measures the different types of white blood cells in a sample of your blood: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. The test helps diagnose infections, inflammation, immune diseases, cancer and other disorders.
A blood differential test measures the amount of each type of white blood cell (WBC) that you have in your body. White blood cells (leukocytes) are part of your immune system, a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect you from infection. There are five different types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body.
Lymphocytes include two main types of white blood cells: B cells and T cells. B cells fight off invading viruses, bacteria, or toxins. Certain T cells can target and destroy your body's own cells, such as cancer cells and cells that have been infected by viruses.
Monocytes kill bacteria, viruses, and other germs that may make you sick. They also boost your body's immune response and clear away dead cells.
Eosinophils defend against parasites and infections. They are also involved in allergies and help control inflammation (swelling and redness).
Basophils release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks.
However, your test results may have more than five numbers. For example, the lab may list the results as counts as well as percentages.
Other names for a blood differential test: Complete blood count (CBC) with differential, Differential, White blood cell differential count, Leukocyte differential count
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the five types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A blood differential test is used for many reasons. Your provider may have ordered the test to:
Monitor your overall health or as part of a routine checkup.
Diagnose a medical condition when you have symptoms. For example, if you are feeling unusually tired or weak, or have unexplained bruising or other symptoms, this test may help uncover the cause.
Keep track of an existing blood disorder or related condition.
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
There are many reasons your blood differential test results may be higher or lower than normal. For example, a high white blood cell count may mean you have an infection, an immune disorder, leukemia, or an allergic reaction. A low count may be caused by bone marrow problems, reactions to medicines, or cancer.
But abnormal results don't always mean you have a condition that needs medical treatment. Factors such as exercise, diet, alcohol level, medicines, and even a woman's menstrual period can affect the results.
If your results seem abnormal, your provider may order more specific tests to help figure out the cause. To learn what your results mean, talk with your provider.
Use of certain steroids may increase your white blood cell count, which can lead to an abnormal result in your blood differential test.
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 20, 2024]
Additional Materials (1)
White blood cells
White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The white blood cell (WBC) count measures the total number of white blood cells per microliter (about a drop); a WBC count also indicates the relative numbers of each type of white blood cell present. There are many specific types of WBCs, grouped into five main categories: neutrophils (normally the most abundant), eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes (which give rise to macrophages, which can ingest foreign particles, including pathogens, in a process called phagocytosis).
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
TheVisualMD
Neutrophils
Neutrophil Count
Also called: Neutrophils (Complete Blood Count), Neutrophils, Neutropenia Test, Neutrophilia Test
This test measures the amount of neutrophils in a sample of your blood. Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body. An abnormal level of neutrophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
Neutrophil Count
Also called: Neutrophils (Complete Blood Count), Neutrophils, Neutropenia Test, Neutrophilia Test
This test measures the amount of neutrophils in a sample of your blood. Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are your body's main defense against infection when bacteria, viruses, or other germs enter your body. An abnormal level of neutrophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
40
60
Your result is Normal.
About 40 to 60 percent of all white blood cells are neutrophils.
Related conditions
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
1.8
7.8
Your result is Normal.
About 40 to 60 percent of all white blood cells are neutrophils. A normal neutrophil count for adults usually is between 1,800 and 7,800 neutrophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
A neutrophil is a type of immune cell that is one of the first cell types to travel to the site of an infection. Neutrophils help fight infection by ingesting microorganisms and releasing enzymes that kill the microorganisms. A neutrophil is a type of white blood cell, a type of granulocyte, and a type of phagocyte.
Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells, accounting for about 40% to 60% of all white blood cells circulating in the blood. Neutrophils are historically defined as "soldiers of our innate immune system." They are the first line of cells recruited at the site of infection and attack, ingest, and digest invading microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria. Failure to carry out this role leads to immunodeficiency, which is mainly characterized by the presence of recurrent infections.
Normally, most of the neutrophils circulating in the bloodstream are in a mature form, with the nucleus of the cell being divided or segmented. Because of the segmented appearance of the nucleus, neutrophils are sometimes referred to as "segs." The nucleus of less mature neutrophils is not segmented, but has a band or rod-like shape. Therefore, less mature neutrophils are known as band-form neutrophils or "bands".
The number of neutrophils in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased neutrophil number in your blood, a condition called neutrophilia or neutrophilic leukocytosis, is usually the result of:
Acute infections, primarily by bacteria, less frequently by viruses or fungi.
Tissue inflammation, such as in inflammatory bowel disease or rheumatoid arthritis.
Tissue death (necrosis), caused either by trauma, heart attack, burns, or major surgery.
Blood cancer (leukemia).
Pregnancy, temporary during the last trimester or labor.
Severe stress.
Strenuous physical exercise.
A low neutrophil count in your blood, a condition called neutropenia, may be a consequence of:
Chemotherapy during cancer treatment.
Overwhelming infection (sepsis).
Negative reaction to some drugs.
Aplastic anemia (a condition where the body stops producing enough new blood cells).
Myelodysplastic syndrome (the bone marrow produce poorly formed blood cells or cells that don't work properly).
A small percentage of band-form neutrophils is normal in the blood. However, an increased count of these cells (bandemia) is referred to as “left shift” and can be caused by acute infection (sepsis) or inflammation (acute appendicitis or cholecystitis).
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Neutropenia - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Neutrophilic Leukocytosis - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Patrick M. Zito. Neutropenia. StatPearls Publishing. Aug 25, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Farah Zahra. Neutrophilia. StatPearls Publishing. Apr 27, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Complete Blood count with Differential [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (20)
Neutrophil granulocyte
Neutrophil granulocytes (also known as neutrophils) : Neutrophils with a segmented nuclei surrounded byerythrocytes, the intra-cellular granules are visible in the cytoplasm
Neutrophil
Neutrophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria
Produced by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), this digitally colorized scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image, depicts a blue-colored, human white blood cell, (WBC) known specifically as a neutrophil, interacting with two pink-colored, rod shaped, multidrug-resistant (MDR), Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria, which are known to cause severe hospital acquired, nosocomial infections.
Image by David Dorward; Ph.D.; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Hematopoeisis Diagram
Many cells can result from one stem cell. Because division can occur at different stages of the cell's development, a single cell has the potential to become eight to 32 RBCs.
Image by TheVisualMD
Neutrophil
The most abundant type of white blood cells. They are normally found in the blood stream however during the acute phase of inflammation, neutraphils leave the vasculature and migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis.
Image by TheVisualMD
Anthrax - How People Are Infected?
Neutrophil engulfing anthrax bacteria : Neutrophil (yellow) engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange), taken with a Leo 1550 scanning electron microscope. Scale bar is 5 micrometers.
Image by Volker Brinkmann
Splenic infarction
Blood smear from an adult female with a myelodysplastic syndrome related to radiotherapy and chemotherapy for Hodgkin disease. A hypogranular neutrophil with a pseudo-Pelger-Huet nucleus is shown. The red blood cells show marked poikilocytosis, in part related to post-splenectomy status. (Wright-Giemsa stain).
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
Inflammation
Illustration of the Inflammatory Process
Image by OpenStax College
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Neutrophil
Image by BruceBlaus
Cell line plasma cells
Diagram showing the cell line plasma cells
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
Neutrophils and How White Blood Cells Work
Video by TheCancer Immunity/YouTube
Extravasation of Neutrophils
Video by Katie Bergdale/YouTube
high white blood cell count Video
Video by itbestshop/YouTube
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Video by CLL Society/YouTube
Immune- Documentary - Part 4 - Neutrophils
Video by Rajesh kumar/YouTube
Neutrophils and Platelets: Why Are They Monitored So Closely?
Video by Patient Power - a Cancer Community/YouTube
Neutropenia - Mayo Clinic
Video by Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Neutropenia
Blood film with a striking absence of neutrophils, leaving only red blood cells and platelets
Image by Roberto J. Galindo
Neutrophil granulocyte
Neutrophil
NIAID
Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria
David Dorward; Ph.D.; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hematopoeisis Diagram
TheVisualMD
Neutrophil
TheVisualMD
Anthrax - How People Are Infected?
Volker Brinkmann
Splenic infarction
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)
Inflammation
OpenStax College
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Neutrophil
BruceBlaus
Cell line plasma cells
Cancer Research UK uploader
2:15
Neutrophils and How White Blood Cells Work
TheCancer Immunity/YouTube
2:27
Extravasation of Neutrophils
Katie Bergdale/YouTube
8:22
high white blood cell count Video
itbestshop/YouTube
1:17:17
Learning to Decode Your Blood Test Results for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
CLL Society/YouTube
1:58
Immune- Documentary - Part 4 - Neutrophils
Rajesh kumar/YouTube
3:37
Neutrophils and Platelets: Why Are They Monitored So Closely?
Patient Power - a Cancer Community/YouTube
6:37
Neutropenia - Mayo Clinic
Mayo Clinic/YouTube
Neutropenia
Roberto J. Galindo
Lymphocytes
Lymphocyte Count
Also called: Lymphocytes (Complete Blood Count), Lymphocytes, Lymphs, Lymphocytosis Test, Lymphocytopenia Test
This test measures the amount of lymphocytes in a sample of your blood. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. It defends the body against infection, disease, and altered (mutated) cells. An abnormal level of lymphocytes circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
Lymphocyte Count
Also called: Lymphocytes (Complete Blood Count), Lymphocytes, Lymphs, Lymphocytosis Test, Lymphocytopenia Test
This test measures the amount of lymphocytes in a sample of your blood. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. It defends the body against infection, disease, and altered (mutated) cells. An abnormal level of lymphocytes circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%{WBCs}
20
40
Your result is Normal.
About 20 to 40 percent of all white blood cells are lymphocytes.
Related conditions
{"label":"Lymphocytes (absolute count) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"A lower-than-normal lymphocyte count, called lymphopenia or lymphocytopenia, can occur after a cold or another infection or can be caused by intense physical exercise, severe stress, or malnutrition. It can also indicate a more serious condition.","conditions":["Chemotherapy","HIV\/AIDS infection","Leukemia","Radiation therapy or exposure","Sepsis","Steroid use"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4.8},"text":"About 20 to 40 percent of all white blood cells are lymphocytes. A normal lymphocyte count for adults usually is between 1,000 and 4,800 lymphocytes per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4.8,"max":10},"text":"A higher-than-normal lymphocyte count, called lymphocytosis, may be temporary due to the body's immune response to an infection or inflammatory condition. It can also indicate a more serious condition.","conditions":["Chronic bacterial infection","Infectious hepatitis","Infectious mononucleosis","Lymphocytic leukemia","Multiple myeloma","Viral infection (such as mumps or measles)"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":2.9}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
1
4.8
Your result is Normal.
About 20 to 40 percent of all white blood cells are lymphocytes. A normal lymphocyte count for adults usually is between 1,000 and 4,800 lymphocytes per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system. There are three types of lymphocytes. All lymphocytes help protect you from infection, but they have different functions.
B lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow. These cells make antibodies to help you get better when you are sick (humoral immunity). They also may protect you from future illness.
T lymphocytes develop in the thymus gland, an organ in the chest that is part of the lymphatic system. T cells can kill virus-infected cells or cancer cells and signal other cells to help destroy viruses (cellular immunity). T cells also help B cells form antibodies.
Natural killer cells, which develop in the bone marrow, thymus, and liver, are immune cells that contain enzymes to kill cancer cells or cells infected with a virus.
Lymphocytes account for about 20% to 40% of all white blood cells in the blood. Lymphocytes are responsible for the astonishing specificity of adaptive immune responses — they usually respond to foreign antigens only if the innate immune system is first activated. The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against germs entering the body.
The number of lymphocytes in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of lymphocytes in your blood, a condition called lymphocytosis or lymphocytic leukocytosis, can be the result of:
Chemotherapy
Infections, such as mononucleosis
Cancers, such as lymphoma or leukemia
Autoimmune disorders, such as Graves disease or Crohn disease
Radiation therapy or exposure
Severe sepsis
Steroid use
A decreased number of lymphocytes in your blood, a condition called lymphocytopenia, can be the result of:
Infections,such as HIV, viral hepatitis, influenza, COVID-19, tuberculosis, pneumonia, sepsis, or malaria
Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
Blood cancer and other blood diseases, such as Hodgkin's disease and aplastic anemia
Some medical treatments like blood and bone marrow transplant, cancer treatment, steroid therapy, or major surgery
Drinking too much alcohol or poor nutrition (having a diet without enough protein or other nutrients)
Certain inherited conditions, such as ataxia telangiectasia or SCID
If you have an abnormal lymphocytes count, your doctor may order a flow cytometry test. Flow cytometry can measure the levels of the different types of lymphocytes — T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells.
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Lymphopenia - What Is Lymphopenia? | NHLBI, NIH. May 31, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Peter Walter. Lymphocytes and the Cellular Basis of Adaptive Immunity. Garland Science. Jan 22, 2024 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Lymphocytic Leukocytosis - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Lymphocytopenia - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
The innate and adaptive immune systems. Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). Jul 30, 2020 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
Lymphocyte migration.
Video by Immunology Toronto/YouTube
Lymphopaenia – What is a safe lymphocyte count? | Prof Gavin Giovannoni, MS Academy #MSCovid19
Video by Neurology Academy/YouTube
Pathway of stem cell differentiation
Pathway of stem cell differentiationFunding from the NIH Office of Research and Structured Programs (ORIP) to the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center to explore stem cell related solutions for Parkinson's disease."
Image by US Gov
Hematopoiesis
Diagram showing the development of different blood cells from haematopoietic stem cell to mature cells
Image by A. Rad
Human B Lymphocyte
B cell function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Human B Lymphocyte
Transmission electron micrograph of a B cell from a human donor.
Image by NIAID
Healthy Human T Cell
Scanning electron micrograph of a human T lymphocyte (also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor.
Image by NIAID
Human B Lymphocyte
Colorized scanning electron micrograph of a B cell from a human donor.
Image by NIAID
T cell
T cell function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body. Credit: NIAID
Image by NIAID
3D illustration of a lymphocyte B cell
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
Lymphocyte
Electron microscopic image of a single human lymphocyte.
Image by Dr. Triche National Cancer Institute
Lymphatic System
Illustration of the Lymphatic System
Image by OpenStax College
2:32
Lymphocyte migration.
Immunology Toronto/YouTube
1:01:39
Lymphopaenia – What is a safe lymphocyte count? | Prof Gavin Giovannoni, MS Academy #MSCovid19
Neurology Academy/YouTube
Pathway of stem cell differentiation
US Gov
Hematopoiesis
A. Rad
Human B Lymphocyte
NIAID
Human B Lymphocyte
NIAID
Healthy Human T Cell
NIAID
Human B Lymphocyte
NIAID
T cell
NIAID
3D illustration of a lymphocyte B cell
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436.
Lymphocyte
Dr. Triche National Cancer Institute
Lymphatic System
OpenStax College
Monocytes
Monocyte Count
Also called: Monocytes (Complete Blood Count), Monocytes, Monocytosis Test, Monocytopenia Test
This test measures the amount of monocytes in a sample of your blood. Monocytes are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of monocytes in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, autoimmune disorder, or certain type of cancer.
Monocyte Count
Also called: Monocytes (Complete Blood Count), Monocytes, Monocytosis Test, Monocytopenia Test
This test measures the amount of monocytes in a sample of your blood. Monocytes are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of monocytes in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, autoimmune disorder, or certain type of cancer.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%{WBCs}
2
8
Your result is Normal.
About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes.
Related conditions
{"label":"Monocytes (absolute count) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.1},"text":"A decreased number of monocytes in your blood (monocytopenia) can occur due to several disorders or diseases. Talk to your doctor to know what your results mean in your specific case.","conditions":["Sepsis","Infections","Bone marrow disorders","Chemotherapy drugs"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.1,"max":0.9},"text":"About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes. A normal monocyte count for adults usually is between 100 and 900 monocytes per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.9,"max":2},"text":"An increased number of monocytes in your blood (monocytosis) can be caused by parasitic infections or other chronic conditions.","conditions":["Chronic inflammatory disease","Leukemia","Parasitic infection","Tuberculosis","Viral infection (for example, infectious mononucleosis, mumps, measles)"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":0.5}[{"abnormal":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
0.1
0.9
Your result is Normal.
About 2 to 8 percent of all white blood cells are monocytes. A normal monocyte count for adults usually is between 100 and 900 monocytes per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
A monocyte is a type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and travels through the blood to tissues in the body where it becomes a macrophage. Macrophages surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, remove dead cells, and boost immune responses. A monocyte is a type of white blood cell and a type of phagocyte.
Monocytes are the largest white blood cell, measuring between 12 to 20 µm in diameter, approximately twice the size of red blood cells. They account for approximately 2% to 8% of circulating white blood cells in normal adult blood.
The number of monocytes in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of monocytes in your blood, a condition called monocytosis, may be due to:
Chronic inflammatory disease
Leukemia
Parasitic infection
Tuberculosis
Viral infection (for example, infectious mononucleosis, mumps, or measles)
A decreased number of monocytes in your blood, a condition called monocytopenia, can occur due to severe blood infections (sepsis), bone marrow disorders, or chemotherapy treatment. In some cases, people with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection of the genitals, and people with certain skin infections can also have a low number of monocytes.
After a few hours in the bloodstream, monocytes travel to some organs such as lungs, liver, spleen and bone marrow tissue, where they convert into macrophages. Macrophages are considered to be the main “hunter” cell of the immune system.
Rare cases have been described where people have a complete absence of monocytes, this is known as MonoMAC syndrome. The cause is usually a genetic bone marrow disorder, and its manifestations may vary. The affected person can contract skin infections by organisms that in healthy people does not normally cause infections, they can develop some forms of cancer, and without treatment the result if fatal. Treatment is by performing a bone marrow transplant.
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Monocyte Disorders - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Prabhu D. Emmady. Histology, Monocytes. StatPearls Publishing. Apr 24, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (17)
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
White Blood Cells
A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells.
Image by Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Macrophage
Macrophages are mature forms of monocytes. Similar to the monocyte, it protects the body against blood-borne pathogens. They continue to destroy pathogens and cellular debris by ingesting them.
Image by TheVisualMD
Innate immune system
Image by US Gov
Skin After Injury
Basophils, mast cells, and red blood cells are joined within one hour of the injuring by bacteria-eating cells called phagocytes, which include neutrophils and monocytes.
Image by TheVisualMD
Subsiding Inflammation in blood vessels
Monocytes, having matured into macrophages continue to destroy pathogens and cellular debris by ingesting them, while the inflammation process begins to subside.
Image by TheVisualMD
White blood cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
White Blood Cells
Immune cells surrounding hair follicles in mouse skin. These hair follicles are home to a diverse array of commensal bacteria.
Image by NIAID
Innate immune system
Illustration of the Innate Immune System responding to injury.
Image by OpenStax College
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
White Blood Cells
Title Normal Plasma Blood Cells. Description A normal plasma cell, a type of white blood cell, that helps to protect the body from germs and other harmful substances.
Image by Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute
Monocytes
A monocyte is a leukocyte. It protects the body against blood-borne pathogens and moves quickly to sites of infection in the tissues. They are responsible for phagocytosis (ingestion) of foreign substances in the body.
Image by BruceBlaus
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
A single drop of blood contains millions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. One of each type is shown here, isolated from a scanning electron micrograph.
Image by Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
5:01
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
6:49
The Immune System Explained I – Bacteria Infection
Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell/YouTube
White Blood Cells
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014"
Macrophage
TheVisualMD
Innate immune system
US Gov
Skin After Injury
TheVisualMD
Subsiding Inflammation in blood vessels
TheVisualMD
White blood cells
NIAID
White Blood Cells
NIAID
Innate immune system
OpenStax College
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
White Blood Cells
Lydia Kibiuk (Illustrator) / National Cancer Institute
Monocytes
BruceBlaus
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Blood cells (from left to right: erythrocyte, thrombocyte, leukocyte)
Electron Microscopy Facility at The National Cancer Institute at Frederick (NCI-Frederick)
Eosinophils
Eosinophil Count
Also called: Eosinophils (Complete Blood Count), Eosinophils, Eosins, Eos, Eosinopenia Test, Eosinophilia Test
This test measures the amount of eosinophils in a sample of your blood. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of eosinophils in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, allergic reaction, and asthma.
Eosinophil Count
Also called: Eosinophils (Complete Blood Count), Eosinophils, Eosins, Eos, Eosinopenia Test, Eosinophilia Test
This test measures the amount of eosinophils in a sample of your blood. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell. They help fight off infections and play a role in your body's immune response. An abnormal level of eosinophils in the blood could indicate a number of issues, including infection, allergic reaction, and asthma.
{"label":"Eosinophils (percentage) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":1},"text":"Low levels of eosinophils is known as eosinopenia. Unless alcohol abuse or Cushing\u2019s disease is suspected, low levels of eosinophils are not usually of concern unless other white cell counts are also abnormally low.","conditions":["Alcohol intoxication","Severe infections","Sepsis","Hormone-secreting tumors","Cushing\u2019s disease","Use of corticosteroids"]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1,"max":4},"text":"Normally your blood doesn't have a large number of eosinophils, accounting for 1% to 4% of the total circulating white blood cells.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":4,"max":10},"text":"A high eosinophil count, known as eosinophilia, may indicate an allergic condition or an infection.","conditions":["Addison disease","Allergic reaction","Cancer","Chronic myelogenous leukemia","Collagen vascular disease","Hypereosinophilic syndromes","Parasitic infection"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%{WBCs}","code":"%{WBCs}","name":"percent of white blood cells"}],"hideunits":false,"value":2.5}[{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%{WBCs}
1
4
Your result is Normal.
Normally your blood doesn't have a large number of eosinophils, accounting for 1% to 4% of the total circulating white blood cells.
Related conditions
{"label":"Eosinophils (absolute count) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.45},"text":"About 1 to 4 percent of all white blood cells are eosinophils. A normal eosinophil count for adults usually is less than 450 eosinophils per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":" High","long":" High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.45,"max":1.5},"text":"A high eosinophil count, known as eosinophilia, may indicate an allergic condition or an infection.","conditions":["Addison disease","Allergic reaction","Cancer","Chronic myelogenous leukemia","Collagen vascular disease","Hypereosinophilic syndromes","Parasitic infection"]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"Very high","long":"Very high","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":1.5,"max":10},"text":"A high eosinophil count, known as eosinophilia, may indicate an allergic condition or an infection.","conditions":["Addison disease","Allergic reaction","Cancer","Chronic myelogenous leukemia","Collagen vascular disease","Hypereosinophilic syndromes","Parasitic infection"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":0.22}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0},{"abnormal":1}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
0.45
1.5
Your result is Normal.
About 1 to 4 percent of all white blood cells are eosinophils. A normal eosinophil count for adults usually is less than 450 eosinophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
An eosinophil is a type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during infections, allergic reactions, and asthma. They can also build up and cause inflammation. An eosinophil is a type of white blood cell and a type of granulocyte.
Normally your blood doesn't have a large number of eosinophils, accounting for 1% to 4% of the total circulating white blood cells. Eosinophils become active when you have certain allergic diseases, infections, and other medical conditions. In some conditions, the eosinophils can move outside the bloodstream and build up in organs and tissues. This can happen in many different parts of the body, including the esophagus, heart, lungs, blood, and intestines.
The number of eosinophil in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
A higher than normal eosinophil count, known as eosinophilia, is usually due to:
Addison disease
Allergies (such as allergic rhinitis, eczema, or atopic dermatitis)
Asthma
Parasitic infestation
Fungus infection
Leukemia or other blood disorders
Hypereosinophilic syndrome
A lower than normal eosinophil count, known as eosinopenia, is less frequent and may be the consequence of:
Alcohol intoxication
Severe infections (e.g., sepsis)
Hormone-secreting tumors
Treatment with drugs known as corticosteroids
Your symptoms may vary depending on the affected organs:
Skin: you may have a rash.
Throat: pain or itchiness.
Eyes: redness, itchiness.
Lungs: shortness of breath, cough, and wheezing.
Stomach: pain.
Intestines: diarrhea.
Nevertheless, a slightly elevated or low eosinophils count does not usually cause any symptoms, and this is an accidental finding when a complete blood count test is done for any other reason.
Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome is an uncommon condition in which the eosinophil count is very high, reaching levels of 1500 cells per microliter, for more than 6 months without a doctor being able to find a cause for it.
The increased number of eosinophils inflame tissues and can even cause organ damage to the lungs, heart, liver, nervous system, or skin. A small percentage of people can improve without any medical intervention; but without treatment, it can be fatal in up to 80% of people.
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Eosinophilic Disorders | Eosinophilia | MedlinePlus. National Library of Medicine. Mar 29, 2017 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Differential Blood Count: Reference Range, Interpretation, Collection and Panels. Oct 24, 2023 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential - Testing.com. Aug 7, 2022 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Eosinophilic Disorders - Blood Disorders - Merck Manuals Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Eosinophil count - absolute: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (9)
Eosinophilic Disorders... Made simple
Video by MadBlasta/YouTube
Blood Cell Bakery--Eosinophils
Video by sciencegoddess1/YouTube
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
Granulocytes
Diagram showing the cell line plasma cells come from
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
Granulocytes
Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)
Image by CNX/OpenStax
Eosinophils
Histological blood smear of an Eosinophil surrounded by Red Blood Cells and Platelets
Image by Iceclanl
Eosinophils
On the left there is a segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophil, on the right and below is one eosinophil leucocyte. For comparison the red blood cell have a diameter of 7-8 micrometers. The picture was taken with a Nikon Eclipse 600 microscope, magnification was 1000x.
Image by Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Eosinophils
Eosinophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID
Eosinophil
Visualization of a eosinophil. A type of white blood cell responsible for combating infection. They make up 2% of all white blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
2:14
Eosinophilic Disorders... Made simple
MadBlasta/YouTube
1:08
Blood Cell Bakery--Eosinophils
sciencegoddess1/YouTube
5:01
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
Granulocytes
Cancer Research UK uploader
Granulocytes
CNX/OpenStax
Eosinophils
Iceclanl
Eosinophils
Davidcsaba Dr. David Csaba L.
Eosinophils
NIAID
Eosinophil
TheVisualMD
Basophils
Basophil Count
Also called: Basophils (Complete Blood Count), Basophils, Basos, Basopenia Test, Basoophilia Test
This test measures the amount of basophils in a sample of your blood. Basophils, a type of white blood cell, release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks. An abnormal level of basophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
Basophil Count
Also called: Basophils (Complete Blood Count), Basophils, Basos, Basopenia Test, Basoophilia Test
This test measures the amount of basophils in a sample of your blood. Basophils, a type of white blood cell, release enzymes during allergic reactions and asthma attacks. An abnormal level of basophils circulating in the blood could indicate a number of health issues.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%{WBCs}
0.1
1
Your result is Normal.
Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils.
Related conditions
{"label":"Basophils (absolute count) reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.01,"items":[{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0,"max":0.2},"text":"Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils. A normal basophil count for adults usually is less than 200 basophils per microliter of blood.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":0.2,"max":0.5},"text":"A higher-than-normal basophil count is known as basophilia. Basophilia can be caused by a wide variety of conditions, such as allergic reactions, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis, among others.","conditions":["After splenectomy","Allergic reaction","Chronic myelogenous leukemia (a type of bone marrow cancer)","Collagen vascular disease","Myeloproliferative diseases (group of bone marrow diseases)","Chickenpox"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"thousand\/\u03bcL","code":"10*3\/uL","name":"thousand per microliter"}],"hideunits":false,"value":0.1}[{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
thousand/μL
0.2
Your result is Normal.
Less than 1 percent of all white blood cells are basophils. A normal basophil count for adults usually is less than 200 basophils per microliter of blood.
Related conditions
A basophil is a type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during allergic reactions and asthma. A basophil is a type of white blood cell and a type of granulocyte.
Basophils are the least abundant white blood cells primarily found in the circulation. Normally, they comprise only a small percentage (0.5% to 1%) of the total circulating white blood cells, but rapidly expand in the bone marrow in response to inflammatory signals and are mobilized to the blood, spleen, lung and liver.
The number of basophils in your blood is measured as part of a blood differential test.
A blood differential test is often part of a general physical exam. Because the different types of white blood cell do different jobs, measuring them separately can give your health care provider important information about your health.
The test can also help diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as:
Infections
Autoimmune diseases
Inflammatory diseases
Leukemia and other types of cancer
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. After the test, some people experience mild pain, dizziness, or bruising. These symptoms usually go away quickly.
The results can be expressed as a percentage (of the total number of all white blood cells) or as an absolute value.
An increased number of basophils in your blood, known as basophilia, may be due to:
After splenectomy
Allergic reaction
Chronic myelogenous leukemia
Collagen vascular disease
Myeloproliferative diseases (such as polycythemia vera and myelofibrosis)
Chickenpox
A decreased number of basophils in your blood, known as basopenia, may be due to:
Acute infection
Cancer
Severe injury
Blood Differential: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Blood differential test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Basophil (close-up): MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Image [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
DALE.DAVID. Basophilic Disorders - Blood Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer Version [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Graham LeGros. Understanding the roles of basophils: breaking dawn. Immunology. Mar 1, 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03530.x [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (12)
White Blood Cells Rotation
This rotational interactive features five white blood cells. At the top left is a neutrophil (purple nucleus); center is a Monocyte-macrophage (orange nucleus); top right is a Lymphocyte (red nucleus); bottom left a Basophil (green nucleus); and bottom right an Eosinophil (yellow nucleus). These molecules are all part of a white blood cell count test. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or WBCs) are in the front lines in the fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus. A white blood cell count is an important measure of this key component of the immune system; when the body is under attack, more WBCs are produced. Other factors, however, may also affect WBC counts, including allergies, chemotherapy, and other drugs, as well as leukemia.
Image by TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is constantly producing blood cells, including white blood cells and red blood cells as well platelets, which are cell fragments important for blood clotting. Disease and disorders of the bone marrow can, in turn, affect the production of blood cells. Both cancer and cancer treatment (chemotherapy and radiation) can also have an impact on the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
This browser does not support the video element.
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
Video Topics : Our lifeblood consists of many components and a complete blood count (CBC) includes measurements of the fundamental elements. The largest categories are red and white blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) and cell fragments called platelets, which play roles in blood clotting. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells in the body of an adult, each with a lifespan of about 100 days (RBCs contain an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin that enables them to carry oxygen to tissues throughout the body and then return carbon dioxide to the lungs). WBCs are in the front lines in the body's ongoing fight against harmful viruses, bacteria and even fungus; when a pathogen enters the body, WBCs mobilize in a coordinated defense response to eliminate, neutralize or mark the invader for destruction. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma and it carries nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, and hormones.
Video by TheVisualMD
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Video by Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
Basophil
Visualization of a basophil. A type of leukocyte (white blood cell) responsible for combating infection.
Image by TheVisualMD
Basophil
Visualization of a basophil. A type of leukocyte (white blood cell) responsible for combating infection. Basophils are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating leukocytes (white blood cells). They contain large cytoplasmic granules which obscure the cell nucleus under the microscope.
Image by BruceBlaus
Basophil
Basophil function, relationship to disease, and location in the human body.
Image by NIAID/NIH
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Granulocytes
Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)
Image by CNX/OpenStax
MastBasophilCells
Mast cells function similarly to basophils by inducing and promoting inflammatory responses. (a) This figure shows mast cells in blood. In a blood smear, they are difficult to differentiate from basophils (b). Unlike basophils, mast cells migrate from the blood into various tissues.
Image by modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)
hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
All the formed elements of the blood arise by differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
Image by CNX/OpenStax
Blood Cells
Formed elements of blood include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.
Image by OpenStax
White Blood Cells Rotation
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cells, Bone Marrow
TheVisualMD
2:12
Complete Blood Count, and Baselining Your Health
TheVisualMD
5:01
What Does My White Blood Cell Count Tell My Healthcare Team?
Diverse Health Hub/YouTube
Basophil
TheVisualMD
Basophil
BruceBlaus
Basophil
NIAID/NIH
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Granulocytes
CNX/OpenStax
MastBasophilCells
modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)
hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
CNX/OpenStax
Blood Cells
OpenStax
RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test
RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test
Also called: Red Cell Distribution Width, RDW, RDW Blood Test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width, RBC Distribution Width
A red cell distribution width (RDW) test measures the size and volume of your red blood cells. RDW is usually part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. Measuring RDW can help diagnose anemia and other blood disorders.
RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width) Test
Also called: Red Cell Distribution Width, RDW, RDW Blood Test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width, RBC Distribution Width
A red cell distribution width (RDW) test measures the size and volume of your red blood cells. RDW is usually part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. Measuring RDW can help diagnose anemia and other blood disorders.
{"label":"RDW reference range","scale":"lin","step":0.1,"items":[{"flag":"borderline","label":{"short":"Low","long":"Low","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":6,"max":11.5},"text":"A low RDW means that your red blood cells vary very little in size. A low RDW isn\u2019t usually a cause for concern and isn\u2019t associated with any particular types of anemia.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"normal","label":{"short":"Normal","long":"Normal","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":11.5,"max":14.5},"text":"A normal RDW means that your red blood cells are similar in size. A normal result doesn\u2019t mean that you don\u2019t have a condition requiring treatment. Some types of anemia involve a normal RDW result but a high or low score on one of the other RBC indices.","conditions":[]},{"flag":"abnormal","label":{"short":"High","long":"High","orientation":"horizontal"},"values":{"min":14.5,"max":20},"text":"A high RDW means that your red blood cells vary a lot in size. There are many possible reasons why the RDW level can be too high. To determine what the possible cause of a high RDW level is, a comparison is made to the mean corpuscular volume (MCV).","conditions":["Autoimmune condition","Hemolytic anemia","Iron deficiency anemia","Iron, B12, or folate deficiency","Kidney disease","Liver disease","Macrocytic anemia","Microcytic anemia","Thalassemia intermedia"]}],"units":[{"printSymbol":"%","code":"%","name":"percent"}],"hideunits":false,"value":13}[{"borderline":0},{"normal":0},{"abnormal":0}]
Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
%
11.5
14.5
Your result is Normal.
A normal RDW means that your red blood cells are similar in size. A normal result doesn’t mean that you don’t have a condition requiring treatment. Some types of anemia involve a normal RDW result but a high or low score on one of the other RBC indices.
Related conditions
A red cell distribution width (RDW) test measures the differences in the volume and size of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, make new cells, and stay healthy.
Normally, your red blood cells are all about the same size. A high RDW means that there's a major difference between the size of your smallest and largest red blood cells. This may be a sign of a medical condition.
Other names: RDW-SD (standard deviation) test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width
The RDW blood test is often part of a complete blood count (CBC), a test that measures many different parts of your blood, including red cells. The RDW test is commonly used to help diagnose anemia, a condition in which your red blood cells can't carry enough oxygen to the rest of your body.
The RDW test may also be used with other tests to help diagnose other conditions, including thalassemia, an inherited disease that can cause severe anemia.
Your health care provider may have ordered a complete blood count, which includes an RDW test, as part of a routine exam, or if you have:
Symptoms of anemia, including weakness, dizziness, pale skin, and cold hands and feet
A family history of thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, or other inherited blood disorder
A chronic illness such as Crohn's disease, diabetes, or HIV/AIDS
A diet low in iron and other minerals
A long-term infection
Excessive blood loss from an injury or surgical procedure
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This process generally takes less than five minutes.
No special preparation is necessary.
There is very little risk to a blood test. You may experience slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
RDW results help your provider understand how much your red blood cells vary in size and volume. Even if your RDW results are normal, you may still have a medical condition that needs treatment. That's why your provider will usually look at your RDW results along with the results of other blood tests. The combined test results can show a more complete picture of your red blood cells to help diagnose a variety of conditions, including:
Iron deficiency
Different types of anemia
Thalassemia
Sickle cell anemia
A high RDW result can also be a sign of other conditions, such as:
Chronic liver disease
Heart disease
Diabetes
Kidney disease
Cancer, especially colorectal cancer
Your provider will most likely need more tests to confirm a diagnosis.
If your test results indicate you have a chronic blood disorder, such as anemia, you may be put on a treatment plan to increase the amount of oxygen that your red blood cells can carry. Depending on your specific condition, your provider may recommend iron supplements, medicines, and/or changes in your diet.
Be sure to talk to your provider before taking any supplements or making any changes in your eating plan.
RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width): MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW): Definition and Calculation - LabCE.com, Laboratory Continuing Education [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (39)
Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW); What Does This Lab Test REALLY Mean?
Understanding the mean cell volume (MCV) - Full Blood Count Masterclass series
Video by Vernon Louw MedEd/YouTube
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
Video by WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
This video focuses on one of the main components of blood, the red blood cell and its function to carry oxygen. The video begins with revealing the red blood cells and the heart that pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in these red blood cells that enable blood to transport oxygen. If the blood's capacity to transport oxygen to the tissues is reduced due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, anemia may occur.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Development
This video explains red blood cell development, following a pluripotent stem cell to red blood cell.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Production
Red blood cell production or erythropoiesis is the process by which red blood cells are formed.
Image by TheVisualMD
What To Expect Before a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant
Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D.C. (Dec. 4, 2002) - Surgical technician Amina Sherali places recently transfused bone marrow from Aviation Electronics Technician 1st Class Michael Griffioen into a sterile bag in preparation for transplant. To determine the amount of marrow needed from each donor, a sample is taken during the operation and T-cells are counted. The level of T-cells and the body size of the recipient determine the amount of bone marrow to be harvested. Griffioen is assigned to Precommissioning Unit Ronald Reagan and was matched with an anonymous cancer patient through the Department of Defense Marrow Donor Program. Griffioen chose to donate his bone marrow after participating in a donor drive nine years ago while stationed aboard USS George Washington.
Image by U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley.
Bone structure
Anatomy of the bone. The bone is made up of compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow. Compact bone makes up the outer layer of the bone. Spongy bone is found mostly at the ends of bones and contains red marrow. Bone marrow is found in the center of most bones and has many blood vessels. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red marrow contains blood stem cells that can become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Yellow marrow is made mostly of fat.
Image by Smart Servier website
Hematopoiesis
The Hematopoietic System of the Bone Marrow
Image by OpenStax College
Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells
Hemoglobin is a complex, iron-containing protein molecule found in red blood cells; it is the iron in this molecule that makes red blood cells red. Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to carry oxygen from the lungs to all cells of the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in 17th century. Later, red blood cells were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope. Blood analysis is now automated, though blood smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities. There are normally between 4.2-5.8 million red blood cells per microliter (about a drop), which means there are 20-30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult.
Image by TheVisualMD
Blood and Blood Components
Like bone and cartilage, blood can be seen as a connective tissue, a mass of cells embedded in a framework. However, because its job is mobile, not fixed, its matrix is a liquid - plasma. Suspended in plasma are trillions of blood cells. Dimpled, disk-shaped red blood cells, built to provide a large surface in relation to volume, transport oxygen to tissues. Granular, many-lobed white blood cells, outnumbered by about 700 to 1, comprise a mobile defense force. Platelets, designed to aid in tissue repair, are tiny round or oval cell fragments that congregate around damaged sites in the bloodstream, swelling and sticking to each other to from temporary pugs that can stop leaks.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. Some RBCs are a bit thicker or thinner, wider or longer than others, but can change their shape to suit the demands of their environment. The cell membranes of the RBCs are protein meshes that give them flexibility, allowing them to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network. The nearly 300 million hemoglobin molecules contained within each RBC easily move and slide past each other within the cell, adjusting their positions to conform to the RBC's shifting shape. Diameter : 7 μm
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells Delivering Oxygen
Red blood cells deliver oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body and carry carbon dioxide from these cells back to the lungs. This continuous exchange is accomplished through a vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end, enough to circle the globe 3-4 times. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from the Latin for \"hairlike\") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Revealing Cell Membrane
The RBC is disc-shaped and concave on both sides. The concave shape increases the cells' surface area, which allows them to distribute more oxygen to the body's cells. The shape also enables the cells to bunch together more compactly, helping them travel through the bloodstream more efficiently. The cell membrane of this RBC comes into view on the right side. The membrane is made up of protein meshes that gives the RBC flexibility, allowing it to navigate the twists and turns of the blood vessel network.
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Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
Our kidneys are remarkable filters. Each day, they filter about 200 quarts of blood to extract about 2 quarts of wastes, which is then eliminated as urine. The kidneys' delicate filtration units are called nephrons; each kidney has about a million nephrons, and within each nephron are dense forests of tiny capillaries called glomeruli, which remove waste products from the blood while preventing the loss of other components, including proteins, electrolytes and blood cells. The glomerular filtration rate is the amount of blood that is filtered by the glomeruli per minute.
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Red Blood Cell
This image shows two red blood cells. The red blood cell is also called an erythrocyte: erythro is Greek for \"red,\" cyte is Latin for \"cell.\" The disc-shaped RBCs have the critical job of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's cells and bringing carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs to be expelled.
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Hemoglobin: Red Blood Cells
There are 20 to 30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult. Individual red blood cells live about 100 days, which means that about 2 million die (and an equal number replaced) every second.
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Red Blood Cell Indices: Blood Component
Blood comprises of 55% plasma, 1% platelets and white blood cells, and 45% red blood cells.
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Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells
There are 20 to 30 trillion red blood cells circulating through the body of an adult. Individual red blood cells live about 100 days, which means that about 2 million die (and an equal number replaced) every second. Bilirubin is left behind after these older blood cells are removed.
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red blood cells
Illustration of red blood cells
Image by Jessica Polka
Thalassemic Red Blood Cell
This image shows red blood cells that are consistent with the anemia disorder thalassemia. They are less red and smaller than normal red blood cells.
Image by TheVisualMD
Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells
Anemia occurs when there are too few red blood cells in the bloodstream to deliver adequate oxygen to body tissues. There are different types and causes of anemia, but iron deficiency is the most common. Different tests can determine the amount of iron in the blood, the capacity of the blood to transport iron, and the amount of iron in storage. Iron is transported throughout the body with the help of proteins. The total iron binding capacity test (TIBC) measures the blood's ability to bind and transport iron
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White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
Medical visualization of blood cells. Depicted are numerous red blood cells and a single white blood cell.
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Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
Individual blood cells were first detected and described in the 17th century. Later, red blood cells (RBCs) were counted manually from a blood smear, a thin film of blood prepared on a glass slide and examined under a microscope (blood analysis is now automated, though smears are still used to detect visible abnormalities and to check or confirm the results of other tests). Anemia results when there are too few RBCs in circulation because they are being destroyed too quickly or produced too slowly. Anemia can be temporary or long term and range from mild to severe. Folate (also known as vitamin B9) is necessary for red blood cell production and the prevention of anemia, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. But folate also plays key roles in the synthesis and maintenance of DNA and is especially important in cell division and growth in fetal development (deficiencies of the vitamin in pregnancy is a common cause of birth defects). Pernicious anemia is a disorder in which the body's loses its ability to utilize folate and vitamin B12.
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Red Blood Cell in Capillary
The cardiovascular system is vast network of arteries, veins and vessels that would extend 60,000 miles if stretched end-to-end. All but a tiny fraction of this vessel network is invisible to the naked eye. The smallest capillaries (from latin "hairlike") are so narrow that red blood cells must pass through in single file. Higher than normal blood iron levels have been linked to heart disease and the reason is believed to be the oxidative stress the excess iron places on the walls of the blood vessels. It is the biological counterpart of rust. There are 20-30 trillion red blood cells (RBCs) in an adult's body. The life span of RBCs, which are produced in bone marrow, is about 100 days, which means that 2 million die (and are replaced) each second, but in that short lifetime they can make 75,000 round trips between lungs, heart and tissues in the body.
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Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
We are used to thinking of our kidneys mostly as hardworking filters that rid our bodies of wastes and excess water. But the kidneys are also constantly monitoring and adjusting levels of key substances in the blood, depending on what the body needs. Specialized cells in the kidney that are very sensitive to low oxygen levels, for example, produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which in turn promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The boost in red blood cells increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
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Arteries and Veins
The body's blood vessels, consisting of arteries, veins, and capillaries, range in size from arteries as wide as a garden hose to capillaries so thin that it would take 10 of them, lined up side by side, to form the thickness of a human hair. But they all have one thing in common: they are designed to move blood as quickly and efficiently as possible. That means they need to be strong, flexible, and smooth. Even the components of your blood, like red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells, are designed for movement. Red blood cells can actually flex so that they are able to flow through the finest of capillaries. The high levels of glucose characteristic of diabetes damage both large and small blood vessels. Too much glucose acts as a toxin to the lining of the blood vessels and injures both large vessels (arteries) and small vessels (capillaries). Damage to blood vessels is something that all the main complications of diabetes have in common. Many cells in the body, such as those of the skeletal muscles and liver, require insulin to admit glucose. This isn't true of the cells that line blood vessels, called endothelial cells. They can't restrict their glucose intake. When levels of blood glucose are very high, these cells develop high glucose levels as well. The high glucose levels start a whole chain of events inside the cells that damages them in numerous ways. About three quarters of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease-diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
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Red Blood Cells
Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) image of red blood cells.
Image by Egelberg (talk)
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
Red blood cells in capillaries carry oxygen to muscle and other tissues.
Image by TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Traveling Through Capillary
Red blood cells travel through a capillary, the smallest blood vessel in the body.
Image by TheVisualMD
Oxygenated vs deoxygenated Red Blood Cells (RBC)
A comparison between human red blood cells differing in oxygenation state. The cell on the left presents an oxygenated appearance as it would while in arterial circulation (after loading oxygen and unloading carbon dioxide in the lungs). The cell on the right appears as it would when deoxygenated, or in venous circulation (after unloading oxygen and loading carbon dioxide in the oxygen requiring-tissue capillaries).
Image by Rogeriopfm
Life Cycle of Red Blood Cell
We have a total of 20 to 30 trillion RBCs in the body and to maintain the body's healthy equilibrium, about 2.5 million RBCs are destroyed and replaced every second. In early development, RBC production begins in the yolk sac, shifts to the liver and spleen during the 3rd month of gestation, and finally to the bone marrow in the 5th month. Once adulthood is reached, the creation of RBCs is mostly restricted to the marrow from the ends of the \"long\" bones-the vertebrae, ribs, and pelvis-with a little produced in the skull. The life cycle of a normal RBC is about 120 days, just four months. But in that short lifetime the RBC makes an astonishing 75,000 round trips between the lungs, heart and cells of the body. Since RBCs do not possess a nucleus, they are unable to repair or synthesize new cellular components and eventually they wear out. When that happens, most aging RBCs are pulled out of circulation by specialized white blood cells called macrophages within the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. The macrophages engulf RBCs, \"digest\" them and release some of their components to be recycled within the body. As old RBCs are broken down and their components re-utilized, the bone marrow is constantly at work producing new RBCs. In a healthy human being, this is a dynamic and continuous process.
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This media may include sensitive content
Red Blood Cells
Diagram of a red blood cell
Image by Cancer Research UK uploader
Red Blood Cells
Figure shows normal red blood cells flowing freely in a blood vessel. The inset image shows a cross-section of a normal red blood cell with normal hemoglobin.
Image by NHLBI
5:54
Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW); What Does This Lab Test REALLY Mean?
Understanding the mean cell volume (MCV) - Full Blood Count Masterclass series
Vernon Louw MedEd/YouTube
28:05
WellnessFX: Red Blood Cell Indices Part 2 with Bryan Walsh
WellnessFX/YouTube
Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Development
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Production
TheVisualMD
What To Expect Before a Blood and Marrow Stem Cell Transplant
U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Chad McNeeley.
Bone structure
Smart Servier website
Hematopoiesis
OpenStax College
Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin in Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells, Blood Smear
TheVisualMD
Blood and Blood Components
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells Delivering Oxygen
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Revealing Cell Membrane
TheVisualMD
Tubule of Nephron Revealing Few Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Hemoglobin: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Indices: Blood Component
TheVisualMD
Bilirubin, Direct: Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
red blood cells
Jessica Polka
Thalassemic Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Iron Deficient Red Blood Cells
TheVisualMD
White Blood Cell and Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Blood Smear Showing Reduced Red Blood Cell Count
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Kidney and Stem Cell Creating Red Blood Cell. B12 is critical for the creation of red blood cells.
TheVisualMD
Arteries and Veins
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cells
Egelberg (talk)
Red Blood Cell in Capillary
TheVisualMD
Red Blood Cell Traveling Through Capillary
TheVisualMD
Oxygenated vs deoxygenated Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Rogeriopfm
Life Cycle of Red Blood Cell
TheVisualMD
Sensitive content
This media may include sensitive content
Red Blood Cells
Cancer Research UK uploader
Red Blood Cells
NHLBI
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test
Also called: RBC-M, Red Cell Morphology, Red Blood Cell Morphology, RBC Morphology, Erythrocyte Morphology
A red blood cell (RBC) morphology is a test done to evaluate the size, shape, structure, and color of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). This test is useful to help detect and help diagnose a wide variety of blood disorders.
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Morphology Test
Also called: RBC-M, Red Cell Morphology, Red Blood Cell Morphology, RBC Morphology, Erythrocyte Morphology
A red blood cell (RBC) morphology is a test done to evaluate the size, shape, structure, and color of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). This test is useful to help detect and help diagnose a wide variety of blood disorders.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Normal.
A normal result shows that your RBCs are of average shape, size, and color. This is usually reported as “normocytic” (normal size) and “normochromic” (normal color).
Related conditions
Red blood cell (RBC) morphology evaluates the shape, size, color, inclusions, and arrangement of your red blood cells. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy.
Deviations from the normal in terms of size, shape, color, distribution or presence of inclusion bodies suggests possible disease processes. Any imbalances affecting production or destruction of red cells result in red cell disorder.
Abnormalities of RBC shape and other RBC features can provide key information in establishing a differential diagnosis. A differential diagnosis process is used to help make a final diagnosis when you have symptoms that don't have one clear cause.
RBC morphology can help to differentiate between different types of blood disorders, and, specifically, to:
increase or decrease the diagnostic likelihood of thalassemia
differentiate between blood loss, marrow failure, and hemolysis
guide the diagnostic considerations for the different types of anemia
An RBC morphology evaluation is typically done on a blood smear. You may need a blood smear if you have abnormal results on a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC is a routine test that measures many different parts of your blood.
Your health care provider may order a blood smear if you have symptoms of a blood disorder, such as:
Fatigue
Jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow
Unusual bleeding, including nosebleeds
Fever that lasts, or comes and goes
Bone pain
Anemia
Easy bruising
A spleen that's larger than normal
A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
You don't need any special preparation for a blood smear. If your provider has ordered other blood tests, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. Your provider will let you know if there are any special instructions to follow.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
Normal
A normal result shows that your RBCs are of average shape, size, and color. This is usually reported as “normocytic” (normal size) and “normochromic” (normal color).
RBCs are donut-shaped with a light-colored depression in the middle instead of a hole (are biconcave) and have a pink to red color.
Abnormal
If a significant number of RBCs are abnormal in either shape, size, structure, and/or color; this means that a disease or condition that affects the RBCs is present.
A red blood cell abnormality can be indicative of a wide variety of conditions, such as:
Iron deficiency anemia
Megaloblastic anemia (due to folate or vitamin B12 deficiency)
Hemolytic anemia (RBC destruction)
Thalassemia
Hemoglobinopathies
Liver diseases
Alcoholism
Hypersplenism (overactive spleen).
Kidney failure
Leukemia (a type of cancer)
Bone marrow disorders
RBC morphology should not be used as a stand-alone test. Your doctor will take into consideration this test result, along with the results of other tests, your clinical findings, and your family medical history to reach an accurate diagnosis.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003665.htm [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=167&ContentID=blood_smear [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
http://www.labpedia.net/test/127 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/9184 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23480230 [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
https://laboratoryinfo.com/variations-in-red-blood-cell-morphology/ [accessed on Mar 27, 2019]
Interpretation of Red Blood Cell Morphology (Advanced Level) - WSAVA2004 - VIN [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Author. Blood Morphology - Ask Hematologist | Understand Hematology. Apr 30, 2018 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Ann Abiola Ogbenna. Erythrocyte Morphology and Its Disorders. IntechOpen. Jun 14, 2019. doi:10.5772/intechopen.86112 [accessed on Jan 22, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
BCR-ABL Genetic Test
BCR-ABL1 Genetic Test
Also called: Philadelphia Chromosome Test
A BCR-ABL1 genetic test uses a sample of blood or bone marrow to look for an abnormal gene called BCR-ABL1. The test helps diagnose certain blood cancers, mainly chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). It also helps to monitor treatment.
BCR-ABL1 Genetic Test
Also called: Philadelphia Chromosome Test
A BCR-ABL1 genetic test uses a sample of blood or bone marrow to look for an abnormal gene called BCR-ABL1. The test helps diagnose certain blood cancers, mainly chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). It also helps to monitor treatment.
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Use the slider below to see how your results affect your
health.
Your result is Negative.
A negative result means no BCR or ABL1 gene rearrangement observed.
Related conditions
A BCR-ABL1 genetic test uses a sample of blood or bone marrow to look for an abnormal gene called BCR-ABL1. This abnormal gene is involved in certain types of blood cancer. It's found in:
Most people who have chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), which is also called chronic granulocytic leukemia or chronic myeloid leukemia
Some people who have certain types of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
Some people with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), but very rarely
The abnormal BCR-ABL1 gene is made when two separate genes merge together and become one gene. Genes are short sections of DNA. DNA is made of long strands of material that carry information that controls what you look like and how your body works. DNA is packaged into structures in your cells called chromosomes. Normally, most of your cells have the same set of 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The abnormal BCR-ABL1 gene is formed when pieces of chromosomes 9 and 22 break off and trade places. The broken piece of chromosome 9 includes part of the ABL1 gene. It attaches (fuses) to part of the BCR gene on chromosome 22. This makes the abnormal fusion gene, BCR-ABL1. The changed chromosome 22 is called a "Philadelphia chromosome" after the city where researchers discovered it.
Your genes carry special instructions for making proteins that help your cells do their work. But the abnormal BCR-ABL1 gene has instructions for an abnormal protein. The protein causes certain bone marrow cells to make large numbers of abnormal white blood cells. These abnormal white blood cells are leukemia cells. They don't protect you from infections like healthy white blood cells do. They can build up in the blood and bone marrow and crowd out healthy blood cells.
There are different types of BCR-ABL1 genetic tests. They check your blood or bone marrow for:
The abnormal BCR-ABL1 gene
Changes in chromosome 22 that show it has become a Philadelphia chromosome
An abnormal BCR-ABL1 gene is an acquired genetic change. That means you don't inherit it from your parents, and you can't pass it on to your children. Acquired changes happen after birth if cells make a mistake when dividing to make new cells or if your DNA is damaged from exposure to substances that cause cancer. The changes show up only in certain types of cells. Changes in your genes are also called mutations or variants.
Other names: BCR-ABL, BCR-ABL fusion, Philadelphia chromosome, B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), t(9;22), BCR-ABL1 Transcript Detection by RT-PCR, Quantitative BCR-ABL1 Translocation Detection by RT-PCR
BCR-ABL1 genetic testing is most often used with other tests to diagnose or rule out two specific types of blood cancer:
Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).
Philadelphia-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph+ ALL). This is a type of acute lymphoblastic leukemia that has the Philadelphia chromosome.
Certain types of BCR-ABL1 testing may also be used to help plan treatment for these blood cancers. There are several treatment options. Some medicines target the protein made by the BCR-ABL1 gene. In general, these types of medicines cause less harm to normal cells than cancer chemotherapy or radiation therapy do.
During treatment, BCR-ABL1 tests may be used to see if cancer treatment working. And after treatment is finished, testing is often used to see if cancer is coming back.
If your health care provider thinks you may have a type of leukemia that involves the BCR-ABL1 gene, you may need a BCR-ABL1 genetic test to make a diagnosis. Signs and symptoms of these blood cancers include:
High levels of white blood cells on a complete blood count (CBC) test
Fatigue
Fever
Weight loss
Night sweats (heavy sweating during sleep)
Joint or bone pain
Pain or fullness below your ribs on the left side
Painless lumps in your armpits, groin, neck, or belly
If you have already been diagnosed with a type of leukemia that involves a BCR-ABL1 gene, you may need this test to:
Help guide treatment decisions
See how well your treatment is working (if treatment is helping, the number of cells with BCR-ABL1 genes will decrease.)
Monitor your health after treatment to see if blood cancer is coming back
A BCR-ABL1 genetic test usually uses a sample of blood or bone marrow.
If you are having a blood test, a health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. You may feel a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This usually takes less than five minutes.
If you are having a bone marrow test, a provider usually takes a sample from the back of the hip bone. You will be given an injection (shot) of medicine to numb the area. You may also be given medicine to help you relax or sleep.
A bone marrow test has two parts that are usually done one after the other:
For a bone marrow aspiration, the provider pushes a thin needle into the bone and removes a sample of bone marrow fluid with a syringe attached to the needle.
For a bone marrow biopsy, the provider inserts a hollow needle into the bone and twists the needle to take out a small piece of bone marrow tissue. You may feel some pressure or brief pain while the sample is being taken.
The procedure takes only a few minutes. Afterwards, the area will be bandaged. You'll stay lying down for about 15 minutes to make sure the bleeding stops. You may need to stay longer if you had medicine to relax or sleep.
You usually don't need any special preparations for a blood test. If you're having a bone marrow test, your provider will tell you whether you need to fast (not eat or drink) for a few hours before the procedure.
There is very little risk to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was put in, but most symptoms go away quickly.
After a bone marrow test, you may feel stiff or sore where the sample was taken. This usually goes away in a few days. If you need pain relief, talk with your provider.
If you had BCR-ABL1 genetic testing to diagnose a blood cancer, your provider will probably use the results of more than one test to make a diagnosis. Your provider will likely diagnose either chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) or Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph+ ALL) if your tests show all three of these results:
Abnormal white blood cells
The BCR-ABL1 gene
The Philadelphia chromosome
In certain cases, a person may have CML without having the Philadelphia chromosome, but this isn't common.
If you had a BCR-ABL1 gene test to see if your cancer treatment is working, your provider will compare your results with past test results to look for changes over time. The way your results are reported depends on which test you had. Ask your provider to explain what your test results mean for your health and treatment plan. In general:
If the amount of BCR-ABL1 in your sample decreases, it means your treatment is working to some degree. Your test results may describe your response to treatment using words such as minor, minimal, partial, major, or complete.
If the amount of BCR-ABL1 in your sample increases, it may mean your treatment is not working. You may need to try another treatment or have more tests. An increase in BCR-ABL1 levels after successful treatment, may mean your cancer has come back.
Labs use different methods to test for the BCR-ABL1 gene and Philadelphia chromosome. The test method can affect your results. So, it's important to have your tests done the same way, and usually in the same lab. This allows your provider to compare your results over time. If you have questions about how your tests are done, ask your provider.
BCR-ABL1 Genetic Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test [accessed on Apr 01, 2024]
Normal reference ranges can vary depending on the laboratory and the method used for testing. You must use the range supplied by the laboratory that performed your test to evaluate whether your results are "within normal limits."
Additional Materials (8)
Philadelphia Chromosome
Philadelphia Chromosome Translocation
Image by A Obeidat in ar.wikipedia
A small, hypolobated megakaryocyte (center of field) in a bone marrow aspirate, typically of chronic myelogenous leukemia
Chronic myelogenous (or myeloid) leukemia (CML), also known as chronic granulocytic leukemia (CGL) : A small, hypolobated megakaryocyte (center of field) in a bone marrow aspirate, typically of chronic myelogenous leukemia.
Image by Difu Wu
Philadelphia Chromosome
Schematic of the Philadelphia chromosome formation. Philadelphia chromosome. A piece of chromosome 9 and a piece of chromosome 22 break off and trade places. The bcr-abl gene is formed on chromosome 22 where the piece of chromosome 9 attaches. The changed chromosome 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome.
Image by Aryn89
Leukemia cells during remission / relapse
This intricate process, which involves a particular subset of genes, sometimes fails and leads to infertility.
Image by Darryl Leja, NHGRI
3D Medical Animation still showing Leukemia
3D Medical Animation still showing an increase in white blood cells of a person suffering from Leukemia.
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Leukemia
Blood Cells (Normal and Leukemia) Description: A two-panel drawing of normal blood cells and blood cells with leukemia. Platelets, red blood cells (rbc's), white blood cells (wbc's), plasma (fluid), and blast cells are labeled.
Image by National Cancer Institute, Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Adaptive Immune Response
After initially binding an antigen to the B cell receptor (BCR), a B cell internalizes the antigen and presents it on MHC II. A helper T cell recognizes the MHC II–antigen complex and activates the B cell. As a result, memory B cells and plasma cells are made.
Image by CNX Openstax
White Blood Cells in Leukemia
The increase in white blood cells in leukemia
Image by Scientific Animations, Inc.
Philadelphia Chromosome
A Obeidat in ar.wikipedia
A small, hypolobated megakaryocyte (center of field) in a bone marrow aspirate, typically of chronic myelogenous leukemia
Difu Wu
Philadelphia Chromosome
Aryn89
Leukemia cells during remission / relapse
Darryl Leja, NHGRI
3D Medical Animation still showing Leukemia
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Leukemia
National Cancer Institute, Alan Hoofring (Illustrator)
Adaptive Immune Response
CNX Openstax
White Blood Cells in Leukemia
Scientific Animations, Inc.
Staging
Lumbar puncture
Image by BruceBlaus
Lumbar puncture
Image by BruceBlaus
Staging of Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Stages of Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
KEY POINTS
Once adult ALL has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if the cancer has spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or to other parts of the body.
There is no standard staging system for adult ALL.
Once adult ALL has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if the cancer has spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or to other parts of the body.
The extent or spread of cancer is usually described as stages. It is important to know whether the leukemia has spread outside the blood and bone marrow in order to plan treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used to determine if the leukemia has spread:
Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
Lumbar puncture: A procedure used to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spinal column. This is done by placing a needle between two bones in the spine and into the CSF around the spinal cord and removing a sample of the fluid. The sample of CSF is checked under a microscope for signs that leukemia cells have spread to the brain and spinal cord. This procedure is also called an LP or spinal tap
Image Caption: Lumbar puncture. A patient lies in a curled position on a table. After a small area on the lower back is numbed, a spinal needle (a long, thin needle) is inserted into the lower part of the spinal column to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of the abdomen, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
There is no standard staging system for adult ALL.
The disease is described as untreated, in remission, or recurrent.
Untreated adult ALL
The ALL is newly diagnosed and has not been treated except to relieve signs and symptoms such as fever, bleeding, or pain.
The complete blood count is abnormal.
More than 5% of the cells in the bone marrow are blasts (leukemia cells).
There are signs and symptoms of leukemia.
Adult ALL in remission
The ALL has been treated.
The complete blood count is normal.
5% or fewer of the cells in the bone marrow are blasts (leukemia cells).
There are no signs or symptoms of leukemia other than in the bone marrow.
Recurrent Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Recurrent adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is cancer that has recurred (come back) after going into remission. The ALL may come back in the blood, bone marrow, or other parts of the body.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (6)
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia showing smear cells (Giemsa stain)
Image by Dr Graham Beards
ALL, PAS
BONE MARROW: ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA: PAS STAIN
Bone marrow lymphoblasts show block and coarse granular staining. Lymphoblasts in approximately 75 percent of cases of ALL are PAS positive and manifest the characteristic pattern illustrated. The percentage of positive-staining blasts is variable. (Periodic acid-Schiff stain)
Image by The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)/Wikimedia
Acute leukemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Peripheral blood smear of acute promyelocytic leukemia, hypogranular variant
Peripheral blood smear of acute promyelocytic leukemia, hypogranular variant. Wright's stain.Reference for descriptions: Syed Zaidi, M.D.. Bone marrow neoplastic, APL with PML-RARA. Pathology Outlines. Last author update: 1 February 2013 Last staff update: 29 November 2022
Image by Mikael Häggström, M.D. Author info - Reusing images- Conflicts of interest: NoneMikael Häggström, M.D.Consent note: Consent from the patient or patient's relatives is regarded as redundant, because of absence of identifiable features (List of HIPAA identifiers) in the media and case information (See also HIPAA case reports guidance)./Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia or acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL), is an acute form of leukemia, or hematologic cancer of the white blood cells, characterized by the overproduction and accumulation of cancerous, immature white blood cells, known as lymphoblasts
Image by Osaretin/Wikimedia
Micrograph of blood from a case of lymphocytic leukemia
Dr Graham Beards
ALL, PAS
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP)/Wikimedia
9:42
Acute leukemia | Hematologic System Diseases | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy
Peripheral blood smear of acute promyelocytic leukemia, hypogranular variant
Mikael Häggström, M.D. Author info - Reusing images- Conflicts of interest: NoneMikael Häggström, M.D.Consent note: Consent from the patient or patient's relatives is regarded as redundant, because of absence of identifiable features (List of HIPAA identifiers) in the media and case information (See also HIPAA case reports guidance)./Wikimedia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Osaretin/Wikimedia
Treatment
Development and Elimination of Cancer Cells as Chemotherapy is Applied
Image by IdkItsKatieB
Development and Elimination of Cancer Cells as Chemotherapy is Applied
Development and Elimination of Cancer Cells as Chemotherapy is Applied
Image by IdkItsKatieB
Treatment of Adult Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
There are different types of treatment for patients with adult ALL.
Different types of treatment are available for patients with adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
The treatment of adult ALL usually has two phases.
The treatment of adult ALL is done in phases:
Remission induction therapy: This is the first phase of treatment. The goal is to kill the leukemia cells in the blood and bone marrow. This puts the leukemia into remission.
Post-remission therapy: This is the second phase of treatment. It begins once the leukemia is in remission. The goal of post-remission therapy is to kill any remaining leukemia cells that may not be active but could begin to regrow and cause a relapse. This phase is also called remission continuation therapy.
Treatment called central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis therapy is usually given during each phase of therapy. Because standard doses of chemotherapy may not reach leukemia cells in the CNS (brain and spinal cord), the leukemia cells are able to hide in the CNS. Systemic chemotherapy given in high doses, intrathecal chemotherapy, and radiation therapy to the brain are able to reach leukemia cells in the CNS. These treatments are given to kill the leukemia cells and lessen the chance the leukemia will recur (come back).
Four types of standard treatment are used:
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (intrathecal chemotherapy), an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug.
Intrathecal chemotherapy may be used to treat adult ALL that has spread, or may spread, to the brain and spinal cord. When used to lessen the chance leukemia cells will spread to the brain and spinal cord, it is called CNS prophylaxis.
Intrathecal chemotherapy. Anticancer drugs are injected into the intrathecal space, which is the space that holds the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, shown in blue). There are two different ways to do this. One way, shown in the top part of the figure, is to inject the drugs into an Ommaya reservoir (a dome-shaped container that is placed under the scalp during surgery; it holds the drugs as they flow through a small tube into the brain). The other way, shown in the bottom part of the figure, is to inject the drugs directly into the CSF in the lower part of the spinal column, after a small area on the lower back is numbed.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the area of the body with cancer.
External radiation therapy may be used to treat adult ALL that has spread, or may spread, to the brain and spinal cord. When used this way, it is called central nervous system (CNS) sanctuary therapy or CNS prophylaxis. Total-body irradiation may be used to send radiation toward the whole body when preparing for a stem cell transplant. External radiation therapy may also be used as palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Chemotherapy with stem cell transplant
Chemotherapy is given to kill cancer cells. Healthy cells, including blood-forming cells, are also destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cell transplant is a treatment to replace the blood-forming cells. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the patient completes chemotherapy or total-body radiation therapy, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.
Stem cell transplant. (Step 1): Blood is taken from a vein in the arm of the donor. The patient or another person may be the donor. The blood flows through a machine that removes the stem cells. Then the blood is returned to the donor through a vein in the other arm. (Step 2): The patient receives chemotherapy to kill blood-forming cells. The patient may receive radiation therapy (not shown). (Step 3): The patient receives stem cells through a catheter placed into a blood vessel in the chest.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells. Targeted therapies usually cause less harm to normal cells than chemotherapy or radiation therapy do.
Monoclonal antibodies: Monoclonal antibodies are immune system proteins made in the laboratory to treat many diseases, including cancer. As a cancer treatment, these antibodies can attach to a specific target on cancer cells or other cells that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies are able to then kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells. Blinatumomab and inotuzumab ozogamicin are monoclonal antibodies used with stem cell transplant to treat adult ALL.
Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy: This treatment blocks the enzyme, tyrosine kinase, that causes stem cells to develop into more white blood cells (blasts) than the body needs. Imatinib mesylate, dasatinib, and nilotinib are tyrosine kinase inhibitors used to treat adult ALL.
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This cancer treatment is a type of biologic therapy.
CAR T-cell therapy: This treatment changes the patient's T cells (a type of immune system cell) so they will attack certain proteins on the surface of cancer cells. T cells are taken from the patient and special receptors are added to their surface in the laboratory. The changed cells are called chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. The CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells multiply in the patient's blood and attack cancer cells. CAR T-cell therapy is being studied in the treatment of adult ALL that has recurred (come back).
CAR T-cell therapy. A type of treatment in which a patient’s T cells (a type of immune cell) are changed in the laboratory so they will bind to cancer cells and kill them. Blood from a vein in the patient’s arm flows through a tube to an apheresis machine (not shown), which removes the white blood cells, including the T cells, and sends the rest of the blood back to the patient. Then, the gene for a special receptor called a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is inserted into the T cells in the laboratory. Millions of the CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and then given to the patient by infusion. The CAR T cells are able to bind to an antigen on the cancer cells and kill them.
Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.
Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials supported by NCI can be found on NCI’s clinical trials search webpage.
Treatment for adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia may cause side effects.
Side effects from cancer treatment that begin after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Late effects of treatment for ALL may include the risk of second cancers (new types of cancer). Regular follow-up exams are very important for long-term survivors.
Follow-up tests may be needed.
Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.
Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (2)
Chemotherapy dose response graph
Dose response relationship of cell killing by chemotherapeutic drugs on normal and cancer cells. Adapted from:[1]
Image by Simon Caulton/Wikimedia
Treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Chemotherapy dose response graph
Simon Caulton/Wikimedia
9:29
Treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
Drugs Approved for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Chemotherapy
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer)
Chemotherapy
Variety of chemotherapy drugs in vials and an IV bottle.
Image by Bill Branson (Photographer)
Drugs Approved for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
This page lists cancer drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for leukemia. The list includes generic and brand names. This page also lists common drug combinations used in leukemia. The individual drugs in the combinations are FDA-approved. However, drug combinations themselves usually are not approved, but are widely used.
The drug names link to NCI's Cancer Drug Information summaries. There may be drugs used in leukemia that are not listed here.
Drugs Approved for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Drug Combinations Used in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Hyper-CVAD
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Treatment by Phase
Monoclonal Antibody
Image by Bioconjugator
Monoclonal Antibody
Antibody-drug conjugate
Image by Bioconjugator
Treatment By Phase for Adult Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Untreated Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Standard treatment of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) during the remission induction phase includes the following:
Combination chemotherapy.
Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy with imatinib mesylate, in certain patients. Some of these patients will also have combination chemotherapy.
Supportive care including antibiotics and red blood cell and platelet transfusions.
CNS prophylaxis therapy including chemotherapy (intrathecal and/or systemic) with or without radiation therapy to the brain.
Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Remission
Standard treatment of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) during the post-remission phase includes the following:
Chemotherapy.
Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy with imatinib, nilotinib, or dasatinib.
Chemotherapy with stem cell transplant.
CNS prophylaxis therapy including chemotherapy (intrathecal and/or systemic) with or without radiation therapy to the brain.
Recurrent Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Standard treatment of recurrent adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) may include the following:
Combination chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant.
Monoclonal antibody therapy (blinatumomab or inotuzumab ozogamicin) followed by stem cell transplant.
Low-dose radiation therapy as palliative care to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life.
Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy with dasatinib for certain patients.
Some of the treatments being studied in clinical trials for recurrent adult ALL include the following:
A clinical trial of stem cell transplant using the patient's stem cells.
A clinical trial of targeted therapy.
A clinical trial of CAR T-cell therapy.
A clinical trial of new anticancer drugs.
Source: National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Additional Materials (9)
Dasatinib molecule spacefill
Space-filling model of the dasatinib molecule, a drug used to treat various cancers.
Color code:
Carbon, C: black
Hydrogen, H: white
Oxygen, O: red
Nitrogen, N: blue
Sulfur, S: yellow
Chlorine, Cl: green
Image by Jynto (more from this user)/Wikimedia
CT scan in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia
CT scan in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, showing splenomegaly. Yellow arrows point at the spleen.
Image by Hellerhoff. Labeling by Mikael Häggström
Childhood Leukemia
Logistics Specialist Seaman Sergio Torres, assigned to the U.S. 7th Fleet command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19), draws pictures with a child at the Vladivostok children's cancer ward.
Image by U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Brian A. Stone
Taken at one of the biweekly visits to the hospital for chemotherapy against a Wilms tumor that was previously surgically removed.
P22-month old girl trying out hats to wear after chemotherapy-induced hair loss. Taken at one of the biweekly visits to the hospital for chemotherapy against a Wilms tumor that was previously surgically removed.
Image by U.S. Air Force photo/Master Sgt. Lance Cheung
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment Options | Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Video by Seattle Cancer Care Alliance/YouTube
Dr. Eric S. Winer on adult leukemia treatment
Video by Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
Rate of Relapse for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Video by Boston Children's Hospital/YouTube
Treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Video by Medicosis Perfectionalis/YouTube
BCR-ABL-Mutationen
Sensitivity of different BCR-ABL mutations against tyrosine kinase inhibitors imatinib, nilotinib and dasatinib.
Image by Furfur/Wikimedia
Dasatinib molecule spacefill
Jynto (more from this user)/Wikimedia
CT scan in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Hellerhoff. Labeling by Mikael Häggström
Childhood Leukemia
U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Brian A. Stone
Taken at one of the biweekly visits to the hospital for chemotherapy against a Wilms tumor that was previously surgically removed.
U.S. Air Force photo/Master Sgt. Lance Cheung
4:35
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment Options | Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Seattle Cancer Care Alliance/YouTube
2:07
Dr. Eric S. Winer on adult leukemia treatment
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute/YouTube
3:49
Rate of Relapse for Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
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Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) or Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cells. These cells normally help your body fight infection. But in ALL, they are abnormal and cannot fight infection very well. Learn more about symptoms and treatment.